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131-601: According to historic manuscripts, the region between the Wye and the Severn was once regarded as a unit. Manuscripts use various alternative spellings for this, such as Ferlix, Fferllys, Fferleg, and Fferreg; in his Hanes Cymru , the historian John Davies argued, based on these alternatives, that it was probably named Fferyllwg , and that the name may refer to ironworkers ( Fferyll in Welsh). Welsh tradition (as reported for example by

262-618: A Cluniac monk and followed Stephen to England, where the King made him Abbot of Glastonbury , the richest abbey in England. The King then appointed him Bishop of Winchester , one of the richest bishoprics, allowing him to retain Glastonbury as well. The combined revenues of the two positions made Henry of Winchester the second-richest man in England after the King. Henry of Winchester was keen to reverse what he perceived as encroachment by

393-441: A close-knit family group, and Adela encouraged Stephen to take up the role of a feudal knight or baron, whilst steering Henry towards a career in the church, possibly so that their personal career interests would not overlap. Unusually, Stephen was raised in his mother's household rather than being sent to a close relative; he was taught Latin and riding, and was educated in recent history and Biblical stories by his tutor, William

524-603: A council at Winchester before Easter in his capacity as papal legate to consider the clergy's view. He had made a private deal with the Empress Matilda that he would deliver the support of the church, if she agreed to give him control over church business in England. Henry handed over the royal treasury, rather depleted except for Stephen's crown, to the Empress, and excommunicated many of Stephen's supporters who refused to switch sides. Archbishop Theobald of Canterbury

655-817: A few years later the subsequent Gwyneddian prince, Llywelyn ap Gruffudd (grandson of Llywelyn Fawr), became aggrieved by Henry III's suggestion of adjusting the Treaty of Woodstock to provide for Llywelyn's younger brother, who had now reached adulthood. Llywelyn attacked the Perfeddwlad , which was held by Henry's son, Edward . Henry's problems with his barons (eventually leading to the Second Barons' War ) prevented him from fully resisting Llywelyn's campaign, so Llywelyn took advantage by expanding Gwynedd's power even further. In 1262 Maelienydd fell to Llywelyn. In 1275, Llywelyn ap Gruffudd married Eleanor de Montfort ,

786-431: A limited period of service during a campaign, or, increasingly, mercenaries, who were expensive but more flexible and often more skilled. These armies, however, were ill-suited to besieging castles, whether the older motte-and-bailey designs or the newer, stone-built keeps . Existing siege engines were significantly less powerful than the later trebuchet designs, giving defenders a substantial advantage over attackers. As

917-535: A major regional rebellion in Kent and across the south-west of England, although Robert himself remained in Normandy. In France, Geoffrey of Anjou took advantage of the situation by re-invading Normandy. David I of Scotland also invaded the north of England once again, announcing that he was supporting the claim of his niece the Empress Matilda to the throne, pushing south into Yorkshire . Anglo-Norman warfare during

1048-454: A matter of principle, since Stephen had previously agreed in 1135 to respect the freedoms of the church, and more pragmatically because he himself had recently built six castles and had no desire to be treated in the same way. As the papal legate, he summoned the King to appear before an ecclesiastical council to answer for the arrests and seizure of property. Henry asserted the church's right to investigate and judge all charges against members of

1179-406: A minimal guard force, a ripe target for a surprise attack of his own. Abandoning the deal he had just made, Stephen gathered his army again and sped north, but not quite fast enough—Ranulf escaped Lincoln and declared his support for the Empress. Stephen was forced to place the castle under siege. While Stephen and his army besieged Lincoln Castle at the start of 1141, Robert and Ranulf advanced on

1310-462: A negotiated peace, a process hastened by the sudden death of Eustace. Later in the year Stephen and Henry agreed to the Treaty of Winchester , in which Stephen recognised Henry as his heir in exchange for peace, passing over William , Stephen's second son. Stephen died the following year. Modern historians have extensively debated the extent to which his personality, external events, or the weaknesses in

1441-452: A port to receive the Empress Matilda's invading army, but Stephen's forces forced him to retreat into the south-west. The following month, however, Henry I's widow, Adeliza, invited the Empress to land at Arundel instead, and on 30 September the Empress and Robert of Gloucester arrived in England with 140 knights. The Empress stayed at Arundel Castle , whilst Robert marched north-west to Wallingford and Bristol, hoping to raise support for

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1572-443: A regional ally, yet not sufficiently wealthy or powerful in his own right to represent a threat to either the King or his son and heir, William Adelin . As a third surviving son, even of an influential regional family, Stephen still needed the support of a powerful patron to progress in life. With Henry's support, Stephen rapidly began to accumulate lands and possessions. Following the battle of Tinchebray in 1106, Henry confiscated

1703-461: A result, slow sieges to starve defenders out, or mining operations to undermine walls, tended to be preferred by commanders over direct assaults. Occasionally pitched battles were fought between armies but these were considered highly risky endeavours and were usually avoided by prudent commanders. The cost of warfare had risen considerably in the first part of the 12th century, and adequate supplies of ready cash were increasingly proving important in

1834-462: A solid infantry block; he joined them himself, fighting on foot in the battle. Stephen was not a gifted public speaker, and delegated the pre-battle speech to Baldwin of Clare , who delivered a rousing declaration. After an initial success in which William's forces destroyed the Angevins' Welsh infantry, the battle went badly for Stephen. Robert and Ranulf's cavalry encircled Stephen's centre, and

1965-409: A woman she was at a substantial political disadvantage. Shortly after the death of his son, the King took a second wife, Adeliza of Louvain , but it became increasingly clear that he would not have another legitimate son, and he instead looked to Matilda as his intended heir. Matilda claimed the title of Holy Roman Empress through her marriage to Emperor Henry V , but her husband died in 1125, and she

2096-488: A year after that. In the 12th century, France was a loose collection of counties and smaller polities under the minimal control of the king of France. The king's power was linked to his control of the rich province of Île-de-France , just to the east of Stephen's home county of Blois. To the west lay the three counties of Maine , Anjou and Touraine , and to the north of Blois was the Duchy of Normandy , from which William

2227-758: A younger son gave rise to the Cadogan family, who were raised to the nobility many centuries later. Following the Norman conquest of England in 1066 many Welsh princes, who owed allegiance to the Saxon kings, assisted anti-Norman revolts such as that of Eadric the Wild . Hence, in 1080, when a revolt broke out in Northern England, the Normans pre-emptively occupied Wales to prevent any further Welsh assistance to

2358-421: The 1844 Topographical Dictionary of Wales ), claims that Ferlix was part of the realm of King Caradoc (more usually associated with Gwent ), but on his death, the realm was divided between his sons; Cawdraf received Ferlix, while Meurig received the rest of the realm, as Gwent. In any case, manuscripts give Tangwydd ap Tegid, an 8th-century ruler of Ferlix, the following pedigree: Welsh annals claim that during

2489-589: The Count of Flanders ; the King sent Stephen on a mission to prevent this, and in the aftermath of his successful election, William attacked Stephen's lands in neighbouring Boulogne in retaliation. Eventually, a truce was declared, and William died the following year. Henry attempted to build up a base of political support for Matilda in both England and Normandy, demanding that his court take oaths first in 1127, and then again in 1128 and 1131, to recognise Matilda as his immediate successor and recognise her descendants as

2620-681: The County of Mortain from his cousin William and the Honour of Eye from Robert Malet . In 1113, Stephen was granted both the title and the honour, although without the lands previously held by William in England. The gift of the Honour of Lancaster also followed after it was confiscated by Henry from Roger the Poitevin . Stephen was also given lands in Alençon in southern Normandy by Henry, but

2751-677: The Levant again in 1101 to rebuild his reputation; there he was killed at the battle of Ramlah . Stephen's mother, Adela , was the daughter of William the Conqueror and Matilda of Flanders . She was famous among her contemporaries for her piety and strong personality. Indeed, Adela was a major reason for Stephen-Henry's return to the Levant. She had a strong formative influence on Stephen during his growing years; she would live to see her son take her father's throne of England, but would die within

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2882-483: The Norman conquest of England in 1066, followed by the Norman expansion into south Wales over the coming years. Both the kingdom and duchy were dominated by a small number of major barons who owned lands on both sides of the English Channel , with the lesser barons beneath them usually having more localised holdings. The extent to which lands and positions should be passed down through hereditary right or by

3013-502: The battle of Lincoln in 1141, he was abandoned by many of his followers and lost control of Normandy . He was freed only after his wife and William of Ypres , one of his military commanders, captured Robert at the Rout of Winchester , but the war dragged on for many years with neither side able to win an advantage. Stephen became increasingly concerned with ensuring that his son Eustace would inherit his throne. The King tried to convince

3144-487: The royal forests and to reform any abuses of the royal legal system. He portrayed himself as the natural successor to Henry's policies, and reconfirmed the existing seven earldoms in the kingdom on their existing holders. The Easter court was a lavish event, and a large amount of money was spent on the event itself, clothes and gifts. Stephen gave out grants of land and favours to those present and endowed numerous church foundations with land and privileges. His accession to

3275-463: The treaty of Durham ; Northumbria and Cumbria would effectively be granted to David and his son Henry, in exchange for their fealty and future peace along the border. The powerful Ranulf II, Earl of Chester , considered himself to hold the traditional rights to Carlisle and Cumberland and was extremely displeased to see them being given to the Scots. Nonetheless, Stephen could now focus his attention on

3406-457: The Angevins, and bringing Worcestershire into the Empress's camp. Waleran's twin brother, Robert of Leicester, effectively withdrew from fighting in the conflict at the same time. Other supporters of the Empress were restored in their former strongholds, such as Bishop Nigel of Ely, or received new earldoms in the west of England. The royal control over the minting of coins broke down, leading to coins being struck by local barons and bishops across

3537-667: The Archbishop of Canterbury, seeking soldiers for the Third Crusade ; they met Maelgwn at his castle of Crug Eryr (described by Gerald as 'Cruker'), and convinced him to take the cross (i.e. join the crusade) like his cousin Einion o'r Porth (ruler of Elfael and son of Einion Clud) had done a few days earlier. Richard's absence during the crusade allowed Rhys to increase his already great dominance over other Welsh princes, establishing effective hegemony; when Richard returned he

3668-540: The Conqueror had conquered England in 1066. William's children were still fighting over the collective Anglo-Norman inheritance. The rulers across this region spoke a similar language, albeit with regional dialects; followed the same religion; and were closely interrelated. They were also highly competitive and frequently in conflict with one another for valuable territory and the castles that controlled those territories. Stephen had at least four brothers and one sister, along with two probable half-sisters. His eldest brother

3799-690: The Elder was distracted by the Viking invasion ; Hwgan, however, hadn't reckoned with Edward's sister, Æthelflæd , who lead an army against him. Æthelflæd defeated Hwgan, in battle, then invaded his lands, captured Hwgan's castle (in Brycheiniog). and took his wife prisoner. Hwgan decided to form an alliance with the Vikings, but died soon after, while defending Derby (at the time held by the Vikings) from

3930-462: The Empress "Lady of England and Normandy" as a precursor to her coronation. When Matilda advanced to London in an effort to stage her coronation in June, though, she faced an uprising by the local citizens in support of Stephen that forced her to flee to Oxford, uncrowned. Once news of Stephen's capture reached him, Geoffrey of Anjou invaded Normandy again and, in the absence of Waleran of Beaumont, who

4061-513: The Empress Matilda to invade England herself. Dover finally surrendered to the Queen's forces later in the year. Stephen's military campaign in England had progressed well, and historian David Crouch describes it as "a military achievement of the first rank". The King took the opportunity of his military advantage to forge a peace agreement with Scotland. Stephen's wife Matilda was sent to negotiate another agreement between Stephen and David, called

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4192-538: The Empress besieged Henry in the city of Winchester in July. Queen Matilda and William of Ypres then encircled the Angevin forces with their own army, reinforced with fresh troops from London. In the subsequent battle the Empress's forces were defeated and Robert of Gloucester himself was taken prisoner. Further negotiations attempted to deliver a general peace agreement but the Queen was unwilling to offer any compromise to

4323-414: The Empress's childhood friend Brien FitzCount , only to find it too well defended. He then left behind some forces to blockade the castle and continued west into Wiltshire to attack Trowbridge Castle , taking the castles of South Cerney and Malmesbury en route. Meanwhile, Miles of Gloucester marched east, attacking Stephen's rearguard forces at Wallingford and threatening an advance on London. Stephen

4454-400: The Empress's half-brother Robert of Gloucester rebelled against Stephen, threatening civil war. Together with his close advisor, Waleran de Beaumont , Stephen took firm steps to defend his rule, including arresting a powerful family of bishops. When the Empress and Robert invaded in 1139, Stephen was unable to crush the revolt rapidly, and it took hold in the south-west of England. Captured at

4585-477: The Empress, Stephen focused on pacifying the south-west of England. Although there had been few new defections to the Empress, his enemies now controlled a compact block of territory stretching out from Gloucester and Bristol south-west into Devon and Cornwall, west into the Welsh Marches and east as far as Oxford and Wallingford, threatening London. Stephen started by attacking Wallingford Castle , held by

4716-575: The Empress, as his main opponent at this point in the conflict. He also faced a military dilemma at Arundel—the castle was considered almost impregnable, and he may have been worried that he was tying down his army in the south whilst Robert roamed freely in the west. Another theory is that Stephen released Matilda out of a sense of chivalry ; he was certainly known for having a generous, courteous personality and women were not normally expected to be targeted in Anglo-Norman warfare. Having released

4847-550: The English possessions of David's son Henry , including the Earldom of Huntingdon . Returning south, Stephen held his first royal court at Easter 1136. A wide range of nobles gathered at Westminster for the event, including many of the Anglo-Norman barons and most of the higher officials of the church. Stephen issued a new royal charter, confirming the promises he had made to the church, promising to reverse Henry I's policies on

4978-611: The First Crusade, however, continued to circulate, and a desire to avoid the same reputation may have influenced some of Stephen's rasher military actions. His wife, Matilda, played a major role in running their vast English estates, which contributed to the couple being the second-richest lay household in the country after the King and Queen. The landless Flemish nobleman William of Ypres had joined Stephen's household in 1133. Stephen's younger brother, Henry of Blois, had also risen to power under Henry I. Henry of Blois had become

5109-541: The French King. Stephen was less successful, however, in regaining the Argentan province along the Normandy and Anjou border, which Geoffrey had taken at the end of 1135. Stephen formed an army to retake it, but the frictions between his Flemish mercenary forces led by William of Ypres and the local Norman barons resulted in a battle between the two halves of his army. The Norman forces then deserted Stephen, forcing

5240-417: The King found himself surrounded by the enemy army. Many of his supporters, including Waleran de Beaumont and William of Ypres, fled from the field at this point but Stephen fought on, defending himself first with his sword and then, when that broke, with a borrowed battle axe. Finally, he was overwhelmed by Robert's men and taken away from the field in custody. Robert took Stephen back to Gloucester, where

5371-462: The King met with the Empress Matilda, and was then moved to Bristol Castle , traditionally used for holding high-status prisoners. He was initially left confined in relatively good conditions, but his security was later tightened and he was kept in chains. The Empress now began to take the necessary steps to have herself crowned queen in his place, which would require the agreement of the church and her coronation at Westminster . Bishop Henry summoned

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5502-859: The King to give up his campaign. He agreed to another truce with Geoffrey, promising to pay him 2,000 marks a year in exchange for peace along the Norman borders. In the years following his succession, Stephen's relationship with the church became gradually more complex. The royal charter of 1136 had promised to review the ownership of all the lands that had been taken by the crown from the church since 1087, but these estates were now typically owned by nobles. Henry of Blois's claims, in his role as Abbot of Glastonbury, to extensive lands in Devon resulted in considerable local unrest. In 1136, Archbishop of Canterbury William de Corbeil died. Stephen responded by seizing his personal wealth, which caused some discontent amongst

5633-540: The King's position with a somewhat larger force. When the news reached Stephen, he held a council to decide whether to give battle or to withdraw and gather additional soldiers: Stephen decided to fight, resulting in the Battle of Lincoln on 2 February 1141. The King commanded the centre of his army, with Alan of Brittany on his right and William of Aumale on his left. Robert and Ranulf's forces had superiority in cavalry and Stephen dismounted many of his own knights to form

5764-556: The Marcher Lord Robert Fitz Harold of Ewyas into Wales to pacify the region. Neither mission was particularly successful, and by the end of 1137, the King appears to have abandoned attempts to put down the rebellion. Historian David Crouch suggests that Stephen effectively "bowed out of Wales" around this time to concentrate on his other problems. Meanwhile, he had put down two revolts in the south-west led by Baldwin de Redvers and Robert of Bampton; Baldwin

5895-652: The Norman barons and Robert of Gloucester at Lisieux on 21 December. Their discussions were interrupted by the sudden news from England that Stephen's coronation was to occur the next day. Theobald then agreed to the Normans' proposal that he be made king, only to find that his former support immediately ebbed away: the barons were not prepared to support the division of England and Normandy by opposing Stephen, who subsequently financially compensated Theobald, who in return remained in Blois and supported his brother's succession. Stephen's new Anglo-Norman kingdom had been shaped by

6026-473: The Norman kings on the rights of the church. English kings had traditionally exercised a great deal of power and autonomy over the church within their territories. From the 1040s onwards, however, successive popes had put forward a reforming message that emphasised the importance of the church being "governed more coherently and more hierarchically from the centre" and established "its own sphere of authority and jurisdiction, separate from and independent of that of

6157-516: The Norman state contributed to this prolonged period of civil war. Stephen was born in Blois , France , in either 1092 or 1096. His father was Stephen-Henry , Count of Blois and Chartres , an important French nobleman and an active crusader who died when Stephen was at most ten years old. During the First Crusade , Stephen-Henry had acquired a reputation for cowardice, and he returned to

6288-431: The Norman. Stephen's early life was heavily influenced by his relationship with his uncle Henry I . Henry seized power in England following the death of his elder brother William Rufus . In 1106 he invaded and captured the Duchy of Normandy , controlled by his eldest brother, Robert Curthose , defeating Robert's army at the battle of Tinchebray . Henry then found himself in conflict with Louis VI of France , who took

6419-542: The Saxons. As Hwgan had been an aggressor against the Saxons, his son Dryffin was forced by King Æthelstan to pay tribute, and was deposed from Ferlix. He was replaced by Elystan Glodrydd , Æthelstan's god-son (and namesake), united Ferlix with his existing realm of Buellt ; Dryffin and his heirs would now only rule in Brycheiniog. Elystan was succeeded by his son, Cadwgan, who was succeeded by his eldest son, Idnerth;

6550-411: The Saxons. In turn, this led to a Welsh revolt in 1094, but by the end of the century it was successfully suppressed by a number of Norman magnates; the northern parts of Ferlix were conquered by Ranulph de Mortimer . He founded the castles of Dinieithon (near present Llandrindod Wells ) and Cymaron (between Llanbister and Llangunllo ). Ranulph's daughter (Hawise) had married Stephen of Aumale ,

6681-652: The Welsh victory at the battle of Llwchwr in January 1136 and the successful ambush of Richard Fitz Gilbert de Clare in April, south Wales rose in rebellion, starting in east Glamorgan and rapidly spreading across the rest of south Wales during 1137. Owain Gwynedd and Gruffydd ap Rhys successfully captured considerable territories, including Carmarthen Castle . Stephen responded by sending Richard's brother Baldwin and

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6812-639: The Welsh-language name Trelluest. To mark his 75th birthday in 2013, the Welsh language television channel S4C broadcast a programme, Gwirionedd y Galon: Dr John Davies , about his life and his home and in 2014 published his autobiography in Welsh. Davies died at the age of 76 in 2015 and, as a tribute to his longstanding friend, Jon Gower republished Davies' autobiography in English. Stephen, King of England Stephen (1092 or 1096 – 25 October 1154), often referred to as Stephen of Blois ,

6943-457: The anticipated invasion of England by Robert and Matilda's forces. Stephen prepared for the Angevin invasion by creating a number of additional earldoms . Only a handful of earldoms had existed under Henry I and these had been largely symbolic in nature. Stephen created many more, filling them with men he considered to be loyal, capable military commanders, and in the more vulnerable parts of

7074-459: The area around Radnor , which had been given to Roger Mortimer ( in right of his wife , Maud de Braose, heir of Philip de Braose). By the 15th century, the Tosny lordship had been inherited by Margaret Beauchamp of Bletso , whose grandson, Henry , married Richard Plantagenet's granddaughter, and heir, Elizabeth of York . Ferlix was therefore re-united when Maelienydd, Radnor, and the rest of Elfael,

7205-452: The church to agree to crown Eustace to reinforce his claim; Pope Eugene III refused, and Stephen found himself in a sequence of increasingly bitter arguments with his senior clergy. In 1153, the Empress's son Henry invaded England and built an alliance of powerful regional barons to support his claim for the throne. The two armies met at Wallingford , but neither side's barons were keen to fight another pitched battle. Stephen began to examine

7336-419: The church and had the broad support of his barons. There were significant underlying problems, nonetheless. The north of England was now controlled by David and Prince Henry, Stephen had abandoned Wales, the fighting in Normandy had considerably destabilised the duchy, and an increasing number of barons felt that Stephen had given them neither the lands nor the titles they felt they deserved or were owed. Stephen

7467-458: The clergy. Stephen sent Aubrey de Vere II as his spokesman to the council, who argued that Roger of Salisbury had been arrested not as a bishop, but rather in his role as a baron who had been preparing to change his support to the Empress Matilda. The King was supported by Hugh of Amiens , Archbishop of Rouen , who challenged the bishops to show how canon law entitled them to build or hold castles. Aubrey threatened that Stephen would complain to

7598-457: The country assigning them new lands and additional executive powers. He appears to have had several objectives in mind, including both ensuring the loyalty of his key supporters by granting them these honours, and improving his defences in key parts of the kingdom. Stephen was heavily influenced by his principal advisor, Waleran de Beaumont , the twin brother of Robert of Leicester . The Beaumont twins and their younger brother and cousins received

7729-594: The country. Stephen's wife, Matilda, played a critical part in keeping the King's cause alive during his captivity. Queen Matilda gathered Stephen's remaining lieutenants around her and the royal family in the south-east, advancing into London when the population rejected the Empress. Stephen's long-standing commander William of Ypres remained with the Queen in London; William Martel, the royal steward, commanded operations from Sherborne in Dorset, and Faramus of Boulogne ran

7860-464: The couple one of the wealthiest in England. Stephen narrowly escaped drowning with Henry I's son, William Adelin , in the sinking of the White Ship in 1120; William's death left the succession of the English throne open to challenge. When Henry died in 1135, Stephen quickly crossed the English Channel and, with the help of his brother Henry, Bishop of Winchester and Abbot of Glastonbury , took

7991-501: The cousin of William Rufus , the King. In 1095, Ranulph took part in an unsuccessful conspiracy to replace the king with his son-in-law, and was consequently exiled. Idnerth was able to recover his lands in northern Ferlix; he reached agreement with Philip de Braose , the conqueror of southern Ferlix, to regain most of the remainder, but had to consent to Braose retaining Buellt and the area around New Radnor . Idnerth passed his lands to his son, Madog , but when Madog died, in 1140, Ferlix

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8122-464: The daughter of Henry's greatest enemy. Aggrieved by this, Edward, the new king, declared Llywelyn a rebel, and in 1277 attacked Gwynedd with an enormous army. Llywelyn was forced to agree, by the Treaty of Aberconwy , to limit his authority to Gwynedd alone. Maelienydd was given to Llywelyn Fawr's other grandson, Roger Mortimer , the son of Ralph; this hence became a Marcher Lordship , outside of either English or Welsh law; Maredudd's son, Madog, however,

8253-463: The edge of London by 8 December and over the next week he began to seize power in England. The crowds in London traditionally claimed a right to elect the king, and they proclaimed Stephen the new monarch, believing that he would grant the city new rights and privileges in return. Henry of Blois delivered the support of the church to Stephen: Stephen was able to advance to Winchester , where Roger, Bishop of Salisbury and Lord Chancellor , instructed

8384-442: The established nobility. In the process he had been able to maximise revenues and contain expenditures, resulting in a healthy surplus and a famously large treasury, but also increasing political tensions. Stephen had to intervene in the north of England immediately after his coronation. David I of Scotland invaded the north on the news of Henry's death, taking Carlisle , Newcastle and other key strongholds. Northern England

8515-481: The fens and using boats lashed together to form a causeway that allowed him to make a surprise attack on the isle. Nigel escaped to Gloucester, but his men and castle were captured, and order was temporarily restored in the east. Robert of Gloucester's men retook some of the territory that Stephen had taken in his 1139 campaign. In an effort to negotiate a truce, Henry of Blois held a peace conference at Bath , to which Stephen sent his wife. The conference collapsed over

8646-583: The final straw for Ranulf. Ranulf had previously claimed that he had the rights to Lincoln Castle , held by Stephen, and under the guise of a social visit, Ranulf seized the fortification in a surprise attack. Stephen marched north to Lincoln and agreed to a truce with Ranulf, probably to keep him from joining the Empress's faction, under which Ranulf would be allowed to keep the castle. Stephen returned to London but received news that Ranulf, his brother and their family were relaxing in Lincoln Castle with

8777-468: The following year. Geoffrey's success in Normandy and Stephen's weakness in England began to influence the loyalty of many Anglo-Norman barons, who feared losing their lands in England to Robert and the Empress, and their possessions in Normandy to Geoffrey. Many started to leave Stephen's faction. His friend and advisor Waleran was one of those who decided to defect in mid-1141, crossing into Normandy to secure his ancestral possessions by allying himself with

8908-400: The fourth son of Stephen-Henry, Count of Blois , and Adela , daughter of William the Conqueror . His father died while Stephen was still young, and he was brought up by his mother. Placed into the court of his uncle Henry I of England , Stephen rose in prominence and was granted extensive lands. He married Matilda of Boulogne , inheriting additional estates in Kent and Boulogne that made

9039-451: The gift of the King was still uncertain, and tensions concerning this issue had grown during the reign of Henry I. Certainly lands in Normandy, passed by hereditary right, were usually considered more important to major barons than those in England, where their possession was less certain. Henry had increased the authority and capabilities of the central royal administration, often bringing in " new men " to fulfil key positions rather than using

9170-428: The grievances of Gwynedd were settled by the Treaty of Woodstock . Two years later, Maelgwn's grandsons (Maredudd ap Maelgwn, and Hywel ap Cadwallon, not to be confused with the hanged Hywel), petitioned the king to be restored to part of Maelienydd – Ceri ; despite the advice of the king's advisors, who pointed out Maredudd and Hywel's past support for Gwynedd's rebellion, this seems to have been granted. Nevertheless,

9301-530: The half-brother of the Empress Matilda, Robert was one of the most powerful Anglo-Norman barons, controlling estates in Normandy. He was known for his qualities as a statesman, his military experience, and leadership ability. Robert had tried to convince Theobald to take the throne in 1135; he did not attend Stephen's first court in 1136 and it took several summonses to convince him to attend court at Oxford later that year. In 1138, Robert renounced his fealty to Stephen and declared his support for Matilda, triggering

9432-424: The heir to the throne, William Adelin, and many other senior nobles. Stephen had intended to sail on the same ship but changed his mind at the last moment and got off to await another vessel, either out of concern for overcrowding on board the ship, or because he was suffering from diarrhoea . The ship foundered en route, and all but one of the passengers died, including William Adelin. With William Adelin dead,

9563-606: The help of Rhys ap Gruffydd , prince of Deheubarth , his cousin's father-in-law; Maelgwn had opted to become a vassal of Rhys, in order to increase his ability to resist Mortimer. One of the main versions of Welsh law , the Cyfnerth Redaction , is thought to originate from Maelienydd during this time. King Henry was succeeded by Richard the Lionheart , who soon decided to drive forward the Third Crusade . On 5 March 1188, Gerald of Wales visited Ferlix with Baldwin,

9694-429: The inheritance to the English throne was thrown into doubt. Rules of succession in western Europe at the time were uncertain; in some parts of France, male primogeniture , in which the eldest son would inherit a title, was becoming increasingly popular. It was also traditional for the king of France to crown his successor whilst he himself was still alive, making the intended line of succession relatively clear, but this

9825-481: The insistence by Henry and the clergy that they should set the terms of any peace deal, which Stephen found unacceptable. Ranulf of Chester remained upset over Stephen's gift of the north of England to Prince Henry. Ranulf devised a plan for dealing with the problem by ambushing Henry whilst the prince was travelling back from Stephen's court to Scotland after Christmas. Stephen responded to rumours of this plan by escorting Henry himself north, but this gesture proved

9956-488: The land, and vengefully became vassals of Gwynedd, the dominant state in North Wales, ruled by Llywelyn Fawr . In 1230, Ralph Mortimer , Roger's son and heir, married Llywelyn's daughter. Ten years later, however, following the repudiation of the Treaty of Gwerneigron by Llywelyn's son and successor, Dafydd , Ralph invaded Maelienydd. In 1242, he constructed Cefnllys Castle at the former site of Dineithon. In 1247,

10087-549: The late King was properly buried, which prevented them from returning to England. Stephen's brother Theobald was further south still, in Blois. Stephen, however, was in Boulogne, and when news reached him of Henry's death he left for England, accompanied by his military household. Robert of Gloucester had garrisoned the ports of Dover and Canterbury and some accounts suggest that they refused Stephen access when he first arrived. Nonetheless, Stephen probably reached his own estate on

10218-474: The late king had been wrong to insist that his court take the oath. Furthermore, the late king had only insisted on that oath to protect the stability of the kingdom, and in light of the chaos that might now ensue, Stephen would be justified in ignoring it. Henry was also able to persuade Hugh Bigod , the late king's royal steward, to swear that King Henry had changed his mind about the succession on his deathbed, nominating Stephen instead. Stephen's coronation

10349-500: The lay ruler", in the words of historian Richard Huscroft. When news began to spread of Henry I's death, many of the potential claimants to the throne were not well placed to respond. Geoffrey and Matilda were in Anjou, rather awkwardly supporting the rebels in their campaign against the royal army, which included a number of Matilda's supporters such as Robert of Gloucester. Many of these barons had taken an oath to stay in Normandy until

10480-416: The lieutenant of Normandy, and Theobald led the efforts to defend the duchy. Stephen himself only returned to the duchy in 1137, where he met with Louis VI and Theobald to agree to an informal regional alliance, probably brokered by Henry, to counter the growing Angevin power in the region. As part of this deal, Louis recognised Stephen's son Eustace as Duke of Normandy in exchange for Eustace giving fealty to

10611-492: The local Normans rebelled, seeking assistance from Fulk IV, Count of Anjou . Stephen and his older brother Theobald were comprehensively beaten in the subsequent campaign, which culminated in the Battle of Alençon, and the territories were not recovered. In 1120, the English political landscape changed dramatically. Three hundred passengers embarked on the White Ship to travel from Barfleur in Normandy to England, including

10742-491: The majority of these new earldoms. From 1138 onwards, Stephen gave them the earldoms of Worcester , Leicester , Hereford , Warwick and Pembroke , which – especially when combined with the possessions of Stephen's new ally, Prince Henry, in Cumberland and Northumbria – created a wide block of territory to act as a buffer zone between the troubled south-west, Chester , and the rest of the kingdom. With their new lands,

10873-543: The north. Stephen himself went west in an attempt to regain control of Gloucestershire , first striking north into the Welsh Marches , taking Hereford and Shrewsbury , before heading south to Bath . The town of Bristol itself proved too strong for him, and Stephen contented himself with raiding and pillaging the surrounding area. The rebels appear to have expected Robert to intervene with support that year, but he remained in Normandy throughout, trying to persuade

11004-431: The northern half, which became Maelienydd, while his brother, Einion Clud , ruled the southern half, which became Elfael . In 1176 Cadwallon founded Cwmhir Abbey . In 1179, Cadwallon visited King Henry II of England (for reasons which do not survive). Upon his return, on 22 September, he was killed by some retainers of Hugh de Mortimer's son, Roger ; the king was outraged, and imprisoned Roger for 3 years. Maelienydd

11135-625: The opportunity to declare Robert's son, William Clito , the Duke of Normandy . Henry responded by forming a network of alliances with the western counties of France against Louis, resulting in a regional conflict that would last throughout Stephen's early life. Adela and Theobald allied themselves with Henry, and Stephen's mother decided to place him in Henry's court. Henry fought his next military campaign in Normandy, from 1111 onwards, where rebels led by Robert of Bellême were opposing his rule. Stephen

11266-469: The other bishops surrender all of their castles in England. This threat was backed up by the arrest of the bishops, with the exception of Nigel who had taken refuge in Devizes Castle ; the bishop only surrendered after Stephen besieged the castle and threatened to execute Roger le Poer . The remaining castles were then surrendered to the King. Stephen's brother Henry was alarmed by this, both as

11397-529: The pope that he was being harassed by the English church, and the council let the matter rest following an unsuccessful appeal to Rome. The incident successfully removed any military threat from the bishops, but it may have damaged Stephen's relationship with the senior clergy, and in particular with his brother Henry. The Angevin invasion finally arrived in 1139. Baldwin de Redvers crossed over from Normandy to Wareham in August in an initial attempt to capture

11528-654: The power of the Beamounts grew to the point where David Crouch suggests that it became "dangerous to be anything other than a friend of Waleran" at Stephen's court. Stephen took steps to remove a group of bishops he regarded as a threat to his rule. The royal administration under Henry I had been headed by Roger, Bishop of Salisbury, who was supported by his nephews, Bishops Alexander of Lincoln and Nigel of Ely , and his son, Lord Chancellor Roger le Poer . These bishops were powerful landowners as well as ecclesiastical rulers, and they had begun to build new castles and increase

11659-491: The previous sixty years – William the Conqueror had gained England by force; two of his sons, Robert Curthose and William Rufus, had fought a war amongst themselves for the throne, with Rufus, who was younger, emerging victorious; and Henry had likewise acquired control of Normandy only by force. There had been no peaceful, uncontested successions. Henry had only one other legitimate child, the Empress Matilda , but as

11790-532: The process. In 1144, Hugh repaired Cymaron Castle, and from this base, two years later, he invaded the south of Ferlix, leading to the death of Maredudd, another of Madog's sons. After 1148, Matilda's son Henry gradually weakened Stephen's position, and eventually was acknowledged his heir; in 1155 Henry became king. During this period, Henry's growing political strength enabled him to force Hugh to surrender his Welsh castles. The two remaining sons of Madog had by now re-divided Ferlix between them; Cadwallon received

11921-404: The rebellion and to link up with Miles of Gloucester , a capable military leader who took the opportunity to renounce his fealty to the King. Stephen promptly moved south, besieging Arundel and trapping Matilda inside the castle. Stephen then agreed to a truce proposed by his brother Henry; the full details of the truce are not known, but the results were that Stephen first released Matilda from

12052-479: The rebels. In the middle of this confrontation, Henry unexpectedly fell ill and died near Lyons-la-Forêt . Stephen was a well established figure in Anglo-Norman society by 1135. He was extremely wealthy, well-mannered and liked by his peers; he was also considered a man capable of firm action. Chroniclers recorded that despite his wealth and power he was a modest and easy-going leader, happy to sit with his men and servants, casually laughing and eating with them. He

12183-436: The reign of Stephen was characterised by attritional military campaigns, in which commanders tried to seize key enemy castles in order to allow them to take control of their adversaries' territory and ultimately win a slow, strategic victory. The armies of the period centred on bodies of mounted, armoured knights , supported by infantry and crossbowmen . These forces were either feudal levies, drawn up by local nobles for

12314-493: The reign of Tangwydd's father, Tegid, the Mercians seized parts of Ferlix, by constructing Offa's Dyke through it. For unclear reasons, Tangwydd also became ruler of Brycheiniog , which lay adjacent to Ferlix; Elisse ap Rhain, the previous king of Brycheiniog, only had daughters, so it is possible that Tangwydd obtained Brycheiniog by marriage. Hwgan, Tangwydd's son and successor, attempted to invade Mercia, while King Edward

12445-399: The rightful rulers after her. Stephen was amongst those who took this oath in 1127. Nonetheless, relations between Henry, Matilda, and Geoffrey became increasingly strained towards the end of the King's life. Matilda and Geoffrey suspected that they lacked genuine support in England, and proposed to Henry in 1135 that the King should hand over the royal castles in Normandy to Matilda whilst he

12576-446: The royal household. The Queen appears to have generated genuine sympathy and support from Stephen's more loyal followers. Henry's alliance with the Empress proved short-lived, as they soon fell out over political patronage and ecclesiastical policy; the bishop met the Queen at Guildford and transferred his support to her. The King's eventual release resulted from the Angevin defeat at the Rout of Winchester . Robert of Gloucester and

12707-484: The royal treasury to be handed over to Stephen. On 15 December, Henry delivered an agreement under which Stephen would grant extensive freedoms and liberties to the church, in exchange for the Archbishop of Canterbury and the Papal Legate supporting his succession to the throne. There was the slight problem of the religious oath that Stephen had taken to support the Empress Matilda, but Henry convincingly argued that

12838-450: The senior clergy. Henry wanted to succeed to the post, but Stephen instead supported Theobald of Bec , who was eventually appointed. The papacy named Henry papal legate , possibly as consolation for not receiving Canterbury. Stephen's first few years as king can be interpreted in different ways. He stabilised the northern border with Scotland, contained Geoffrey's attacks on Normandy, was at peace with Louis VI, enjoyed good relations with

12969-473: The siege and then allowed her and her household of knights to be escorted to the south-west, where they were reunited with Robert. The reasoning behind Stephen's decision to release his rival remains unclear. Contemporary chroniclers suggested that Henry argued that it would be in Stephen's own best interests to release the Empress and concentrate instead on attacking Robert, and Stephen may have seen Robert, not

13100-500: The size of their military forces, leading Stephen to suspect that they were about to defect to the Empress Matilda. Bishop Roger and his family were also enemies of Waleran, who disliked their control of the royal administration. In June 1139, Stephen held his court in Oxford, where a fight between Alan of Brittany and Roger's men broke out, an incident probably deliberately created by Stephen. Stephen responded by demanding that Roger and

13231-403: The success of campaigns. Stephen's personal qualities as a military leader focused on his skill in personal combat, his capabilities in siege warfare and a remarkable ability to move military forces quickly over relatively long distances. In response to the revolts and invasions, he rapidly undertook several military campaigns, focusing primarily on England rather than Normandy. His wife Matilda

13362-553: The sway of Deheubarth; Roger Mortimer was the magnate who attacked Maelienydd, and by 1200 had conquered it. In that year, Roger granted a charter of liberties to Cwmhir Abbey. Maelgwn and his brother, Hywel, found refuge in Gwynedd. Maelgwn died in exile, two years later. In 1210, Hywel, and Maelgwn's eldest son, Madog, came to an accommodation with Roger Mortimer. However, two years later, they murdered William de Mora, so King John had them executed (by hanging) at Bridgnorth. Maelgwn's remaining sons – Cadwallon and Maredudd – inherited

13493-647: The throne still needed to be ratified by the Pope, however, and Henry of Blois appears to have been responsible for ensuring that testimonials of support were sent both from Stephen's brother Theobald and from the French king Louis VI, to whom Stephen represented a useful balance to Angevin power in the north of France. Pope Innocent II confirmed Stephen as king by letter later that year, and Stephen's advisers circulated copies widely around England to demonstrate his legitimacy. Troubles continued across Stephen's kingdom. After

13624-431: The throne, arguing that the preservation of order across the kingdom took priority over his earlier oaths to support the claim of Henry I's daughter, the Empress Matilda. The early years of Stephen's reign were largely successful, despite a series of attacks on his possessions in England and Normandy by David I of Scotland , Welsh rebels, and the Empress Matilda's husband Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou . In 1138,

13755-402: The volume in Welsh was "unexpected and highly commendable," wrote Davies. The Welsh version is titled Hanes Cymru , whilst the English version is titled A History of Wales . "I seized the opportunity to write of Wales and the Welsh. When I had finished, I had a typescript which was almost three times larger than the original commission," wrote Davies. The original voluminous typescript

13886-486: Was King of England from 22 December 1135 to his death in 1154. He was Count of Boulogne jure uxoris from 1125 until 1147 and Duke of Normandy from 1135 until 1144. His reign was marked by the Anarchy , a civil war with his cousin and rival, the Empress Matilda , whose son, Henry II , succeeded Stephen as the first of the Angevin kings of England . Stephen was born in the County of Blois in central France as

14017-414: Was William , who under normal circumstances would have ruled Blois and Chartres. William was probably intellectually disabled , and Adela instead had the counties pass to her second son, Theobald , later also Count of Champagne . Stephen's other older brother, Odo, died young, probably in his early teens. Stephen's younger brother, Henry , was probably born four years after him. The brothers formed

14148-516: Was a Welsh historian, and a television and radio broadcaster. He attended university at Cardiff and Cambridge and taught Welsh at Aberystwyth. He wrote a number of books on Welsh history, including A History of Wales ( Hanes Cymru in Welsh ). Davies was born in the Rhondda , Wales , and studied at both University College, Cardiff , and Trinity College, Cambridge . Davies was married with four children. In later life he acknowledged that he

14279-500: Was a disputed territory at this time, with the Scottish kings laying a traditional claim to Cumberland , and David also claiming Northumbria by virtue of his marriage to the daughter of Waltheof, Earl of Northumbria . Stephen rapidly marched north with an army and met David at Durham . An agreement was made under which David would return most of the territory he had taken, with the exception of Carlisle. In return, Stephen confirmed

14410-442: Was also rapidly running out of money: Henry's considerable treasury had been emptied by 1138 due to the costs of running Stephen's more lavish court and the need to raise and maintain his mercenary armies fighting in England and Normandy. Stephen was attacked on several fronts during 1138. First, Robert, Earl of Gloucester , rebelled against the King, starting the descent into civil war in England. An illegitimate son of Henry I and

14541-527: Was bisexual. After teaching Welsh history at the University of Wales, Aberystwyth , he retired to Cardiff , and appeared frequently as a presenter and contributor to history programmes on television and radio . In the mid-1980s, Davies was commissioned to write a concise history of Wales by Penguin Books to add to its Pelican series of the histories of nations. The decision by Penguin to commission

14672-581: Was confirmed in possession of Ceri, which was detached from Maelienydd as a distinct Marcher Lordship. Madog's son married Einion o r Porth's granddaughter. In 1282, Llywelyn ap Gruffudd again attacked Edward's lands, and was subsequently killed in Buellt, while attacking the local castle; his headless body was buried in Cwmhir Abbey. As the forces of Ceri had sided with Llywelyn, Ceri was declared forfeit, and handed to Roger. Strictly speaking, however, Ceri

14803-437: Was curtailed, however, by the power of the King's personality and reputation. Meanwhile, the King arranged for Stephen to marry in 1125 to Matilda , the daughter and only heiress of Eustace III , Count of Boulogne , who owned both the important continental port of Boulogne and vast estates in the north-west and south-east of England. In 1127, William Clito, a potential claimant to the English throne, seemed likely to become

14934-507: Was determined to restrain Rhys. Shortly thereafter, the murder of Einion (himself recently returned from Crusade) by Gwalter, his own brother, lead to military intervention by the Sheriff of Hereford ( William de Braose ); when Rhys opposed this, the king had the excuse he needed to suppress the power of Deheubarth. Local Norman magnates were provided with troops by the king, to invade lands under

15065-645: Was divided between Madog's sons. The exile of Ranulph and his family had continued throughout this time, due to supporting a rival of William's brother (and successor) Henry (namely, Robert Curthose the Duke of Normandy ). After Henry's death, in 1135, Ranulph's family supported the successful invasion of England by Stephen of Blois , and were able to return. In 1142, once forces loyal to Empress Matilda (the legitimate heir of King Henry) managed to capture Stephen, and Stephen's partisans began to abandon his cause, Hugh de Mortimer (grandson of Ranulph) invaded northern Ferlix, killing Hywel and Cadwgan, sons of Madog, in

15196-589: Was first published in hardback under the Allen Lane imprint. Davies took a sabbatical from his post at the University College of Wales and wrote most of the chapters while touring Europe. Davies dedicated Hanes Cymru to his wife, Janet Mackenzie Davies. Hanes Cymru was translated into English and published in 1993, as there was "a demand among English-speakers to read what was already available to Welsh-speakers," wrote Davies. A revised edition

15327-484: Was forced to give up his western campaign, returning east to stabilise the situation and protect his capital. At the start of 1140, Nigel, Bishop of Ely, whose castles Stephen had confiscated the previous year, rebelled against Stephen as well. Nigel hoped to seize East Anglia and established his base of operations in the Isle of Ely , then surrounded by protective fenland . Stephen responded quickly, taking an army into

15458-445: Was held a week later at Westminster Abbey on 22 December 1135. Meanwhile, the Norman nobility gathered at Le Neubourg to discuss declaring Theobald king, probably following the news that Stephen was gathering support in England. The Normans argued that Theobald, as the more senior grandson of William the Conqueror, had the most valid claim over the kingdom and the duchy, and was certainly preferable to Matilda. Theobald met with

15589-422: Was inherited by Cadwallon's son, Maelgwn ap Cadwallon (not to be confused with Maelgwn ap Cadwallon of Gwynedd , also known as Maelgwn Gwynedd, who lived centuries before), but King Henry seized Cymaron castle, to use the income from its lands to pay back large debts that Cadwallon owed him. When Roger Mortimer was released, he seized much of Maelienydd, including Cymaron, though Maelgwn was able to recover it with

15720-672: Was inherited by Henry and Elizabeth's son, King Henry VIII . Following Henry VIII's Laws in Wales Acts , Ferlix became the main part of Radnorshire . The name survives for the general area. Maelienydd was subdivided into four commotes : Elystan Glodrydd & Rhwng Gwy a Hafren: http://www.elystan.co.uk Mortimer History: The Welsh Marches: https://mortimerhistory.com/medieval-mortimers/chapter-2/ 52°15′18″N 3°20′24″W  /  52.255°N 3.340°W  / 52.255; -3.340 John Davies (historian) John Davies, FLSW (25 April 1938 – 16 February 2015)

15851-444: Was not the case in England. In other parts of Europe, including Normandy and England, the tradition was for lands to be divided up, with the eldest son taking patrimonial lands—usually considered to be the most valuable—and younger sons being given smaller, or more recently acquired, partitions or estates. There was no precedent of a woman ruler. The problem was further complicated by the sequence of unstable Anglo-Norman successions over

15982-511: Was not the last part of Ferlix to be dominated by the family of Elystan Glodrydd. In the 15th century, the descendant and heir of Roger Mortimer, Richard Plantagenet , appointed Ieuan ap Philip as castellan of Cefnllys; Ieuan was a scion of the Cadogan family, and thus a direct male descendant of Elystan Glodrydd, by a cadet branch In 1277, Elfael had been acquired by the Tosny family, apart from

16113-473: Was probably with Henry during the military campaign of 1112, when he was knighted by the King. He was present at court during the King's visit to the Abbey of Saint-Evroul in 1113. Stephen probably first visited England in either 1113 or 1115, almost certainly as part of Henry's court. Henry became a powerful patron of Stephen, and probably chose to support him because Stephen was part of his extended family and

16244-803: Was published (in both languages) in 2007. In 2005, Davies received the Glyndŵr Award for an Outstanding Contribution to the Arts in Wales during the Machynlleth Festival . He won the 2010 Wales Book of the Year for Cymru: Y 100 lle i'w gweld cyn marw . In 2011, Davies was elected as a Fellow of the Learned Society of Wales. Davies lived in Grangetown , Cardiff , for which he coined

16375-462: Was released after his capture and travelled to Normandy, where he became an increasingly vocal critic of the King. The security of Normandy was also a concern. Geoffrey of Anjou invaded in early 1136 and, after a temporary truce, invaded later the same year, raiding and burning estates rather than trying to hold the territory. Events in England meant that Stephen was unable to travel to Normandy himself, so Waleran de Beaumont , appointed by Stephen as

16506-461: Was remarried in 1128 to Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou , whose lands bordered the Duchy of Normandy. Geoffrey was unpopular with the Anglo-Norman elite: as an Angevin ruler, he was a traditional enemy of the Normans. At the same time, tensions continued to grow as a result of Henry's domestic policies, in particular the high level of revenue he was raising to pay for his various wars. Conflict

16637-554: Was sent to Kent with ships and resources from Boulogne, with the task of retaking the key port of Dover , under Robert's control. A small number of Stephen's household knights were sent north to help the fight against the Scots, where David's forces were defeated later that year at the battle of the Standard in August by the forces of Thurstan , the Archbishop of York . Despite this victory, however, David still occupied most of

16768-418: Was still alive and insist on the Norman nobility swearing immediate allegiance to her, thereby giving the couple a much more powerful position after Henry's death. Henry angrily declined to do so, probably out of a concern that Geoffrey would try to seize power in Normandy somewhat earlier than intended. A fresh rebellion broke out in southern Normandy, and Geoffrey and Matilda intervened militarily on behalf of

16899-446: Was still fighting in England, Geoffrey took all the duchy south of the river Seine and east of the river Risle . No help was forthcoming from Stephen's brother Theobald this time either, who appears to have been preoccupied with his own problems with France—the new French king, Louis VII , had rejected his father's regional alliance, improving relations with Anjou and taking a more bellicose line with Theobald, which would result in war

17030-547: Was unwilling to declare Matilda queen so rapidly, however, and a delegation of clergy and nobles, headed by Theobald, travelled to see Stephen in Bristol and consult about their moral dilemma: should they abandon their oaths of fealty to the King? Stephen agreed that, given the situation, he was prepared to release his subjects from their oath of fealty to him, and the clergy gathered again in Winchester after Easter to declare

17161-443: Was very pious, both in terms of his observance of religious rituals and his personal generosity to the church. Stephen also had a personal Augustinian confessor appointed to him by the Archbishop of Canterbury, who implemented a penitential regime for him, and Stephen encouraged the new order of Cistercians to form abbeys on his estates, winning him additional allies within the church. Rumours about his father's cowardice during

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