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152-693: The Bay of Bengal is the northeastern part of the Indian Ocean . The world's largest bay , geographically it is positioned between the Indian subcontinent and the Indochinese peninsula , located below the Bengal region . Many South Asian and Southeast Asian countries are dependent on the Bay of Bengal . Geopolitically, the bay is bounded on the west and northwest by India, on the north by Bangladesh, and on

304-505: A Rajput, Raja Man Singh , and Akbar's son Salim . The Rajput army's strength was 20,000. Rana Pratap reluctantly retreated with the help of his estranged brother Shakti Singh. His legendary horse Chetak was killed in the battle. Later, Rana Pratap organized a small army of Bhil tribals funded by a Jain businessman called Bhamashah and started a guerrilla war against Akbar and won Battle of Dewair (1582) . He retook large parts of Mewar but could not retake Chittor. Sultan Muzaffar Shah I,

456-546: A decline in the overall availability of fish resources; changes in species composition of catches; the high proportion of juvenile fish in the catch; and changes in marine biodiversity , especially through loss of vulnerable and endangered species . The transboundary nature of these issues are: that many fish stocks are shared between BOBLME countries through the transboundary migration of fish, or larvae . Fishing overlaps national jurisdictions, both legally and illegally – overcapacity and overfishing in one location forces

608-453: A few of the marine animals. Bay of Bengal hogfish ( Bodianus neilli ) is a type of wrasse which live in turbid lagoon reefs or shallow coastal reefs. Schools of dolphins can be seen, whether they are the bottle nose dolphin ( Tursiops truncatus ) , pantropical spotted dolphin ( Stenella attenuata ) or the spinner dolphin ( Stenella longirostris ) . Tuna and dolphins usually reside in the same waters. In shallower and warmer coastal waters

760-468: A global rise in sea level. Sea level also increases in the Indian Ocean, except in the south tropical Indian Ocean where it decreases, a pattern most likely caused by rising levels of greenhouse gases . Among the tropical oceans, the western Indian Ocean hosts one of the largest concentrations of phytoplankton blooms in summer, due to the strong monsoon winds. The monsoonal wind forcing leads to

912-674: A great naval expedition that occupied parts of Java , Malaya , and Sumatra . The Cholas were brought down by the Hoysalas from the west and Pandyas from the south. The Arab scholar Sulaiman described the emperor of the Rashtrakuta dynasty as one of the four great kings of the world in the 9th century. In middle of 9th century, the Palas under Devapala attacked and subjugated the Gurjara-Pratiharas . Led by Mihir Bhoja ,

1064-632: A horned hunter holding a composite bow. An excavation at Sinauli 's necropolis has yielded copper swords, helmets and chariots, dating from 2000 to 1800 BC, which suggests the presence of a warrior Indo-Aryan people who followed Vedic religion in the region during the Copper-Bronze Age (2000 BC–1200 BC). The Rigvedic tribes of Indo-Aryans were led by their kings ( raja ) and engaged in wars with each other and other tribes. They used bronze weapons and horse ( ashva ) -drawn spoke-wheeled chariots ( ratha ) described prominently in

1216-617: A king of Thaneswar , had gained prominence by successful wars against the Huns . Harsha had plans to conquer the whole of India, and carried on wars for thirty years with considerable success. By 612 he had built up a vast army with which he conquered nearly all North India up to the Narmada river . In 620 he invaded the Deccan Plateau but was repelled by Pulakeshin II . In South India ,

1368-433: A large animal hide tower shield and a spear or javelins. Cavalry carried lances. Elephants were mounted, sometimes allegedly with howdahs , which may be an Indian invention by archers or javelin throwers, with a mahout around the animal's neck. Chariots by this time were in definite decline, but remained in the army due to their prestige. In 185 BCE, the last Mauryan emperor was assassinated by Pushyamitra Shunga ,

1520-574: A large estuarine delta that holds a mangrove area in the Ganges River Delta . A transboundary issue is defined as an environmental problem in which either the cause of the problem and/or its impact is separated by a national boundary; or the problem contributes to a global environmental problem and finding regional solutions is considered to be a global environmental benefit. The eight Bay of Bengal countries have (2012) identified three major transboundary problems (or areas of concern) affecting

1672-457: A longbow composed of bamboo or metal and fired a long bamboo cane arrow with a metal head; iron shafts were used against armoured elephants. They also sometimes used fire arrows. Archers were frequently protected by infantry equipped with shields, javelins, and longswords. The Guptas also maintained a navy, allowing them to control regional waters. Samudragupta seized the kingdoms of Ahichchhatra and Padmavati early in his reign. Later, he took

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1824-747: A maximum depth of 7,290 m (23,920 ft). All of the Indian Ocean is in the Eastern Hemisphere and the centre of the Eastern Hemisphere, the 90th meridian east , passes through the Ninety East Ridge . Within these waters are a number of islands. These include those controlled by surrounding countries, and independent island states and territories. Of the non-coastal islands, there are two broad clusters: one around Madagascar, and one south of India. A few other oceanic islands are scattered elsewhere. In contrast to

1976-787: A migration of fishers and vessels to other locations. All countries (to a greater or lesser degree) are experiencing difficulties in implementing fisheries management , especially the ecosystem approach to fisheries . Bay of Bengal countries contribute significantly to the global problem of loss of vulnerable and endangered species . The main causes of the issues are: open access to fishing grounds; Government emphasis on increasing fish catches; inappropriate government subsidies provided to fishers; increasing fishing effort, especially from trawlers and purse seiners ; high consumer demand for fish, including for seed and fishmeal for aquaculture ; ineffective fisheries management; and illegal and destructive fishing. Indian Ocean The Indian Ocean

2128-470: A period of six years, except for debris that gets indefinitely stuck in the centre of the gyre. The garbage patch in the Indian Ocean will, according to a 2012 study, decrease in size after several decades to vanish completely over centuries. Over several millennia, however, the global system of garbage patches will accumulate in the North Pacific. There are two amphidromes of opposite rotation in

2280-790: A process of aridification began in the southwest Indian Ocean began around 4,000 years ago. Mammalian megafauna once widespread in the MPA was driven to near extinction in the early 20th century. Some species have been successfully recovered since then — the population of white rhinoceros ( Ceratotherium simum simum ) increased from less than 20 individuals in 1895 to more than 17,000 as of 2013. Other species still depend on fenced areas and management programs, including black rhinoceros ( Diceros bicornis minor ), African wild dog ( Lycaon pictus ), cheetah ( Acynonix jubatus ), elephant ( Loxodonta africana ), and lion ( Panthera leo ). This biodiversity hotspot (and namesake ecoregion and "Endemic Bird Area")

2432-416: A serious urgency by India and Myanmar into a territorial dispute. Disputes over rights of some oil and gas blocks have caused brief diplomatic spats between Myanmar and India with Bangladesh. The disputed maritime boundary between Bangladesh and Myanmar resulted in military tensions in 2008 and 2009. The maritime dispute between Bangladesh and Myanmar settled in 2012 through the judgement of ITLOS. In 2014,

2584-504: A significant portion of the world's tuna catch and is home to endangered marine species. It faces challenges like overfishing and pollution , including a significant garbage patch . Historically, the Indian Ocean has been a hub of cultural and commercial exchange since ancient times. It played a key role in early human migrations and the spread of civilizations. In modern times, it remains crucial for global trade, especially in oil and hydrocarbons. Environmental and geopolitical concerns in

2736-464: A strong coastal and open ocean upwelling , which introduces nutrients into the upper zones where sufficient light is available for photosynthesis and phytoplankton production. These phytoplankton blooms support the marine ecosystem, as the base of the marine food web, and eventually the larger fish species. The Indian Ocean accounts for the second-largest share of the most economically valuable tuna catch. Its fish are of great and growing importance to

2888-551: Is a 14 km-wide deep sea canyon of the Bay of Bengal. The deepest recorded area of this valley is about 1340 m. The submarine canyon is part of the Bengal Fan , the largest submarine fan in the world. Submarine fan is also known as abyssal fan . Bay of Bengal fan, known as Bengal Fan , also known as the Ganges Fan is world's largest abyssal fan, also known as deep-sea fans, underwater deltas, and submarine fans. The fan

3040-891: Is a mangrove forest in the southern part of the Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta which lies in the Indian state of West Bengal and in Bangladesh. The Brahmaputra at 2,948 km (1,832 mi) is the 15th longest River in the world. It originates in Tibet . The Hooghly River , another channel of the Ganga that flows through Kolkata drains into Bay of Bengal at Sagar in West Bengal, India. The Ganga–Brahmaputra-Barak rivers deposit nearly 1000 million tons of sediment every year. The sediment from these three rivers form

3192-462: Is a new venture proposed which would create a channel for a shipping route to link the Gulf of Mannar with the Bay of Bengal. This would connect India from east to west without the necessity of going around Sri Lanka. Thoni and catamaran fishing boats of fishing villages thrive along the Bay of Bengal shorelines. Fishermen can catch between 26 and 44 species of marine fish. In one year, the average catch

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3344-473: Is a patchwork of small forested areas, often with a unique assemblage of species within each, located within 200 km (120 mi) from the coast and covering a total area of c. 6,200 km (2,400 sq mi). It also encompasses coastal islands, including Zanzibar and Pemba, and Mafia. This area, one of the only two hotspots that are entirely arid, includes the Ethiopian Highlands ,

3496-791: Is about 3,000 km (1,900 mi) long, 1,430 km (890 mi) wide with a maximum thickness of 16.5 km (10.3 mi). The fan resulted from the uplift and erosion of the Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau produced by the collision between the Indian Plate and the Eurasian Plate . Most of the sediment is supplied by the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers which supply the Lower Meghna delta in Bangladesh and

3648-643: Is approximately 30° north in the Persian Gulf . The Indian Ocean covers 70,560,000 km (27,240,000 sq mi), including the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf but excluding the Southern Ocean, or 19.5% of the world's oceans; its volume is 264,000,000 km (63,000,000 cu mi) or 19.8% of the world's oceans' volume; it has an average depth of 3,741 m (12,274 ft) and

3800-775: Is artificially connected to the Mediterranean Sea without ship lock through the Suez Canal , which is accessible via the Red Sea. The Arabian Sea is connected to the Persian Gulf by the Gulf of Oman and the Strait of Hormuz . In the Persian Gulf, the Gulf of Bahrain separates Qatar from the Arabic Peninsula. Along the west coast of India, the Gulf of Kutch and Gulf of Khambat are located in Gujarat in

3952-694: Is his famous seventeen line rock-cut Hātigumphā inscription in a cave in the Udayagiri hills near Bhubaneswar, Odisha. According to the inscription, he attacked Rajagriha in Magadha, thus defeating the Indo-Greek king Demetrius III Eucaerus retreat to Mathura. Siva-Dhanur-veda discusses the military of the Gupta Empire . The Guptas relied less on armoured war elephants compared to previous Indian empires. The use of chariots had declined heavily by

4104-410: Is now Central India. His military was administered by six chairs, one for each of the four arms of the army (infantry, cavalry, elephants, and chariots), one chair for the navy, and one for logistics and supply. Infantry at this time was most commonly armed with a longbow made of bamboo and a single- or double-handed broadsword probably similar to the khanda . Other foot soldiers could be armed with

4256-775: Is one of the World's 64 largest marine ecosystems . Kerilia jerdonii is a sea snake of the Bay of Bengal. Glory of Bengal cone ( Conus bengalensis ) is just one of the seashells which can be photographed along beaches of the Bay of Bengal. An endangered species , the olive ridley sea turtle can survive because of the nesting grounds made available at the Gahirmatha Marine Wildlife Sanctuary, Gahirmatha Beach , Odisha , India. Marlin , barracuda , skipjack tuna, ( Katsuwonus pelamis ) , yellowfin tuna , Indo-Pacific humpbacked dolphin ( Sousa chinensis ) , and Bryde's whale ( Balaenoptera edeni ) are

4408-469: Is projected to push the tropical Indian Ocean into a basin-wide near-permanent heatwave state by the end of the 21st century, where marine heatwaves are projected to increase from 20 days per year (during 1970–2000) to 220–250 days per year. South of the Equator (20–5°S), the Indian Ocean is gaining heat from June to October, during the austral winter, while it is losing heat from November to March, during

4560-425: Is the study of how ancient peoples interacted with the sea and waterways. A specialized branch, archaeology of shipwrecks , studies the salvaged artifacts of ancient ships. Stone anchors, amphorae shards, elephant tusks, hippopotamus teeth, ceramic pottery, a rare wood mast and lead ingots are examples which may survive submerged for centuries for archaeologists to discover, study, and place their salvaged findings into

4712-497: Is the third-largest of the world's five oceanic divisions, covering 70,560,000 km (27,240,000 sq mi) or approximately 20% of the water area of Earth's surface . It is bounded by Asia to the north, Africa to the west and Australia to the east. To the south it is bounded by the Southern Ocean , or Antarctica , depending on the definition in use. The Indian Ocean has large marginal, or regional seas, such as

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4864-648: Is two million tons of fish from the Bay of Bengal alone. Approximately 31% of the world's coastal fishermen live and work on the bay. The Bay of Bengal is centrally located in South and Southeast Asia. It lies at the center of two huge economic blocks, the SAARC and ASEAN . It influences China's southern landlocked region in the north and major sea ports of Bangladesh and India. China, India, and Bangladesh have forged naval cooperation agreements with Malaysia, Thailand, and Indonesia to increase cooperation in checking terrorism in

5016-590: The Andaman Sea , sediment from the river is found in the eastern Bay of Bengal. Indian ports on the bay include Paradip Port , Kolkata Port , Haldia Port , Chennai Port , Visakhapatnam Port , Kakinada Port , Pondicherry Port , Dhamra Port , and Gopalpur-on-Sea . Bangladeshi ports on the Bay are Chittagong , Mongla , Payra Port . Sri Lankan ports include Jaffna , Kankesanthurai , Batticaloa , and Trincomalee . Myanmar's main sea port includes Akyab (Sittwe). In alphabetical order The lithosphere of

5168-689: The Andaman Sea , the Arabian Sea , the Bay of Bengal , and the Laccadive Sea . Once called the Eastern Ocean, it is now named after India , which protrudes into it, and has been known by its current name since at least 1515. It is the only ocean named after a country. It has an average depth of 3,741 m. All of the Indian Ocean is in the Eastern Hemisphere . Unlike the Atlantic and Pacific,

5320-748: The Arabian Peninsula in the Northern Hemisphere and north of the trade winds in the Southern Hemisphere. The Indonesian Throughflow is a unique Equatorial connection to the Pacific. The climate north of the equator is affected by a monsoon climate. Strong north-east winds blow from October until April; from May until October south and west winds prevail. In the Arabian Sea, the violent Monsoon brings rain to

5472-740: The British East India Company . Gopalpur-on-Sea was one of their main trading centers. Other trading companies along the Bay of Bengal shorelines were the English East India Company and the French East India Company . BIMSTEC (Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation) supports free trade internationally around the Bay of Bengal between Bangladesh, Bhutan , India, Myanmar, Nepal , Sri Lanka, and Thailand . The Sethusamudram Shipping Canal Project

5624-665: The Chalukya dynasty who sent his general Pulakeshin to defeat the Arabs. The army that went east, reached Avanti whose ruler Nagabhata I of Gurjara Pratihara utterly defeated the invaders. Arab forces failed to make any substantial gains in India and in the Caliphate campaigns in India (730 CE), their army was severely defeated by the Indian kings. As a result, Arabs' territory got restricted to Sindh in modern Pakistan . In

5776-605: The Chalukya dynasty and the Pratiharas defeated the Arabs during the Caliphate campaigns in India (738 CE) when they tried to move eastward. Indian inscriptions confirm this invasion but record the Arab success only against the smaller states in Gujarat . They also record the defeat of the Arabs at two places. The southern army moving south into Gujarat was defeated at Navsari by the south Indian Emperor Vikramaditya II of

5928-919: The Chalukyas and the Pallavas gained prominence. The Chalukya ruler Pulakeshin II's expansionism started with minor campaigns against the Alupas , Gangas and others. He defeated the Pallava king Mahendravarman and conquered the Cheras and the Pandyas . His greatest military success, the defeat of Harshavardhana (also known as Harsha), depleted his treasury, forcing him to end his expansionist campaigns. The Pallava king Narasimhavarman vowed to avenge Mahendravarman's defeat by Pulakeshin II. He invaded Vatapi with an army headed by his general Paranjothi. He defeated

6080-577: The East African Rift valley , the Socotra islands, as well as some small islands in the Red Sea and areas on the southern Arabic Peninsula. Endemic and threatened mammals include the dibatag ( Ammodorcas clarkei ) and Speke's gazelle ( Gazella spekei ); the Somali wild ass ( Equus africanus somaliensis ) and hamadryas baboon ( Papio hamadryas ). It also contains many reptiles. In Somalia,

6232-681: The Gangas of Mysore , the Nolambas of Bellary and Eastern Mysore, Tadigaipadi, Vengi , Coorg , the Pandyas and the Chalukyas of the Deccan. During the next three years, he subdued Quilon and the northern kingdom of Kalinga with the help of his son Rajendra Chola I . Rajendra later completed the conquest of Sri Lanka, crossed the Ganges , and marched across Kalinga to Bengal . He sent out

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6384-525: The Ganges River . Jain texts tell that he used two new weapons; catapults and a covered chariot with swinging mace that has been compared to modern tanks . The Nanda dynasty originated from the region of Magadha in ancient India during the 4th century BC. At its greatest extent, the empire ruled by the Nanda dynasty extended from Bengal in the east, to Punjab in the west and as far south as

6536-892: The General of the Mauryan Armed Forces. War and conflict characterized the Shunga period. They are known to have warred with the Kalingas, Satavahanas, the Indo-Greeks, and possibly the Panchalas and Mathuras. Extent of the Shunga Empire's wars with the Indo-Greek Kingdom figure greatly in the history of this period. From around 180 BCE the Indo-Greek ruler Demetrius I of Bactria conquered

6688-421: The Hoogly delta in West Bengal (India). Several other large rivers in Bangladesh and India provide smaller contributions. Turbidity currents have transported the sediment through a series of submarine canyons , some of which are more than 2,400 kilometres (1,500 mi) in length, to be deposited in the Bay of Bengal up to 30 degrees latitude from where it began. To date, the oldest sediments recovered from

6840-417: The Irrawaddy dolphins ( Orcaella brevirostris ) can be found. The Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve provides sanctuary to many animals some of which include the saltwater crocodile ( Crocodylus porosus ) , giant leatherback sea turtle ( Dermochelys coriacea ) , and Malayan box turtle ( Cuora amboinensis kamaroma ) to name a few. Another endangered species royal Bengal tiger is supported by Sundarbans

6992-420: The Kargil War with Pakistan in 1999, the highest altitude mountain warfare in history. The Indian Armed Forces have participated in several United Nations peacekeeping operations, and are presently the second largest contributor of troops to the peacekeeping force. Fortified cities have been excavated from the Indus Valley Civilisation with thick and tall walls . Banawali is among the earliest sites in

7144-442: The Malacca , Sunda and Torres Straits . The Gulf of Carpentaria is located on the Australian north coast while the Great Australian Bight constitutes a large part of its southern coast. Several features make the Indian Ocean unique. It constitutes the core of the large-scale Tropical Warm Pool which, when interacting with the atmosphere, affects the climate both regionally and globally. Asia blocks heat export and prevents

7296-420: The Mascarene Basin the CDW becomes a deep western boundary current before it is met by a re-circulated branch of itself, the North Indian Deep Water. This mixed water partly flows north into the Somali Basin whilst most of it flows clockwise in the Mascarene Basin where an oscillating flow is produced by Rossby waves . Water circulation in the Indian Ocean is dominated by the Subtropical Anticyclonic Gyre,

7448-506: The Rigveda . The main share from the booty obtained during cattle raids and battles went to the chief of the tribe. The warriors belonged to the Kshatriya varna . The earliest of such battles is noted in Rigveda as the Battle of the Ten Kings . The Vedas and other associated texts dating to the post-Rigvedic ( Iron Age ) Vedic period (ca. 1100–500 BC) contain the earliest written references to armies in India. The earliest known application of war elephants dates to this period;

7600-422: The Sea of Zanj is located north of Madagascar. On the northern coast of the Arabian Sea , Gulf of Aden is connected to the Red Sea by the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb . In the Gulf of Aden, the Gulf of Tadjoura is located in Djibouti and the Guardafui Channel separates Socotra island from the Horn of Africa. The northern end of the Red Sea terminates in the Gulf of Aqaba and Gulf of Suez . The Indian Ocean

7752-441: The Seleucid Empire , Chandragupta Maurya built an army consisting of 30,000 cavalry , 9,000 war elephants , and 600,000 infantry . Chandragupta conquered much of Indian subcontinent, establishing an empire from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal . He then defeated the Hellenistic Seleucid Empire under Seleucus I Nicator to conquer the regions to the west of the Indus River . He then turned south, taking over much of what

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7904-486: The Vindhya Range . In 327 BC Alexander the Great began his foray into Punjab. King Ambhi , ruler of Taxila , surrendered the city to Alexander. Alexander fought an epic battle against the Indian king Porus in the Battle of Hydaspes (326) . Despite winning, Alexander decided to turn back and end his campaign due to pressure from his generals and troops who were tired and fatigued because of constant battle. According to Megasthenes , who served as an ambassador from

8056-432: The gems of Sri Lanka . Garnet and other precious gems are also found in abundance in the Indian states of Odisha and Andhra Pradesh . A 2014 study found that as a result of ocean acidification, there was reduced shell thickness of marine animals and breaking strength compared to normal shells. The study also showed that the pH in Bay of Bengal fell to 7.75 compared in 1994 when it averaged 7.95. From January to October,

8208-466: The historical Bengal region (modern-day Bangladesh and the Indian states of West Bengal , Tripura and the Barak valley of Southern Assam ). In Ancient Indian scriptures , this water body may have been referred to as Mahodadhi ( Sanskrit : महोदधि, lit.   ' Great water receptacle ' ). Ancient Romans called it Sinus Gangeticus or Gangeticus Sinus whilst Ancient Greeks called it in Ancient Greek : Κόλπος Γαγγητικός , meaning "Gulf of

8360-432: The runoff water to the Indian Ocean. Mainly in summer, this runoff flows into the Arabian Sea but also south across the Equator where it mixes with fresher seawater from the Indonesian Throughflow . This mixed freshwater joins the South Equatorial Current in the southern tropical Indian Ocean. Sea surface salinity is highest (more than 36  PSU ) in the Arabian Sea because evaporation exceeds precipitation there. In

8512-418: The sacred sea . The daily practise includes prayer and fire offering to the sea at Swargadwar in Puri by disciples of the Govardhana matha of the Shankaracharya. On Paush Purnima of every year the Shankaracharya himself comes out to offer prayers to the sea. The islands in the bay are numerous, including the Andaman Islands and Nicobar Islands of India. The Cheduba group of islands, in the north-east, off

8664-423: The "Hinge zone may represent the relict of continental and proto-oceanic crustal boundary formed during the rifting of India from Antarctica ." Australia, Indonesia, and India are the three countries with the longest shorelines and exclusive economic zones . The continental shelf makes up 15% of the Indian Ocean. More than two billion people live in countries bordering the Indian Ocean, compared to 1.7 billion for

8816-443: The 15th century called it the Western Oceans. In Ancient Greek geography , the Indian Ocean region known to the Greeks was called the Erythraean Sea . The borders of the Indian Ocean , as delineated by the International Hydrographic Organization in 1953 included the Southern Ocean but not the marginal seas along the northern rim but in 2002 the IHO delimited the Southern Ocean separately, which removed waters south of 60°s from

8968-407: The 16th century. The office of Muslim naval chief in Calicut was known as the Kunjali Marakkar . The Italian traveler Niccolo de Conti wrote of the Emperor of the Vijayanagara Empire as the most powerful ruler of India in the 15th century. In 1509, the Bahamani Sultan declared war against the Vijayanagara Empire . His large coalition army was defeated by Krishnadevaraya in a battle in which

9120-413: The Arabian Peninsula) and Limpopo rivers. After the breakup of East Gondwana and the formation of the Himalayas, the Ganges-Brahmaputra rivers flow into the world's largest delta known as the Bengal delta or Sunderbans . Marginal seas , gulfs, bays and straits of the Indian Ocean include: Along the east coast of Africa, the Mozambique Channel separates Madagascar from mainland Africa, while

9272-423: The Atlantic and 2.7 billion for the Pacific (some countries border more than one ocean). The Indian Ocean drainage basin covers 21,100,000 km (8,100,000 sq mi), virtually identical to that of the Pacific Ocean and half that of the Atlantic basin, or 30% of its ocean surface (compared to 15% for the Pacific). The Indian Ocean drainage basin is divided into roughly 800 individual basins, half that of

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9424-482: The Atlantic and Pacific, the Indian Ocean is enclosed by major landmasses and an archipelago on three sides and does not stretch from pole to pole, and can be likened to an embayed ocean. It is centered on the Indian Peninsula. Although this subcontinent has played a significant role in its history, the Indian Ocean has foremostly been a cosmopolitan stage, interlinking diverse regions by innovations, trade, and religion since early in human history. The active margins of

9576-410: The Bay of Bengal was also called the Chola Sea or Chola Lake. The Kakatiya dynasty reached the western coastline of the Bay of Bengal between the Godavari and the Krishna rivers. Kushanas about the middle of the 1st century AD invaded northern India perhaps extending as far as the Bay of Bengal. Chandragupta Maurya extended the Maurya Dynasty across northern India to the Bay of Bengal. Hajipur

9728-471: The Bay of Bengal. The Ganga is the northernmost of these rivers. Its main channel enters and flows through Bangladesh, where it is known as the Padma River , before joining the Meghna River . However, the Brahmaputra River flows from east to west in Assam before turning south and entering Bangladesh where it is called the Jamuna River . This joins the Padma where upon the Padma joins the Meghna River that finally drains into Bay of Bengal. The Sundarbans

9880-461: The Bay of Bengal: the Ganges – Hooghly , the Padma , the Brahmaputra – Jamuna , the Barak – Surma – Meghna , the Irrawaddy , the Godavari , the Mahanadi , the Brahmani , the Baitarani , the Krishna , and the Kaveri . The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Bay of Bengal as follows: Note: Oedjong means " cape " in Dutch language on maps of the Netherlands East Indies (Indonesia). The bay gets its name from

10032-442: The Bengal Delta and the submarine fan , a vast structure that extends from Bengal to south of the Equator, is up to 16.5 kilometres (10.3 mi) thick, and contains at least 1,130 trillion tonnes of sediment, which has accumulated over the last 17 million years at an average rate of 665 million tons per annum. The fan has buried organic carbon at a rate of nearly 1.1 trillion mol/yr (13.2 million t/yr) since

10184-432: The Bengal fan are from Early Miocene age. Their mineralogical and geochemical characteristics allow to identify their Himalayan origin and demonstrate that the Himalaya was already a major mountain range 20 million years ago. The fan completely covers the floor of the Bay of Bengal. It is bordered to the west by the continental slope of eastern India, to the north by the continental slope of Bangladesh and to east by

10336-422: The Burmese coast, are remarkable for a chain of mud volcanoes, which are occasionally active. Great Andaman is the main archipelago or island group of the Andaman Islands, whereas Ritchie's Archipelago consists of smaller islands. Only 37, or 6.5%, of the 572 islands and islets of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are inhabited. Many major rivers of India and Bangladesh flow west to east before draining into

10488-435: The Chalukyas, killing Pulakeshin II in 642. Clashes between the Chalukyas and the Pallavas continued for a century, until the Chalukya king Vikramaditya II won a decisive victory against the Pallavas in 740. The Rashtrakutas overthrew the Chalukya empire in 750. During the 970s, Tailapa II overthrew the Rashtrakutas and recovered most of the Chalukya Empire , except for Gujarat . The Chalukyas of this period are known as

10640-462: The Comoros. Although both species represent an order of lobe-finned fishes known from the Early Devonian (410 mya ) and though extinct 66 mya, they are morphologically distinct from their Devonian ancestors. Over millions of years, coelacanths evolved to inhabit different environments — lungs adapted for shallow, brackish waters evolved into gills adapted for deep marine waters. Of Earth's 36 biodiversity hotspots nine (or 25%) are located on

10792-422: The Divyavadhana note that his rule extended even farther to Sialkot , in the Punjab. Moreover, if it was lost, Mathura was regained by the Shungas around 100 BCE (or by other indigenous rulers: the Arjunayanas (area of Mathura) and Yaudheyas mention military victories on their coins ("Victory of the Arjunayanas", "Victory of the Yaudheyas"), and during the 1st century BCE, the Trigartas, Audumbaras and finally

10944-551: The East India Coastal Current to the Arabian Sea from January to April. An Indian Ocean garbage patch was discovered in 2010 covering at least 5 million square kilometres (1.9 million square miles). Riding the southern Indian Ocean Gyre , this vortex of plastic garbage constantly circulates the ocean from Australia to Africa, down the Mozambique Channel , and back to Australia in

11096-484: The East Indian Winter Jet. September and December see very active weather, season varsha (or monsoon), in the Bay of Bengal producing severe cyclones which affect eastern India. Several efforts have been initiated to cope with storm surge . The Bay of Bengal is full of biological diversity, diverging amongst coral reefs , estuaries , fish spawning and nursery areas, and mangroves . The Bay of Bengal

11248-748: The East and West India, he proceeded northwards, subjugated the Parasikas, then the Hunas and the Kambojas tribes located in the west and east Oxus valleys respectively. of the Indian subcontinent ; the Gupta empire was the most powerful empire in the world during his reign, at a time when the Roman Empire in the west was in decline. Skandagupta faced with invading Indo-Hephthalites or White Huns , from

11400-463: The Ganges", and old European maps continued to use this name. The other Sanskrit names for Bay of Bengal are Vaṅgopasāgara (Sanskrit: वङ्गोपसागर, lit.   ' Bengal Sub-sea or Bengal Bay ' ), Vaṅgasāgara (Sanskrit: वङ्गसागर, lit.   ' Bengal Sea ' ), Pūrvapayodhi (Sanskrit: पूर्वपयोधि, lit.   ' Eastern Ocean ' ). In ancient Classical India , the Bay of Bengal

11552-595: The Indian Ocean but included the northern marginal seas. Meridionally , the Indian Ocean is delimited from the Atlantic Ocean by the 20° east meridian , running south from Cape Agulhas , South Africa, and from the Pacific Ocean by the meridian of 146°49'E, running south from South East Cape on the island of Tasmania in Australia. The northernmost extent of the Indian Ocean (including marginal seas)

11704-405: The Indian Ocean have an average width (horizontal distance from land to shelf break ) of 19 ± 0.61 km (11.81 ± 0.38 mi) with a maximum width of 175 km (109 mi). The passive margins have an average width of 47.6 ± 0.8 km (29.58 ± 0.50 mi). The average width of the slopes (horizontal distance from shelf break to foot of slope) of

11856-457: The Indian Ocean includes beaches and intertidal zones covering 3,000 km (1,200 sq mi) and 246 larger estuaries . Upwelling areas are small but important. The hypersaline salterns in India covers between 5,000–10,000 km (1,900–3,900 sq mi) and species adapted for this environment, such as Artemia salina and Dunaliella salina , are important to bird life. Coral reefs, sea grass beds, and mangrove forests are

12008-512: The Indian Ocean is bordered by landmasses and an archipelago on three sides, making it more like an embayed ocean centered on the Indian Peninsula. Its coasts and shelves differ from other oceans, with distinct features, such as a narrower continental shelf . In terms of geology, the Indian Ocean is the youngest of the major oceans, with active spreading ridges and features like seamounts and ridges formed by hotspots . The climate of

12160-503: The Indian Ocean is characterized by monsoons . It is the warmest ocean, with a significant impact on global climate due to its interaction with the atmosphere. Its waters are affected by the Indian Ocean Walker circulation , resulting in unique oceanic currents and upwelling patterns. The Indian Ocean is ecologically diverse, with important marine life and ecosystems like coral reefs, mangroves, and sea grass beds. It hosts

12312-481: The Indian Ocean region, or almost half of the world's mangrove habitat, of which 42,500 km (16,400 sq mi) is located in Indonesia, or 50% of mangroves in the Indian Ocean. Mangroves originated in the Indian Ocean region and have adapted to a wide range of its habitats but it is also where it suffers its biggest loss of habitat. In 2016, six new animal species were identified at hydrothermal vents in

12464-730: The Indian Ocean, during the past six decades. The tuna catch rates have also declined 50–90% during the past half-century, mostly due to increased industrial fisheries, with the ocean warming adding further stress to the fish species. Endangered and vulnerable marine mammals and turtles: 80% of the Indian Ocean is open ocean and includes nine large marine ecosystems : the Agulhas Current , Somali Coastal Current , Red Sea , Arabian Sea , Bay of Bengal , Gulf of Thailand , West Central Australian Shelf , Northwest Australian Shelf and Southwest Australian Shelf . Coral reefs cover c. 200,000 km (77,000 sq mi). The coasts of

12616-432: The Indian Ocean, probably caused by Rossby wave propagation. Icebergs drift as far north as 55° south latitude , similar to the Pacific but less than in the Atlantic where icebergs reach up to 45°S. The volume of iceberg loss in the Indian Ocean between 2004 and 2012 was 24  Gt . Since the 1960s, anthropogenic warming of the global ocean combined with contributions of freshwater from retreating land ice causes

12768-466: The Indian Ocean. While the Indian Ocean warmed at a rate of 1.2°C per century during 1950–2020, climate models predict accelerated warming, at a rate of 1.7 °C–3.8 °C per century during 2020–2100. Though the warming is basin-wide, maximum warming is in the northwestern Indian Ocean including the Arabian Sea, and reduced warming off the Sumatra and Java coasts in the southeast Indian Ocean. Global warming

12920-401: The Indian subcontinent. In the southern hemisphere, the winds are generally milder, but summer storms near Mauritius can be severe. When the monsoon winds change, cyclones sometimes strike the shores of the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal . Some 80% of the total annual rainfall in India occurs during summer and the region is so dependent on this rainfall that many civilisations perished when

13072-547: The Kabul Valley and is theorized to have advanced into the trans-Indus. The Indo-Greek Menander I is credited with either joining or leading a campaign to Pataliputra with other Indian rulers; however, very little is known about the exact nature and success of the campaign. The net result of these wars remains uncertain. Pushyamitra is recorded to have performed two Ashvamedha Yagnas and Shunga imperial inscriptions have extended as far as Jalandhar . Scriptures such as

13224-958: The Kalyani Chalukyas, as Kalyani was their capital. They clashed intermittently with the Cholas . The Cholas were the first rulers of the Indian subcontinent to maintain a navy and use it to expand their dominion overseas. Vijayalaya Chola defeated the Pallavas and captured Thanjavur . In the early 10th century the Chola king Parantaka I defeated the Pandyan king Maravarman Rajasimha II and invaded Sri Lanka . The Rashtrakuta ruler Krishna III defeated and killed Parantaka I's son Rajaditya in about 949. Uttama Chola reigned 970–85. Inscriptions tell that at least from his time, Chola warriors wore waist coats of armour. Hence, one regiment

13376-801: The Kota kingdom and attacked the tribes in Malvas , the Yaudheyas , the Arjunayanas , the Maduras and the Abhiras . He also subjugated the remnants of the Kushan Empire . By his death in 380, he had conquered over twenty kingdoms. 4th century CE Sanskrit poet Kalidasa, credits Chandragupta II with having conquered about twenty one kingdoms, both in and outside India. After finishing his campaign in

13528-837: The Kunindas also started to mint their own coins). Accounts of battles between the Greeks and the Shunga in Northwestern India are also found in the Mālavikāgnimitram, a play by Kālidāsa which describes a battle between Greek cavalrymen and Vasumitra, the grandson of Pushyamitra, on the Indus river, in which the Indians defeated the Greeks and Pushyamitra successfully completed the Ashvamedha Yagna. The Indo-Greeks and

13680-639: The Mongols near Jalandhar in 1297. In 1299, Zafar Khan fought back a Mongol army of 200,000 soldiers but was killed in the process. The Sultanate declined after it faced twofold resistance one from Mewar dynasty under Maharana Hammir and other from Harihara and Bukka who established the Vijayanagara Empire in south. Its last sultan , Ibrahim Lodi , who was presiding over a crumbling empire due to numerous internal rebellions and rise of powerful Mewari Rajput king Rana Sanga , died fighting

13832-536: The Monsoon failed in the past. The huge variability in the Indian Summer Monsoon has also occurred pre-historically, with a strong, wet phase 33,500–32,500 BP; a weak, dry phase 26,000–23,500 BC; and a very weak phase 17,000–15,000 BP, corresponding to a series of dramatic global events: Bølling–Allerød warming , Heinrich , and Younger Dryas . The Indian Ocean is the warmest ocean in

13984-657: The Muslims in the west and the Rashtrakutas in the south, and that the Gurjar Pratiharas had four armies of about 80,000 men each. In 712, an Arab general, named Muhammad bin Qasim Al-Thaqafi (Arabic: محمد بن قاسم) (c. 31 December 695 – 18 July 715), attacked and conquered Sindh kingdom which is mainly situated in Indus valley area (after partition, now in modern-day Pakistan ); by the time Sindh

14136-668: The Pacific, of which 50% are located in Asia, 30% in Africa, and 20% in Australasia. The rivers of the Indian Ocean are shorter on average (740 km (460 mi)) than those of the other major oceans. The largest rivers are ( order 5 ) the Zambezi , Ganges - Brahmaputra , Indus , Jubba , and Murray rivers and (order 4) the Shatt al-Arab , Wadi Ad Dawasir (a dried-out river system on

14288-543: The Pratiharas, and their allies defeated Narayan Pala after the death of Devapala. There were many battles between the Gurjar Pratiharas under Bhoj and the Rashtrakutas under Krishna II with mixed results. When the Rashtrakuta king Indra III attacked Kanauj , Mahipala I , Mihir Bhoj's successor, fled; he later returned. Al-Masudi wrote that in 915, during Mahipala's rule, the Pratiharas were at war with

14440-708: The Punjab. The early 11th century also saw the reign of the polymath king Raja Bhoj , the Paramara ruler of Malwa . Ghaznavids were later repulsed by many local Hindu dynasties in which Chauhans under Vigraharaja IV are known to have played a crucial role . The Delhi Sultanate , under the Khalji dynasty , repelled several invasions by the Mongol Empire . Zafar Khan , a general serving Alauddin Khalji , defeated

14592-567: The Rajput cavalry yet Mughals won only when Tomar general betrayed Rana Sanga, resulting in his defeat by Babur at the Battle of Khanua (16 March 1527). During the reign Rana Sanga's son Rana Udai Singh II, Babur's grandson Akbar conquered Chittor , the capital of Mewar . In the Battle of Haldighati (21 June 1576) between Akbar and Rana Pratap Singh , the Mughal army of 80,000 was headed by

14744-635: The Shungas seem to have reconciled and exchanged diplomatic missions around 110 BCE, as indicated by the Heliodorus pillar, which records the dispatch of a Greek ambassador named Heliodorus, from the court of the Indo-Greek king Antialcidas, to the court of the Shunga emperor Bhagabhadra at the site of Vidisha in central India. Classical Indian texts on archery in particular and martial arts in general are known as Dhanurveda . Several classics of

14896-780: The South Indian regions of Pandyan Empire and expanded Kaḷinga as far as the Ganges and the Kaveri. The Kharavelan state had a formidable maritime empire with trading routes linking it to Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, Borneo, Bali, Sumatra and Java. Colonists from Kalinga settled in Sri Lanka, Burma, as well as the Maldives and Maritime Southeast Asia. Even today Indians are referred to as Keling in Malaysia because of this. The main source of information about Khārabeḷa

15048-570: The Southeast Arabian Sea salinity drops to less than 34 PSU. It is the lowest (c. 33 PSU) in the Bay of Bengal because of river runoff and precipitation. The Indonesian Throughflow and precipitation results in lower salinity (34 PSU) along the Sumatran west coast. Monsoonal variation results in eastward transportation of saltier water from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal from June to September and in westerly transport by

15200-486: The Southwest Indian Ridge, from where it continues into the Mozambique Channel and Prince Edward Fracture Zone . North of 20° south latitude the minimum surface temperature is 22 °C (72 °F), exceeding 28 °C (82 °F) to the east. Southward of 40° south latitude , temperatures drop quickly. The Bay of Bengal contributes more than half (2,950 km or 710 cu mi) of

15352-532: The Southwest Indian Ridge: a "Hoff" crab, a "giant peltospirid" snail, a whelk-like snail, a limpet, a scaleworm and a polychaete worm. The West Indian Ocean coelacanth was discovered in the Indian Ocean off South Africa in the 1930s and in the late 1990s another species, the Indonesian coelacanth , was discovered off Sulawesi Island , Indonesia. Most extant coelacanths have been found in

15504-601: The Sultan was wounded. In 1510, Krishnadevaraya launched a counteroffensive against the Sultan at Kovelaconda; Yusuf Adil Shahi of Bijapur died in the battle. In 1512, Krishnadevaraya captured Raichur and Gulbarga after defeating Barid-i-Mamalik, the titular head of the Bahmani Sultanate , who escaped to Bidar . Later, Bidar also fell to Krishnadevaraya, who restored the Bahmani Sultan to his throne under

15656-862: The Vijayanagar decisively in the Battle of Talikota . The surviving Vijaynagar forces fled with a large treasury to re-establish their headquarters at Vellore Fort in Tamil Nadu and Chandragiri ( Andhra Pradesh ) near Tirupathi . It would be here that the British would seek a land grant to establish the English East India Company Fort St. George in Madras . Later, the Vijayanagara's southern Telugu governors, in present-day Tamil Nadu , became independent. They became

15808-541: The animals are mentioned in several Vedic Sanskrit hymns. The two great epics of Hinduism , the Ramayana and the Mahabharata , center on conflicts between the emerging Mahajanapadas and refer to military formations, theories of warfare and esoteric weaponry. They discuss standing armies that used in war chariots, war elephants and even mythical flying machines ( vimana ). The Ramayana describes in great detail

15960-652: The austral summer. In 1999, the Indian Ocean Experiment showed that fossil fuel and biomass burning in South and Southeast Asia caused air pollution (also known as the Asian brown cloud ) that reach as far as the Intertropical Convergence Zone . This pollution has implications on both a local and global scale. Forty percent of the sediment of the Indian Ocean is found in the Indus and Ganges fans. The oceanic basins adjacent to

16112-400: The bordering countries for domestic consumption and export. Fishing fleets from Russia, Japan, South Korea , and Taiwan also exploit the Indian Ocean, mainly for shrimp and tuna. Research indicates that increasing ocean temperatures are taking a toll on the marine ecosystem. A study on the phytoplankton changes in the Indian Ocean indicates a decline of up to 20% in the marine plankton in

16264-532: The bottom. Sites such as Desalpar , Dholavira's have yielded massive stone fortifications and the acropolis is extensively fortified with tall standing walls and furnished with ramparts and gateways. An Indus seal depicting a soldier firing a composite bow was unearthed in Shortugai , Afghanistan , which indicates that Indus people were already familiar with it long before they were depicted in ancient Indian reliefs. Another copper seal from Mohenjo Daro shows

16416-701: The centre of the 1,500,000 km (580,000 sq mi) hotspot, the landscape is dominated by Acacia - Commiphora deciduous bushland, but also includes the Yeheb nut ( Cordeauxia edulus ) and species discovered more recently such as the Somali cyclamen ( Cyclamen somalense ), the only cyclamen outside the Mediterranean. Warsangli linnet ( Carduelis johannis ) is an endemic bird found only in northern Somalia. An unstable political situation and mismanagement has resulted in overgrazing which has produced one of

16568-505: The continental shelves are 50.4–52.4 km (31.3–32.6 mi) for active and passive margins respectively, with a maximum width of 205.3–255.2 km (127.6–158.6 mi). In correspondence of the Shelf break , also known as Hinge zone, the Bouguer gravity ranges from 0 to 30 mGals that is unusual for a continental region of around 16 km thick sediments. It has been hypothesized that

16720-551: The continental slopes mostly contain terrigenous sediments. The ocean south of the polar front (roughly 50° south latitude ) is high in biologic productivity and dominated by non-stratified sediment composed mostly of siliceous oozes . Near the three major mid-ocean ridges the ocean floor is relatively young and therefore bare of sediment, except for the Southwest Indian Ridge due to its ultra-slow spreading rate. The ocean's currents are mainly controlled by

16872-538: The current is northward flowing, and the clockwise circulation pattern is called the "East Indian Current". The Bay of Bengal monsoon moves in a northwest direction striking the Nicobar Islands, and the Andaman Islands first end of May, then coast of Mainland India by end of June. The remainder of the year, the counterclockwise current is southwestward flowing, and the circulation pattern is called

17024-525: The dispute between India and Bangladesh was also settled in which the UN tribunal awarded Bangladesh 19,467 km of the 25,602 km sea area of the Bay of Bengal. The Bay of Bengal in the stretch of Swargadwar , the gateway to heaven in Sanskrit , in the Indian town of Puri is considered holy by Hindus . The Samudra arati is a daily tradition started by the present Shankaracharya of Puri 9 years ago to honour

17176-431: The early Miocene period. The three rivers currently contribute nearly 8% of the total organic carbon (TOC) deposited in the world's oceans. Due to high TOC accumulation in the deep sea bed of the Bay of Bengal, the area is rich in oil and natural gas and gas hydrate reserves. Bangladesh can reclaim land substantially and economically gain from the sea area by constructing sea dikes , bunds, causeways and by trapping

17328-733: The early 11th century, Mahmud of Ghazni conquered the Rajput Hindu Shahi kingdom in the North-west frontier in Afghanistan and Pakistan, and his raids into northern India weakened the Pratihara kingdom, which was drastically reduced in size and came under the control of the Chandelas . Mahmud sacked some temples across northern India, including the temple at Somnath in Gujarat, but his permanent conquests were limited to

17480-412: The earth is broken up into what are called tectonic plates . Underneath the Bay of Bengal, which is part of the great Indo-Australian Plate and is slowly moving north east. This plate meets the Burma Microplate at the Sunda Trench . The Nicobar Islands and the Andaman Islands are part of the Burma Microplate. The India Plate subducts beneath the Burma Plate at the Sunda Trench or Java Trench. Here,

17632-493: The east by Myanmar and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India. Its southern limit is a line between Sangaman Kanda , Sri Lanka, and the northwesternmost point of Sumatra , Indonesia. Cox's Bazar , the longest sea beach in the world and Sundarbans , the largest mangrove forest and the natural habitat of the Bengal tiger , are located along the bay. The Bay of Bengal occupies an area of 2,600,000 square kilometres (1,000,000 sq mi). A number of large rivers flow into

17784-537: The eastern extension of which is blocked by the Southeast Indian Ridge and the 90°E Ridge. Madagascar and the Southwest Indian Ridge separate three cells south of Madagascar and off South Africa. North Atlantic Deep Water reaches into the Indian Ocean south of Africa at a depth of 2,000–3,000 m (6,600–9,800 ft) and flows north along the eastern continental slope of Africa. Deeper than NADW, Antarctic Bottom Water flows from Enderby Basin to Agulhas Basin across deep channels (<4,000 m (13,000 ft)) in

17936-455: The forces of Babur in the first battle of Panipat in 1526, ending the sultanate and paving the way for the foundation of the Mughal Empire. After Babur's victory over Ibrahim Lodi, the Mewar ruler Rana Sanga led a combined Rajput army of 20,000 intending to defeat Babur and capture Delhi. The Rajput army defeated the combined armies of Mughals and Afghans in Battle of Bayana . The Mughals had superior artillery , which prevailed against

18088-409: The fortifications of Ayodhya . The Mahabharata describes various military techniques such as Chakravyuha used in the Kurukshetra War . The expansionist Emperor Bimbisara conquered Anga in what is now West Bengal and strengthened the military of Magadha 's capital, Rajagriha . Ajatashatru built a new fort at Pataliputra , Magadha's new capital, to launch an attack on Licchavis across

18240-432: The genre date from this period. According to some interpretations of the Puranas , the Satavahana family belonged to the Andhra-jati ("tribe") and was the first Deccanese dynasty to build an empire in daksinapatha (southern region). The Satavahanas (also called Andhra and Shalivahan) rose to power in modern Telangana , Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra around 200 BCE and remained in power for about 400 years. Almost

18392-453: The governor of Gujarat , established the Muzaffarid dynasty in 1391. It expanded rapidly and peaked under Sultan Mahmud I , who lost the Battle of Diu to the Portuguese in 1509. The dynasty power was greatly reduced by invasions from Mewar under Maharana Sanga . Ruled by the Zamorin , the small Hindu Nair kingdom of Calicut ( Malabar ) welcomed the Portuguese in 1498 as traders but then fought several naval wars with Portugal in

18544-474: The health of the Bay, that they can work on together. With the support of the Bay Of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem Project (BOBLME), the eight countries are now (2012) developing responses to these issues and their causes, for future implementation as the Strategic Action Programme. Fisheries production in the Bay of Bengal is six million tonnes per year, more than seven percent of the world's catch. The major transboundary issues relating to shared fisheries are:

18696-482: The high seas. The Bay of Bengal's connection of South Asia to East Asia has aided in Bangladesh's efficiency of distributing natural gas to the Asia Pacific. Its outlying islands (the Andaman and Nicobar Islands) and, most importantly, major ports such as Chittagong , Mongla , Payra , Paradip , Kolkata , Chennai , Visakhapatnam , and Tuticorin , along its coast with the Bay of Bengal added to its importance. China has recently made efforts to project influence into

18848-398: The island of Sri Lanka and the Coromandel coast to the head of the bay, and thence southwards through a strip embracing the Andaman and Nicobar islands, is bounded by the 100 fathom line of sea bottom; some 50 m. beyond this lies the 500-fathom limit. Opposite the mouth of the Ganges, however, the intervals between these depths are very much extended by deltaic influence. Swatch of No Ground

19000-436: The islands of the Indian Ocean are textbook cases of evolutionary processes; the dung beetles , day geckos , and lemurs are all examples of adaptive radiation . Many bones (250 bones per square metre) of recently extinct vertebrates have been found in the Mare aux Songes swamp in Mauritius, including bones of the Dodo bird ( Raphus cucullatus ) and Cylindraspis giant tortoise. An analysis of these remains suggests

19152-481: The margins of the Indian Ocean. The origin of this diversity is debated; the break-up of Gondwana can explain vicariance older than 100 mya, but the diversity on the younger, smaller islands must have required a Cenozoic dispersal from the rims of the Indian Ocean to the islands. A "reverse colonisation", from islands to continents, apparently occurred more recently; the chameleons , for example, first diversified on Madagascar and then colonised Africa. Several species on

19304-416: The mid-18th century, as opposed to the Western Ocean ( Atlantic ) before the Pacific was surmised. In modern times, the name Afro-Asian Ocean has occasionally been used. The Hindi name for the Ocean is हिंद महासागर ( Hind Mahāsāgar ; lit. transl.  Ocean of India ). Conversely, Chinese explorers (e.g., Zheng He during the Ming dynasty ) who traveled to the Indian Ocean during

19456-400: The monsoon. Two large gyres , one in the northern hemisphere flowing clockwise and one south of the equator moving anticlockwise (including the Agulhas Current and Agulhas Return Current ), constitute the dominant flow pattern. During the winter monsoon (November–February), however, circulation is reversed north of 30°S and winds are weakened during winter and the transitional periods between

19608-438: The monsoons. The Indian Ocean contains the largest submarine fans of the world, the Bengal Fan and Indus Fan , and the largest areas of slope terraces and rift valleys . The inflow of deep water into the Indian Ocean is 11  Sv , most of which comes from the Circumpolar Deep Water (CDW). The CDW enters the Indian Ocean through the Crozet and Madagascar basins and crosses the Southwest Indian Ridge at 30°S. In

19760-556: The most degraded hotspots where only c. 5 % of the original habitat remains. Military history of India#Maurya Empire The armed forces succeeded the military of British India following India's independence in 1947 . After World War II , many of the wartime troops were discharged and units disbanded. The reduced armed forces were partitioned between India and Pakistan . The Indian Armed Forces fought in all four wars against Pakistan , and two wars against People's Republic of China in 1962 and 1967 . India also fought in

19912-475: The most productive ecosystems of the Indian Ocean — coastal areas produce 20 tones of fish per square kilometre. These areas, however, are also being urbanised with populations often exceeding several thousand people per square kilometre and fishing techniques become more effective and often destructive beyond sustainable levels while the increase in sea surface temperature spreads coral bleaching. Mangroves covers 80,984 km (31,268 sq mi) in

20064-409: The northern end while the Laccadive Sea separates the Maldives from the southern tip of India. The Bay of Bengal is off the east coast of India. The Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Strait separate Sri Lanka from India, while Adam's Bridge separates the two. The Andaman Sea is located between the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Islands. In Indonesia, the so-called Indonesian Seaway is composed of

20216-400: The northern part of Sunda Trench off Myanmar and the Andaman Islands , the accretionary wedge associated with subduction of the Indo-Australian Plate beneath the Sunda Plate and continues along the west side of the Ninety East Ridge . The Nicobar Fan, another lobe of the fan, lies east of the Ninety East Ridge. The fan is now being explored as a possible source of fossil fuels for

20368-428: The northwest. Skandagupta had warred against the Huns during the reign of his father, and was celebrated throughout the empire as a great warrior. He crushed the Huns invasion in 455, and managed to keep them at bay; however, the expense of the wars drained the empire's resources and contributed to its decline Emperor Harsha (606–647) ruled the Empire of Harsha covering northern India for over forty years. His father,

20520-405: The pressure of the two plates on each other increase pressure and temperature resulting in the formation of volcanoes such as the volcanoes in Myanmar , and a volcanic arc called the Sunda Arc . The Sumatra-Andaman earthquake and Asian tsunami was a result of the pressure at this zone causing a submarine earthquake which then resulted in a destructive tsunami. A zone 50 m wide extending from

20672-416: The region include the effects of climate change , piracy, and strategic disputes over island territories. The Indian Ocean has been known by its present name since at least 1515, when the Latin form Oceanus Orientalis Indicus ( lit.   ' Indian Eastern Ocean ' ) is attested, named after India, which projects into it. It was earlier known as the Eastern Ocean , a term that was still in use during

20824-424: The region through tie-ups with Myanmar and Bangladesh. The United States has held major exercises with Bangladesh, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand and recently India. The largest ever wargame in Bay of Bengal, known as Malabar 2007, was held in 2007 and naval warships from the United States, India, Singapore, Japan and Australia took part. Large deposits of natural gas in the areas within Bangladesh's sea zone incited

20976-442: The sediment from its rivers. Further southwest of Bengal , the Mahanadi , Godavari , Krishna and Kaveri Rivers also flow from west to east across Deccan Plateau in Peninsular India and drain into the Bay of Bengal forming deltas . Many small rivers also drain directly into the Bay of Bengal forming estuaries ; the shortest of them is the Cooum River at 64 km (40 mi). While Myanmar's Irrawaddy River flows into

21128-535: The surrounding developing nations . The fan was first identified by bathymetric survey in the sixties by Bruce C. Heezen and Marie Tharp which identified the abyssal cone and canyon structures. It was delineated and named by Joseph Curray and David Moore following a geological and geophysical survey in 1968. Coastal regions bordering the Bay of Bengal are rich in minerals. Sri Lanka, Serendib , or Ratna – Dweepa which means Gem Island. Amethyst , beryl , ruby , sapphire , topaz , and garnet are just some of

21280-506: The terms of their peace treaty. Between 1512 and 1514, Krishnadevaraya subjugated the Palaigar of Ummattur , who had rebelled against his brother. During this campaign, the Gajapati of Odisha attacked Vijayanagara and occupied two northeast provinces: Udayagiri and Kondavidu . Krishnadevaraya recaptured these lands between 1513 and 1518. On 26 January 1565, the neighboring kingdoms of Ahmednagar , Berar , Bidar , Bijapur and Golconda Sultanates came together to treacherously defeat

21432-429: The time of the Guptas, as they had not proved very useful against the Greeks , Scythians , and other invaders. Guptas used famously used cavalry archers, and it became the prestige arm of the military as evidenced by coinage. Heavy cavalry clad in mail armour and equipped with maces and lances would have used shock action to break the enemy line. They also employed infantry similar to previous periods: Archers with

21584-400: The timeline of history. Coral reefs, tsunamis, cyclones, mangrove swamps, battles, and a criss-cross of sea routes in a high trading area combined with piracy have all contributed to shipwrecks in the Bay of Bengal. In chronological order: One of the first trading ventures along the Bay of Bengal was The Company of Merchants of London Trading into the East Indies, more commonly referred to as

21736-415: The ventilation of the Indian Ocean thermocline . That continent also drives the Indian Ocean monsoon , the strongest on Earth, which causes large-scale seasonal variations in ocean currents, including the reversal of the Somali Current and Indian Monsoon Current . Because of the Indian Ocean Walker circulation there are no continuous equatorial easterlies. Upwelling occurs near the Horn of Africa and

21888-542: The west and the south. He was succeeded by Satakarni I, who defeated the Shunga dynasty of North India. His successor, Gautamiputra Satakarni , defeated the invading Indo-Scythians , Indo-Parthians and Indo-Greeks . His empire extended up to Banavasi in the south, and included Maharashtra, Konkan , Saurashtra , Malwa , west Rajasthan and Vidharbha. Later, Satavahana rulers lost some of these territories. Satavahana power revived briefly under Yajna Sri Satakarni but declined after his death. The Mahameghavahana dynasty

22040-423: The whole of present-day Telangana , Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh , Chhattisgarh, Odisha , Goa, Karnataka , and Andhra Pradesh came under Satavahana rule. Their first capital was Koti Lingala , as well as Paithan , then called Pratishthan. Simuka , the dynasty's founder, conquered Maharashtra , Malwa and part of Madhya Pradesh . His successor and brother Kanha (or Krishna) further extended his kingdom to

22192-458: The world where moats have been discovered. These forts also feature square and round bastion and contain a citadel constructed at an elevated height. Sites such as Mohenjo Daro and Dholavira exhibit some outstanding examples of Bronze Age Indian fortifications with their thick tall walls, with the walls made of burned bricks at some places solid mud-brick embankment have been discovered which run for twenty five feet (7.5 meters) without reaching

22344-417: The world. Long-term ocean temperature records show a rapid, continuous warming in the Indian Ocean, at about 1.2 °C (34.2 °F) (compared to 0.7 °C (33.3 °F) for the warm pool region) during 1901–2012. Research indicates that human induced greenhouse warming , and changes in the frequency and magnitude of El Niño (or the Indian Ocean Dipole ), events are a trigger to this strong warming in

22496-506: Was a stronghold for Portuguese Pirates. In the 16th century, the Portuguese built trading posts in the north of the Bay of Bengal at Chittagong (Porto Grande) and Satgaon (Porto Pequeno). The earliest sign of Muslims in the region came from the textile trade routes where one targeted the east Arabian Sea influencing migration of Arabs and Persians and another to the west causing Buddhist Bengalis to culturally mix with Islam. In alphabetical order: Maritime archaeology or marine archaeology

22648-613: Was an ancient ruling dynasty of Kalinga after the decline of the Mauryan Empire. The third ruler of the dynasty, Khārabēḷa , conquered much of India in a series of campaigns at the beginning of the common era. Kaḷingan military might was reinstated by Khārabēḷa. Under Khārabēḷa's generalship, the Kaḷinga state had a formidable maritime reach with trade routes linking it to the then-Simhala (Sri Lanka), Burma (Myanmar), Siam (Thailand), Vietnam, Kamboja (Cambodia), Borneo, Bali, Samudra (Sumatra) and Yawadvipa (Java). Khārabēḷa led many successful campaigns against states of Magadha, Anga, Satavahanas and

22800-405: Was called Niyayam-Uttama-Chola-tterinda-andalakattalar . Paluvettaraiyar Maravan Kandanar served as a general under Uttama and his predecessor, Sundara . Rajaraja Chola began his military career with the conquest of the Cheras in the Kandalur War . He captured the Pandya ruler Amara Bhujanga, the town of Vizhinjam , and a part of Sri Lanka. In the 14th year of his reign (998–999) he conquered

22952-439: Was most commonly known as Kalinga Sagar ( Kalinga Sea). Another name commonly used mainly in Tamil was Vanga Kadal. Northern Circars occupied the western coast of the Bay of Bengal and is now considered to be India's Odisha and Andhra Pradesh state. Chola dynasty (9th century to 12th century) when ruled by Rajaraja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I occupied and controlled the Bay of Bengal with Chola Navy circa AD 1014 ,

23104-440: Was ruled by Raja Dahir of the Rai dynasty , and this dynasty was at war with Arabs. Though they defeated several Arab invasions before 712 CE, this time being deprived of local Buddhist people's support, Sindh was captured and the first step of Islamic foundation in India was created. Chach Nama ( Sindhi : چچ نامو ), written by Kàzí Ismáíl briefly discusses the events. However, the South Indian emperor Vikramaditya II of

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