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171-512: Until the mid-19th century, all vessels' masts were made of wood formed from a single or several pieces of timber which typically consisted of the trunk of a conifer tree. From the 16th century, vessels were often built of a size requiring masts taller and thicker than from single tree trunks. On these larger vessels, to achieve the required height, the masts were built from up to four sections (also called masts). From lowest to highest, these were called: lower, top, topgallant, and royal masts. Giving

342-604: A fossil record extending back about 300 million years to the Paleozoic in the late Carboniferous period; even many of the modern genera are recognizable from fossils 60–120 million years old. Other classes and orders, now long extinct, also occur as fossils, particularly from the late Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras. Fossil conifers included many diverse forms, the most dramatically distinct from modern conifers being some herbaceous conifers with no woody stems. Major fossil orders of conifers or conifer-like plants include

513-516: A massive and concerted campaign , Pompey cleared the seas of the pirates in only three months. Afterwards, the fleet was reduced again to policing duties against intermittent piracy. In 56 BC, for the first time a Roman fleet engaged in battle outside the Mediterranean. This occurred during Julius Caesar 's Gallic Wars , when the maritime tribe of the Veneti rebelled against Rome. Against

684-697: A sister group to Pinales (the 'gnepine' hypothesis) or as being more derived than Pinales but sister to the rest of the group. Most recent studies favor the 'gnepine' hypothesis. The earliest conifers appear in the fossil record during the Late Carboniferous ( Pennsylvanian ), over 300 million years ago. Conifers are thought to be most closely related to the Cordaitales , a group of extinct Carboniferous-Permian trees and clambering plants whose reproductive structures had some similarities to those of conifers. The most primitive conifers belong to

855-654: A campaign on the Arabian Peninsula. Aelius Gallus , the prefect of Egypt ordered the construction of 130 transports and subsequently carried 10,000 soldiers to Arabia. But the following march through the desert towards Yemen failed and the plans for control of the Arabian peninsula had to be abandoned. At the other end of the Empire, in Germania , the navy played an important role in the supply and transport of

1026-410: A century later, the simple box form of mast was arrived at. Although sailing ships were superseded by engine-powered ships in the 19th century, recreational sailing ships and yachts continue to be designed and constructed. In the 1930s aluminum masts were introduced on large J-class yachts . An aluminum mast has considerable advantages over a wooden one: it is lighter and slimmer than a wooden one of

1197-701: A costly victory for the Pergamene– Rhodian alliance, but the Macedonian fleet lost many warships, including its flagship, a deceres . Soon after, Pergamon and Rhodes appealed to Rome for help, and the Republic was drawn into the Second Macedonian War . In view of the massive Roman naval superiority, the war was fought on land, with the Macedonian fleet, already weakened at Chios, not daring to venture out of its anchorage at Demetrias . After

1368-730: A disastrous storm. By 28, the Romans lost further control of the Rhine mouth in a succession of Frisian insurgencies. From 43 to 85, the Roman navy played an important role in the Roman conquest of Britain . The classis Germanica rendered outstanding services in multitudinous landing operations. In 46, a naval expedition made a push deep into the Black Sea region and even travelled on the Tanais . In 47

1539-422: A female multicellular gametophyte. The female gametophytes grow to produce two or more archegonia , each of which contains an egg. Upon fertilization, the diploid egg will give rise to the embryo, and a seed is produced. The female cone then opens, releasing the seeds which grow to a young seedling . Conifer reproduction is synchronous with seasonal changes in temperate zones. Reproductive development slows to

1710-399: A female cone and are drawn into a tiny opening on the ovule called the micropyle . It is within the ovule that pollen-germination occurs. From here, a pollen tube seeks out the female gametophyte, which contains archegonia each with an egg, and if successful, fertilization occurs. The resulting zygote develops into an embryo , which along with the female gametophyte (nutritional material for

1881-438: A few are shrubs . Examples include cedars , Douglas-firs , cypresses , firs , junipers , kauri , larches , pines , hemlocks , redwoods , spruces , and yews . As of 2002, Pinophyta contained seven families, 60 to 65 genera, and more than 600 living species. Although the total number of species is relatively small, conifers are ecologically important. They are the dominant plants over large areas of land, most notably

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2052-546: A few notable companies are Hall Spars, Offshore Spars, and Southern Spars. After the end of the age of sail , warships retained masts, initially as observation posts and to observe fall of shot , also holding fire control equipment such as rangefinders , and later as a mounting point for radar and telecommunication antennas, which need to be mounted high up to increase range. Simple pole, lattice , and tripod masts have been used—also, on some past Japanese warships, complex pagoda masts . Conifer Conifers are

2223-469: A fundamental transformation in Mediterranean navigation: the lateen which had long evolved on smaller Greco-Roman craft replaced the square rig , the chief sail type of the ancients, that practically disappeared from the record until the 14th century (while it remained dominant in northern Europe). The dromon , the lateen-rigged and oared bireme of the Byzantine navy , almost certainly had two masts,

2394-492: A group of cone-bearing seed plants , a subset of gymnosperms . Scientifically, they make up the division Pinophyta ( / p ɪ ˈ n ɒ f ɪ t ə , ˈ p aɪ n oʊ f aɪ t ə / ), also known as Coniferophyta ( / ˌ k ɒ n ɪ f ə ˈ r ɒ f ɪ t ə , - oʊ f aɪ t ə / ) or Coniferae . The division contains a single extant class , Pinopsida . All extant conifers are perennial woody plants with secondary growth . The great majority are trees , though

2565-665: A halt during each winter season and then resumes each spring. The male strobilus development is completed in a single year. Conifers are classified by three reproductive cycles that refer to the completion of female strobilus development from initiation to seed maturation. All three types of reproductive cycle have a long gap between pollination and fertilization . One year reproductive cycle : The genera include Abies , Picea , Cedrus , Pseudotsuga , Tsuga , Keteleeria ( Pinaceae ) and Cupressus , Thuja , Cryptomeria , Cunninghamia and Sequoia ( Cupressaceae ) . Female strobili are initiated in late summer or fall of

2736-591: A larger foremast and one midships. Their length has been estimated at 12 m and 8 m respectively, somewhat smaller than the Sicilian war galleys of the time. Multiple-masted sailing ships were reintroduced into the Mediterranean Sea by the Late Middle Ages . Large vessels were coming more and more into use and the need for additional masts to control these ships adequately grew with

2907-453: A maritime background such as Greeks, Phoenicians, Syrians and Egyptians, formed the bulk of the fleets' crews. During the early Principate, a ship's crew, regardless of its size, was organized as a centuria . Crewmen could sign on as marines , rowers/seamen, craftsmen and various other jobs, though all personnel serving in the imperial fleet were classed as milites ("soldiers"), regardless of their function; only when differentiation with

3078-413: A maximum of energy from weak sunshine at high latitudes or under forest canopy shade. Conifers from hotter areas with high sunlight levels (e.g. Turkish pine Pinus brutia ) often have yellower-green leaves, while others (e.g. blue spruce , Picea pungens ) may develop blue or silvery leaves to reflect ultraviolet light. In the great majority of genera the leaves are evergreen , usually remaining on

3249-880: A needle-like appearance, but others, including most of the Cupressaceae and some of the Podocarpaceae , have flat, triangular scale-like leaves. Some, notably Agathis in Araucariaceae and Nageia in Podocarpaceae, have broad, flat strap-shaped leaves. Others such as Araucaria columnaris have leaves that are awl-shaped. In the majority of conifers, the leaves are arranged spirally, the exceptions being most of Cupressaceae and one genus in Podocarpaceae, where they are arranged in decussate opposite pairs or whorls of 3 (−4). In many species with spirally arranged leaves, such as Abies grandis (pictured),

3420-696: A new fleet was built, this revolt was subdued. During the Batavian rebellion of Gaius Julius Civilis (69–70), the rebels got hold of a squadron of the Rhine fleet by treachery, and the conflict featured frequent use of the Roman Rhine flotilla. In the last phase of the war, the British fleet and legio XIV were brought in from Britain to attack the Batavian coast, but the Cananefates , allies of

3591-479: A number of principales (junior officers) and immunes (specialists exempt from certain duties). Some of these positions, mostly administrative, were identical to those of the army auxiliaries, while some (mostly of Greek provenance) were peculiar to the fleet. An inscription from the island of Cos , dated to the First Mithridatic War , provides us with a list of a ship's officers, the nautae :

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3762-537: A prestige object commissioned by king Hiero II of Syracuse and devised by the polymath Archimedes around 240 BC, and other Syracusan merchant ships of the time. The imperial grain freighters travelling the routes between Alexandria and Rome also included three-masted vessels. A mosaic in Ostia (c. 200 AD) depicts a freighter with a three-masted rig entering Rome's harbour. Special craft could carry many more masts: Theophrastus ( Hist. Plant. 5.8.2) records how

3933-402: A protective cone called a strobilus . The cones take from four months to three years to reach maturity, and vary in size from 2 to 600 millimetres ( 1 ⁄ 8 to 23 + 5 ⁄ 8  in) long. In Pinaceae , Araucariaceae , Sciadopityaceae and most Cupressaceae , the cones are woody , and when mature the scales usually spread open allowing the seeds to fall out and be dispersed by

4104-644: A revolt by the Chauci , who took to piratical activities along the Gallic coast, was subdued by Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo . By 57 an expeditionary corps reached Chersonesos (see Charax, Crimea ). It seems that under Nero , the navy obtained strategically important positions for trading with India; but there was no known fleet in the Red Sea . Possibly, parts of the Alexandrian fleet were operating as escorts for

4275-487: A serious environmental issue causing problems for pastoral farming and for conservation . Radiata pine was introduced to Australia in the 1870s. It is "the dominant tree species in the Australian plantation estate" – so much so that many Australians are concerned by the resulting loss of native wildlife habitat. The species is widely regarded as an environmental weed across southeastern and southwestern Australia and

4446-414: A similar position in the legions. Merchant vessels were commanded by the magister navis . If privately owned, the owner was called exercitor navis . The modern term of " master " to designate a captain of a merchant vessel derives from the magister navis . During the Republic, command of a fleet was given to a serving magistrate or promagistrate , usually of consular or praetorian rank. In

4617-406: A single white spruce tree from 1926 to 1961. Apical growth of the stem was slow from 1926 through 1936 when the tree was competing with herbs and shrubs and probably shaded by larger trees. Lateral branches began to show reduced growth and some were no longer in evidence on the 36-year-old tree. Apical growth totaling about 340 m, 370 m, 420 m, 450 m, 500 m, 600 m, and 600 m was made by the tree in

4788-465: A sizable foresail rigged on a slightly inclined foremast is depicted in an Etruscan tomb painting from 475 to 450 BC. An artemon ( Greek for foresail) almost the same size as the galley 's mainsail can be found on a Corinthian krater as early as the late 6th century BC; apart from that Greek longships are uniformly shown without it until the 4th century BC. In the East, ancient Indian Kingdoms like

4959-477: A sizeable complement of heavier warships, ranging from "sixes" to "tens" (Gk. dekērēs ). Later historical tradition made much of the prevalence of lighter and swifter vessels in Octavian's fleet, with Vegetius even explicitly ascribing Octavian's victory to the liburnians. This prominence of lighter craft in the historical narrative is perhaps best explained in light of subsequent developments. After Actium,

5130-512: A skilled and experienced crew and a fast and agile ship like a trireme or quinquereme. In the Hellenistic period, the larger navies came instead to rely on greater vessels. This had several advantages: the heavier and sturdier construction lessened the effects of ramming, and the greater space and stability of the vessels allowed the transport not only of more marines, but also the placement of deck-mounted ballistae and catapults . Although

5301-434: A steel mast of an equivalent strength can be smaller in diameter than an aluminum mast, allowing less turbulence and a better airflow onto the sail. From the mid-1990s racing yachts introduced the use of carbon fibre and other composite materials to construct masts with even better strength-to-weight ratios. Carbon fibre masts could also be constructed with more precisely engineered aerodynamic profiles. Modern masts form

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5472-469: A useful guide by which to assess the adequacy of particular nutrients, and the ratios among the major nutrients are helpful guides to nutritional imbalances. The softwood derived from conifers is of great economic value, providing about 45% of the world's annual lumber production. Other uses of the timber include the production of paper and plastic from chemically treated wood pulp. Some conifers also provide foods such as pine nuts and juniper berries ,

5643-591: A year, then they overwinter. Female strobili emerge followed by pollination in the following spring. Fertilization takes place in summer of the following year, only 3–4 months after pollination. Cones mature and seeds are then shed by the end of that same year. Pollination and fertilization occur in a single growing season. Two-year reproductive cycle : The genera includes Widdringtonia , Sequoiadendron ( Cupressaceae ) and most species of Pinus . Female strobilus initials are formed in late summer or fall then overwinter. Female strobili emerge and receive pollen in

5814-446: Is a coast redwood ( Sequoia sempervirens ), with a height of 115.55 metres (although one mountain ash, Eucalyptus regnans , allegedly grew to a height of 140 metres, the tallest living angiosperms are significantly smaller at around 100 metres. ) The thickest (that is, the tree with the greatest trunk diameter ) is a Montezuma cypress ( Taxodium mucronatum ), 11.42 metres in diameter. The largest tree by three-dimensional volume

5985-418: Is a giant sequoia ( Sequoiadendron giganteum ), with a volume 1486.9 cubic metres. The smallest is the pygmy pine ( Lepidothamnus laxifolius ) of New Zealand, which is seldom taller than 30 cm when mature. The oldest non-clonal living tree is a Great Basin bristlecone pine ( Pinus longaeva ), 4,700 years old. Since most conifers are evergreens, the leaves of many conifers are long, thin and have

6156-407: Is evidence of Roman warships in the early 4th century BC, such as mention of a warship that carried an embassy to Delphi in 394 BC, but at any rate, the Roman fleet, if it existed, was negligible. The traditional birth date of the Roman navy is set at ca. 311 BC, when, after the conquest of Campania , two new officials, the duumviri navales classis ornandae reficiendaeque causa , were tasked with

6327-450: Is possible that the supervision of these maritime allies was one of the duties of the four new praetores classici , who were established in 267 BC. The first Roman expedition outside mainland Italy was against the island of Sicily in 265 BC. This led to the outbreak of hostilities with Carthage , which would last until 241 BC. At the time, the Punic city was the unchallenged master of

6498-402: Is probably: first to apical growth and new needle formation, then to buds for the next year's growth, with the cambium in the older parts of the branches receiving sustenance last. In the white spruce studied by Fraser et al. (1964), the needles constituted 17.5% of the over-day weight. Undoubtedly, the proportions change with time. Wind and animal dispersals are two major mechanisms involved in

6669-510: Is remembered for the ingenious inventions of Archimedes , such as mirrors that burned ships or the so-called " Claw of Archimedes ", which kept the besieging army at bay for two years. A fleet of 160 vessels was assembled to support Scipio Africanus ' army in Africa in 202 BC, and, should his expedition fail, evacuate his men. In the event, Scipio achieved a decisive victory at Zama , and the subsequent peace stripped Carthage of its fleet. Rome

6840-432: Is the whitespotted sawyer ( Monochamus scutellatus ). Adults are found in summer on newly fallen or recently felled trees chewing tiny slits in the bark in which they lay eggs. The eggs hatch in about two weeks and the tiny larvae tunnel to the wood and score its surface with their feeding channels. With the onset of cooler weather, they bore into the wood, making oval entrance holes and tunnelling deeply. Feeding continues

7011-430: Is the mainmast. This contrasts with a ketch or a yawl , where the after mast, and its principal sail, is clearly the smaller of the two, so the terminology is (from forward) mainmast and mizzen. (In a yawl, the term "jigger" is occasionally used for the aftermast.) Some two-masted luggers have a fore-mast and a mizzen-mast – there is no main-mast. This is because these traditional types used to have three masts, but it

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7182-545: The Völkerwanderung crashed on the land frontiers of the battered Empire, the navy could only play a secondary role. In the early 5th century, the Roman frontiers were breached, and barbarian kingdoms appeared on the shores of the western Mediterranean. One of them, the Vandal Kingdom with its capital at Carthage , raised a navy of its own and raided the shores of the Mediterranean, even sacking Rome , while

7353-453: The gubernator ( kybernētēs in Greek) was the helmsman or pilot, the celeusta ( keleustēs in Greek) supervised the rowers, a proreta ( prōreus in Greek) was the look-out stationed at the bow, a pentacontarchos was apparently a junior officer, and an iatros (Lat. medicus ), the ship's doctor. Each ship was commanded by a trierarchus , whose exact relationship with

7524-757: The Aetolian League and later the Kingdom of Pergamon , but a combined Roman–Pergamene fleet of ca. 60 ships patrolled the Aegean until the war's end in 205 BC. In this conflict, Rome, still embroiled in the Punic War, was not interested in expanding her possessions, but rather in thwarting the growth of Philip's power in Greece. The war ended in an effective stalemate, and was renewed in 201 BC, when Philip V invaded Asia Minor . A naval battle off Chios ended in

7695-663: The Battle of Actium in 31 BC, where Antony had assembled 500 ships against Octavian's 400 ships. This last naval battle of the Roman Republic definitively established Octavian as the sole ruler over Rome and the Mediterranean world. In the aftermath of his victory, he formalized the Fleet's structure, establishing several key harbors in the Mediterranean (see below). The now fully professional navy had its main duties consist of protecting against piracy, escorting troops and patrolling

7866-521: The Battle of the Lipari Islands in 260 BC, was a defeat for Rome, the forces involved were relatively small. Through the use of the Corvus , the fledgling Roman navy under Gaius Duilius won its first major engagement later that year at the Battle of Mylae . During the course of the war, Rome continued to be victorious at sea: victories at Sulci (258 BC) and Tyndaris (257 BC) were followed by

8037-623: The Cephalotaxaceae may be better included within the Taxaceae, and some authors additionally recognize Phyllocladaceae as distinct from Podocarpaceae (in which it is included here). The family Taxodiaceae is here included in the family Cupressaceae, but was widely recognized in the past and can still be found in many field guides. A new classification and linear sequence based on molecular data can be found in an article by Christenhusz et al. The conifers are an ancient group, with

8208-583: The Cordaitales , Vojnovskyales , Voltziales and perhaps also the Czekanowskiales (possibly more closely related to the Ginkgophyta ). Pinaceae Araucariaceae Podocarpaceae Sciadopityaceae Cupressaceae Cephalotaxaceae Taxaceae Multiple studies also indicate that the Gnetophyta belong within the conifers despite their distinct appearances, either placing them as

8379-587: The English Channel , in the next years Caesar used this newly built fleet to carry out two invasions of Britain . The last major campaigns of the Roman navy in the Mediterranean until the late 3rd century AD would be in the civil wars that ended the Republic. In the East, the Republican faction quickly established its control, and Rhodes, the last independent maritime power in the Aegean, was subdued by Gaius Cassius Longinus in 43 BC, after its fleet

8550-796: The Euphrates and Tigris rivers was founded. Also during the wars against the Marcomanni confederation under Marcus Aurelius several combats took place on the Danube and the Tisza . Under the aegis of the Severan dynasty , the only known military operations of the navy were carried out under Septimius Severus , using naval assistance on his campaigns along the Euphrates and Tigris , as well as in Scotland . Thereby Roman ships reached inter alia

8721-524: The Greeks and the Egyptians , to build their ships. Because of that, the navy was never completely embraced by the Roman state, and deemed somewhat "un-Roman". In antiquity, navies and trading fleets did not have the logistical autonomy that modern ships and fleets possess, and unlike modern naval forces, the Roman navy even at its height never existed as an autonomous service but operated as an adjunct to

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8892-606: The Kalinga from as early as 2nd century are believed to have commanded naval sail ships. One of the earliest documented evidence of Indian sail building comes from the mural of the three-masted ship in Ajanta caves that date back to 400–500 CE. The foremast became fairly common on Roman galleys , where, inclined at an angle of 45°, it was more akin to a bowsprit , and the foresail set on it, reduced in size, seems to be used rather as an aid to steering than for propulsion. While most of

9063-743: The Mesozoic era. Modern groups of conifers emerged from the Voltziales during the Late Permian through Jurassic . Conifers underwent a major decline in the Late Cretaceous corresponding to the explosive adaptive radiation of flowering plants . All living conifers are woody plants, and most are trees, the majority having a monopodial growth form (a single, straight trunk with side branches) with strong apical dominance . Many conifers have distinctly scented resin , secreted to protect

9234-602: The Persian Gulf and the top of the British Isles . As the 3rd century dawned, the Roman Empire was at its peak. In the Mediterranean, peace had reigned for over two centuries, as piracy had been wiped out and no outside naval threats occurred. As a result, complacency had set in: naval tactics and technology were neglected, and the Roman naval system had become moribund. After 230 however and for fifty years,

9405-452: The Rhine and the Danube for supplying the army. On the fringes of the Empire, in new conquests or, increasingly, in defense against barbarian invasions, the Roman fleets were still engaged in open warfare. The decline of the Empire in the 3rd century took a heavy toll on the navy, which was reduced to a shadow of its former self, both in size and in combat ability. As successive waves of

9576-671: The Roman army . During the course of the First Punic War , the Roman navy was massively expanded and played a vital role in the Roman victory and the Roman Republic 's eventual ascension to hegemony in the Mediterranean Sea . In the course of the first half of the 2nd century BC, Rome went on to destroy Carthage and subdue the Hellenistic kingdoms of the eastern Mediterranean, achieving complete mastery of

9747-542: The Romans imported Corsican timber by way of a huge raft propelled by as many as fifty masts and sails. Throughout antiquity , both foresail and mizzen remained secondary in terms of canvas size, although large enough to require full running rigging . In late antiquity , the foremast lost most of its tilt, standing nearly upright on some ships. By the onset of the Early Middle Ages , rigging had undergone

9918-600: The Shetland Islands . There is some speculation about a Roman landing in Ireland, based on Tacitus reports about Agricola contemplating the island's conquest, but no conclusive evidence to support this theory has been found. Under the Five Good Emperors the navy operated mainly on the rivers; so it played an important role during Trajan 's conquest of Dacia and temporarily an independent fleet for

10089-522: The Tarentines . This situation continued until the First Punic War : the main task of the Roman fleet was patrolling along the Italian coast and rivers, protecting seaborne trade from piracy. Whenever larger tasks had to be undertaken, such as the naval blockade of a besieged city, the Romans called on the allied Greek cities of southern Italy, the socii navales , to provide ships and crews. It

10260-593: The Trajan's Dacian Wars or Salamina for the Battle of Salamis ). They were distinguished by their figurehead ( insigne or parasemum ), and, during the Civil Wars at least, by the paint schemes on their turrets, which varied according to each fleet. In classical antiquity , a ship's main weapon was the ram ( rostra , hence the name navis rostrata for a warship), which was used to sink or immobilize an enemy ship by holing its hull. Its use, however, required

10431-460: The influence of environmental conditions, their anatomical characteristics record growth rate changes produced by these changing conditions. The microscopic structure of conifer wood consists of two types of cells : parenchyma , which have an oval or polyhedral shape with approximately identical dimensions in three directions, and strongly elongated tracheids. Tracheids make up more than 90% of timber volume. The tracheids of earlywood formed at

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10602-656: The legions . In 15 BC an independent fleet was installed at the Lake Constance . Later, the generals Drusus and Tiberius used the Navy extensively, when they tried to extend the Roman frontier to the Elbe . In 12 BC Drusus ordered the construction of a fleet of 1,000 ships and sailed them along the Rhine into the North Sea . The Frisii and Chauci had nothing to oppose the superior numbers, tactics and technology of

10773-441: The liburnians and the hemiolia , both swift types invented by pirates, were also adopted as scouts and light transport vessels. During the final confrontation between Octavian and Mark Antony, Octavian's fleet was composed of quinqueremes, together with some "sixes" and many triremes and liburnians, while Antony, who had the resources of Ptolemaic Egypt to draw upon, fielded a fleet also mostly composed of quinqueremes, but with

10944-517: The massive Battle of Cape Ecnomus , where the Roman fleet under the consuls Marcus Atilius Regulus and Lucius Manlius inflicted a severe defeat on the Carthaginians. This string of successes allowed Rome to push the war further across the sea to Africa and Carthage itself. Continued Roman success also meant that their navy gained significant experience, although it also suffered a number of catastrophic losses due to storms, while conversely,

11115-419: The pintle -and- gudgeon rudder , all advanced ship design technology necessary for the great transoceanic voyages was in place by the beginning of the 15th century. The first hollow mast was fitted on the American sloop Maria in 1845, 28 m (92 ft) long and built of staves bound with iron hoops like a barrel. Other hollow masts were made from two tapered timbers hollowed and glued together. Nearly

11286-414: The taiga of the Northern Hemisphere , but also in similar cool climates in mountains further south. Boreal conifers have many wintertime adaptations. The narrow conical shape of northern conifers, and their downward-drooping limbs, help them shed snow. Many of them seasonally alter their biochemistry to make them more resistant to freezing. While tropical rainforests have more biodiversity and turnover,

11457-402: The wind . In some (e.g. firs and cedars ), the cones disintegrate to release the seeds, and in others (e.g. the pines that produce pine nuts ) the nut-like seeds are dispersed by birds (mainly nutcrackers , and jays ), which break up the specially adapted softer cones. Ripe cones may remain on the plant for a varied amount of time before falling to the ground; in some fire-adapted pines,

11628-414: The " Year of the four emperors ", the praetorian fleets supported Emperor Otho against the usurper Vitellius , and after his eventual victory, Vespasian formed another legion, legio II Adiutrix , from their ranks. Only in the Pontus did Anicetus , the commander of the Classis Pontica , support Vitellius. He burned the fleet, and sought refuge with the Iberian tribes, engaging in piracy. After

11799-409: The 16 nutrient elements known to be essential to plants, 13 of which are obtained from the soil, including nitrogen , phosphorus , potassium , calcium , magnesium , and sulfur , all used in relatively large amounts. Nutrient concentrations in conifers also vary with season, age, and kind of tissue sampled, and analytical technique. The ranges of concentrations occurring in well-grown plants provide

11970-682: The 6th century, a standing navy was reformed. The East Roman (Byzantine) navy would remain a formidable force in the Mediterranean until the 11th century. The bulk of a galley's crew was formed by the rowers, the remiges (sing. remex ) or eretai (sing. eretēs ) in Greek. Despite popular perceptions, the Roman fleet, and ancient fleets in general, relied throughout their existence on rowers of free status, and not on galley slaves . Slaves were employed only in times of pressing manpower demands or extreme emergency, and even then, they were freed first. In Imperial times, non- citizen freeborn provincials ( peregrini ), chiefly from nations with

12141-410: The Batavians, were able to destroy or capture a large part of the fleet. In the meantime, the new Roman commander, Quintus Petillius Cerialis , advanced north and constructed a new fleet. Civilis attempted only a short encounter with his own fleet, but could not hinder the superior Roman force from landing and ravaging the island of the Batavians , leading to the negotiation of a peace soon after. In

12312-670: The Black Sea. These invasions began during the rule of Trebonianus Gallus , when for the first time Germanic tribes built up their own powerful fleet in the Black Sea. Via two surprise attacks (256) on Roman naval bases in the Caucasus and near the Danube , numerous ships fell into the hands of the Germans, whereupon the raids were extended as far as the Aegean Sea ; Byzantium , Athens , Sparta and other towns were plundered and

12483-467: The Carthaginian navy suffered from attrition. The Battle of Drepana in 249 BC resulted in the only major Carthaginian sea victory, forcing the Romans to equip a new fleet from donations by private citizens. In the last battle of the war, at Aegates Islands in 241 BC, the Romans under Gaius Lutatius Catulus displayed superior seamanship to the Carthaginians, notably using their rams rather than

12654-543: The Channel, and in 296, with a concentric attack on Londinium the insurgent province was retaken. By the end of the 3rd century, the Roman navy had declined dramatically. Although Emperor Diocletian is held to have strengthened the navy, and increased its manpower from 46,000 to 64,000 men, the old standing fleets had all but vanished, and in the civil wars that ended the Tetrarchy , the opposing sides had to mobilize

12825-485: The East however, the Romans did not rely on heavy warships, with quinqueremes (Gk. pentērēs ), and to a lesser extent quadriremes (Gk. tetrērēs ) and triremes (Gk. triērēs ) providing the mainstay of the Roman fleets from the Punic Wars to the end of the Civil Wars. The heaviest vessel mentioned in Roman fleets during this period was the hexareme , of which a few were used as flagships. Lighter vessels such as

12996-483: The Empire with Britannia and parts of the northern Gallic coast. With a single blow Roman control of the channel and the North Sea was lost, and emperor Maximinus was forced to create a completely new Northern Fleet, but in lack of training it was almost immediately destroyed in a storm. Only in 293, under Caesar Constantius Chlorus did Rome regain the Gallic coast. A new fleet was constructed in order to cross

13167-468: The Imperial period, the Mediterranean became largely a peaceful "Roman lake". In the absence of a maritime enemy, the navy was reduced mostly to patrol, anti-piracy and transport duties. By far, the navy's most vital task was to ensure Roman grain imports were shipped and delivered to the capital unimpeded across the Mediterranean. The navy also manned and maintained craft on major frontier rivers such as

13338-587: The Indian trade. In the Jewish revolt , from 66 to 70, the Romans were forced to fight Jewish ships, operating from a harbour in the area of modern Tel Aviv , on Israel 's Mediterranean coast. In the meantime several flotilla engagements on the Sea of Galilee took place. In 68, as his reign became increasingly insecure, Nero raised legio I Adiutrix from sailors of the praetorian fleets. After Nero's overthrow, in 69,

13509-457: The Italian peninsula. Unlike the first war, the navy played little role on either side in this war. The only naval encounters occurred in the first years of the war, at Lilybaeum (218 BC) and the Ebro River (217 BC), both resulting Roman victories. Despite an overall numerical parity, for the remainder of the war the Carthaginians did not seriously challenge Roman supremacy. The Roman fleet

13680-743: The North American Forest Tree Nursery Soils Workshop at Syracuse in 1980 provided strong contrary evidence: Bob Eastman, President of the Western Maine Forest Nursery Co. stated that for 15 years he has been successful in avoiding winter “burn” to Norway spruce and white spruce in his nursery operation by fertilizing with 50–80 lb/ac (56–90 kg/ha) nitrogen in September, whereas previously winter burn had been experienced annually, often severely. Eastman also stated that

13851-464: The Pinales without Taxales as paraphyletic , and the latter order is no longer considered distinct. A more accurate subdivision would be to split the class into three orders, Pinales containing only Pinaceae, Araucariales containing Araucariaceae and Podocarpaceae, and Cupressales containing the remaining families (including Taxaceae), but there has not been any significant support for such a split, with

14022-490: The Punic Wars for instance, one consul would usually command the fleet, and another the army. In the subsequent wars in the Eastern Mediterranean, praetors would assume the command of the fleet. However, since these men were political appointees, the actual handling of the fleets and of separate squadrons was entrusted to their more experienced legates and subordinates. It was therefore during the Punic Wars that

14193-633: The Roman navy was drastically reduced, depending on its Socii navales . In the absence of a strong naval presence however, piracy flourished throughout the Mediterranean, especially in Cilicia , but also in Crete and other places, further reinforced by money and warships supplied by King Mithridates VI of Pontus , who hoped to enlist their aid in his wars against Rome. In the First Mithridatic War (89–85 BC), Sulla had to requisition ships wherever he could find them to counter Mithridates' fleet. Despite

14364-443: The Romans seized a shipwrecked Carthaginian quinquereme, and used it as a blueprint for their own ships. The new fleets were commanded by the annually elected Roman magistrates , but naval expertise was provided by the lower officers, who continued to be provided by the socii , mostly Greeks. This practice was continued until well into the Empire, something also attested by the direct adoption of numerous Greek naval terms. Despite

14535-499: The Romans. When these entered the river mouths of Weser and Ems , the local tribes had to surrender. In 5 BC the Roman knowledge concerning the North and Baltic Sea was fairly extended during a campaign by Tiberius , reaching as far as the Elbe : Plinius describes how Roman naval formations came past Heligoland and set sail to the north-eastern coast of Denmark, and Augustus himself boasts in his Res Gestae : "My fleet sailed from

14706-478: The Veneti, the Romans were at a disadvantage, since they did not know the coast, and were inexperienced in fighting in the open sea with its tides and currents. Furthermore, the Veneti ships were superior to the light Roman galleys. They were built of oak and had no oars, being thus more resistant to ramming . In addition, their greater height gave them an advantage in both missile exchanges and boarding actions. In

14877-622: The affairs of the Balkan peninsula. Initially, in 229 BC, a fleet of 200 warships was sent against Queen Teuta , and swiftly expelled the Illyrian garrisons from the Greek coastal cities of modern-day Albania . Ten years later, the Romans sent another expedition in the area against Demetrius of Pharos , who had rebuilt the Illyrian navy and engaged in piracy up into the Aegean. Demetrius was supported by Philip V of Macedon , who had grown anxious at

15048-421: The ancient evidence is iconographic, the existence of foremasts can also be deduced archaeologically from slots in foremast-feets located too close to the prow for a mainsail. Artemon , along with mainsail and topsail , developed into the standard rig of seagoing vessels in imperial times , complemented by a mizzen on the largest freighters. The earliest recorded three-masters were the giant Syracusia ,

15219-431: The army was required were the adjectives classiarius or classicus added. Along with several other instances of prevalence of army terminology, this testifies to the lower social status of naval personnel, considered inferior to the auxiliaries and the legionaries. Emperor Claudius first gave legal privileges to the navy's crewmen, enabling them to receive Roman citizenship after their period of service. This period

15390-558: The beginning of a growing season have large radial sizes and smaller, thinner cell walls . Then, the first tracheids of the transition zone are formed, where the radial size of cells and the thickness of their cell walls changes considerably. Finally, latewood tracheids are formed, with small radial sizes and greater cell wall thickness. This is the basic pattern of the internal cell structure of conifer tree rings. Most conifers are monoecious , but some are subdioecious or dioecious ; all are wind-pollinated . Conifer seeds develop inside

15561-413: The concept of a ship carrying more than one mast, to give it more speed under sail and to improve its sailing qualities, evolved in northern Mediterranean waters: The earliest foremast has been identified on an Etruscan pyxis from Caere , Italy , dating to the mid-7th century BC: a warship with a furled mainsail is engaging an enemy vessel, deploying a foresail . A two-masted merchant vessel with

15732-587: The cone consists of several fused scales, while in others (e.g. Taxaceae), the cone is reduced to just one seed scale or (e.g. Cephalotaxaceae) the several scales of a cone develop into individual arils, giving the appearance of a cluster of berries. The male cones have structures called microsporangia that produce yellowish pollen through meiosis. Pollen is released and carried by the wind to female cones. Pollen grains from living pinophyte species produce pollen tubes, much like those of angiosperms. The gymnosperm male gametophytes (pollen grains) are carried by wind to

15903-587: The crushing Roman victory at Cynoscephalae , the terms imposed on Macedon were harsh, and included the complete disbandment of her navy. Almost immediately following the defeat of Macedon , Rome became embroiled in a war with the Seleucid Empire . This war too was decided mainly on land, although the combined Roman–Rhodian navy also achieved victories over the Seleucids at Myonessus and Eurymedon . These victories, which were invariably concluded with

16074-442: The deck, into which a mast is fixed, with a pivot near the top so that the mast can be lowered"; "large bracket attached firmly to the deck, to which the foot of the mast is fixed; it has two sides or cheeks and a bolt forming the pivot around which the mast is raised and lowered"; "substantial fitting for mounting the mast on deck, so that it can be lowered easily for trailering or for sailing under bridges", "hinged device allowing for

16245-402: The diminished Roman fleets were incapable of offering any resistance. The Western Roman Empire collapsed in the late 5th century . The navy of the surviving eastern Roman Empire is known as the Byzantine navy . The exact origins of the Roman fleet are obscure. A traditionally agricultural and land-based society, the Romans rarely ventured out to sea, unlike their Etruscan neighbours. There

16416-764: The disappearance of the old praetorian fleets in Italy, but comments on the continued activity of the Danube fleet. In the 5th century, only the eastern half of the Empire could field an effective fleet, as it could draw upon the maritime resources of Greece and the Levant. Although the Notitia Dignitatum still mentions several naval units for the Western Empire , these were apparently too depleted to be able to carry out much more than patrol duties. At any rate,

16587-402: The dispersal of conifer seeds. Wind-born seed dispersal involves two processes, namely; local neighborhood dispersal and long-distance dispersal. Long-distance dispersal distances range from 11.9–33.7 kilometres (7.4–20.9 mi) from the source. Birds of the crow family, Corvidae , are the primary distributor of the conifer seeds. These birds are known to cache 32,000 pine seeds and transport

16758-562: The easy folding of a mast 90 degrees from perpendicular, as for transporting the boat on a trailer, or passing under a bridge" The oldest evidence for the use of masts comes from the Ubaid period site of H3 in Kuwait, dating to the second half of the sixth millennium BC. Here, a clay disc made from a sherd that appears to depict a reed bundle boat with two masts has been recovered. In the West,

16929-487: The event, when the two fleets encountered each other in Quiberon Bay , Caesar's navy, under the command of D. Brutus, resorted to the use of hooks on long poles, which cut the halyards supporting the Veneti sails. Immobile, the Veneti ships were easy prey for the legionaries who boarded them, and fleeing Veneti ships were taken when they became becalmed by a sudden lack of winds. Having thus established his control of

17100-537: The expansion of Roman power in Illyria. The Romans were again quickly victorious and expanded their Illyrian protectorate, but the beginning of the Second Punic War (218–201 BC) forced them to divert their resources westwards for the next decades. Due to Rome's command of the seas, Hannibal , Carthage's great general, was forced to eschew a sea-borne invasion, instead choosing to bring the war over land to

17271-567: The female cone is termed fruit , which undergoes ripening (maturation). It was found recently that the pollen of conifers transfers the mitochondrial organelles to the embryo , a sort of meiotic drive that perhaps explains why Pinus and other conifers are so productive, and perhaps also has bearing on observed sex-ratio bias. Conifers are heterosporous , generating two different types of spores: male microspores and female megaspores . These spores develop on separate male and female sporophylls on separate male and female cones. In

17442-449: The first year spring and become conelets. The conelet goes through another winter rest and, in the spring of the second year archegonia form in the conelet. Fertilization of the archegonia occurs by early summer of the second year, so the pollination-fertilization interval exceeds a year. After fertilization, the conelet is considered an immature cone. Maturation occurs by autumn of the second year, at which time seeds are shed. In summary,

17613-740: The fleets they commanded was also reflected by the rank and the corresponding pay of the commanders. The prefects of the two praetorian fleets were ranked procuratores ducenarii , meaning they earned 200,000 sesterces annually, the prefects of the Classis Germanica , the Classis Britannica and later the Classis Pontica were centenarii (i.e. earning 100,000 sesterces), while the other fleet prefects were sexagenarii (i.e. they received 60,000 sesterces). The generic Roman term for an oar-driven galley warship

17784-546: The fleets. From the period of the Flavian emperors , the status of the praefectura was raised, and only equestrians with military experience who had gone through the militia equestri were appointed. Nevertheless, the prefects remained largely political appointees, and despite their military experience, usually in command of army auxiliary units, their knowledge of naval matters was minimal, forcing them to rely on their professional subordinates. The difference in importance of

17955-466: The following spring. Female strobili emerge then pollination occurs in spring of the second year then the pollinated strobili become conelets in the same year (i.e. the second year). The female gametophytes in the conelet develop so slowly that the megaspore does not go through free-nuclear divisions until autumn of the third year. The conelet then overwinters again in the free-nuclear female gametophyte stage. Fertilization takes place by early summer of

18126-492: The following summer when larvae occasionally return to the surface of the wood and extend the feeding channels generally in a U-shaped configuration. During this time, small piles of frass extruded by the larvae accumulate under logs. Early in the spring of the second year following egg-laying, the larvae, about 30 mm long, pupate in the tunnel enlargement just below the wood surface. The resulting adults chew their way out in early summer, leaving round exit holes, so completing

18297-399: The fourth year and seeds mature in the cones by autumn of the fourth year. The growth and form of a forest tree are the result of activity in the primary and secondary meristems , influenced by the distribution of photosynthate from its needles and the hormonal gradients controlled by the apical meristems. External factors also influence growth and form. Fraser recorded the development of

18468-419: The growing embryo) and its surrounding integument, becomes a seed . Eventually, the seed may fall to the ground and, if conditions permit, grow into a new plant. In forestry , the terminology of flowering plants has commonly though inaccurately been applied to cone-bearing trees as well. The male cone and unfertilized female cone are called male flower and female flower , respectively. After fertilization,

18639-530: The immense conifer forests of the world represent the largest terrestrial carbon sink . Conifers are of great economic value for softwood lumber and paper production. Conifer is a Latin word, a compound of conus (cone) and ferre (to bear), meaning "the one that bears (a) cone(s)". The division name Pinophyta conforms to the rules of the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN), which state (Article 16.1) that

18810-460: The imposition of peace treaties that prohibited the maintenance of anything but token naval forces, spelled the disappearance of the Hellenistic royal navies, leaving Rome and her allies unchallenged at sea. Coupled with the final destruction of Carthage , and the end of Macedon's independence , by the latter half of the 2nd century BC, Roman control over all of what was later to be dubbed mare nostrum ("our sea") had been established. Subsequently,

18981-476: The increase in tonnage. Unlike in antiquity, the mizzen-mast was adopted on medieval two-masters earlier than the foremast, a process which can be traced back by pictorial evidence from Venice and Barcelona to the mid-14th century. To balance out the sail plan the next obvious step was to add a mast fore of the main-mast, which first appears in a Catalan ink drawing from 1409. With the three-masted ship established, propelled by square rig and lateen, and guided by

19152-476: The inland sea, which they called Mare Nostrum . The Roman fleets were again prominent in the 1st century BC in the wars against the pirates, and in the civil wars that brought down the Republic, whose campaigns ranged across the Mediterranean. In 31 BC, the great naval Battle of Actium ended the civil wars culminating in the final victory of Augustus and the establishment of the Roman Empire . During

19323-535: The largest and economically most important component group of gymnosperms, but nevertheless they comprise only one of the four groups. The division Pinophyta consists of just one class, Pinopsida, which includes both living and fossil taxa. Subdivision of the living conifers into two or more orders has been proposed from time to time. The most commonly seen in the past was a split into two orders, Taxales (Taxaceae only) and Pinales (the rest), but recent research into DNA sequences suggests that this interpretation leaves

19494-506: The latter used to flavor gin . Roman navy The naval forces of the ancient Roman state ( Latin : classis , lit.   'fleet') were instrumental in the Roman conquest of the Mediterranean Basin , but it never enjoyed the prestige of the Roman legions . Throughout their history, the Romans remained a primarily land-based people and relied partially on their more nautically inclined subjects, such as

19665-471: The leading edge of a sail's airfoil and tend to have a teardrop-shaped cross-section. On smaller racing yachts and catamarans, the mast rotates to the optimum angle for the sail's airfoil. If the mast has a long, thin cross-section and makes up a significant area of the airfoil, it is called a wing-mast; boats using these have a smaller sail area to compensate for the larger mast area. There are many manufacturers of modern masts for sailing yachts of all sizes,

19836-417: The leaf bases are twisted to present the leaves in a very flat plane for maximum light capture. Leaf size varies from 2 mm in many scale-leaved species, up to 400 mm long in the needles of some pines (e.g. Apache pine, Pinus engelmannii ). The stomata are in lines or patches on the leaves and can be closed when it is very dry or cold. The leaves are often dark green in colour, which may help absorb

20007-444: The legionary primus pilus . All these were professional officers, usually peregrini , who had a status equal to an auxiliary centurion (and were thus increasingly called centuriones [classiarii] after ca. 70 AD). Until the reign of Antoninus Pius , their careers were restricted to the fleet. Only in the 3rd century were these officers equated to the legionary centurions in status and pay, and could henceforth be transferred to

20178-494: The lower sections sufficient thickness necessitated building them up from separate pieces of wood. Such a section was known as a made mast , as opposed to sections formed from single pieces of timber, which were known as pole masts . Those who specialised in making masts were known as mastmakers . For square-sail carrying ships , masts in their standard names in bow to stern (front to back) order, are: Some names given to masts in ships carrying other types of rig (where

20349-404: The maintenance of a fleet. As a result, the Republic acquired its first fleet, consisting of 20 ships, most likely triremes , with each duumvir commanding a squadron of 10 ships. However, the Republic continued to rely mostly on her legions for expansion in Italy; the navy was most likely geared towards combating piracy and lacked experience in naval warfare, being easily defeated in 282 BC by

20520-402: The majority of opinion preferring retention of all the families within a single order Pinales, despite their antiquity and diverse morphology . There were seven families of conifers c.  2011 , with 65–70 genera and over 600 living species ( c.  2002 ). The seven most distinct families are linked in the box above right and phylogenetic diagram left. In other interpretations,

20691-462: The makeshift nature of the Roman fleet however, in 86 BC Lucullus defeated the Pontic navy at Tenedos . Immediately after the end of the war, a permanent force of ca. 100 vessels was established in the Aegean from the contributions of Rome's allied maritime states. Although sufficient to guard against Mithridates, this force was totally inadequate against the pirates, whose power grew rapidly. Over

20862-403: The male cones, microspores are produced from microsporocytes by meiosis . The microspores develop into pollen grains, which contain the male gametophytes. Large amounts of pollen are released and carried by the wind. Some pollen grains will land on a female cone for pollination. The generative cell in the pollen grain divides into two haploid sperm cells by mitosis leading to the development of

21033-530: The massive buildup, the Roman crews remained inferior in naval experience to the Carthaginians, and could not hope to match them in naval tactics , which required great maneuverability and experience. They, therefore, employed a novel weapon that transformed sea warfare to their advantage. They equipped their ships with the corvus , possibly developed earlier by the Syracusans against the Athenians . This

21204-536: The mid-5th century, the Western Empire essentially lacked a war navy. Matters became even worse after the disastrous failure of the fleets mobilized against the Vandals in 460 and 468, under the emperors Majorian and Anthemius . For the West, there would be no recovery, as the last Western Emperor, Romulus Augustulus , was deposed in 476. In the East however, the classical naval tradition survived, and in

21375-571: The mouth of the Rhine eastward as far as the lands of the Cimbri to which, up to that time, no Roman had ever penetrated either by land or by sea...". The multiple naval operations north of Germania had to be abandoned after the battle of the Teutoburg Forest in the year 9 AD. In the years 15 and 16, Germanicus carried out several fleet operations along the rivers Rhine and Ems, without permanent results due to grim Germanic resistance and

21546-466: The names of higher taxa in plants (above the rank of family) are either formed from the name of an included family (usually the most common and/or representative), in this case Pinaceae (the pine family), or are descriptive. A descriptive name in widespread use for the conifers (at whatever rank is chosen) is Coniferae (Art 16 Ex 2). According to the ICN, it is possible to use a name formed by replacing

21717-405: The naming is less standardised) are: When a vessel has two masts, as a general rule, the main mast is the one setting the largest sail. Therefore, in a brig , the forward mast is the foremast and the after mast is the mainmast. In a schooner with two masts, even if the masts are of the same height, the after one usually carries a larger sail (because a longer boom can be used), so the after mast

21888-405: The new artificial harbor of Portus Julius built at Cumae , and soldiers and rowers levied, including over 20,000 manumitted slaves. Finally, Octavian and Agrippa defeated Sextus in the Battle of Naulochus in 36 BC, putting an end to all Pompeian resistance. Octavian's power was further enhanced after his victory against the combined fleets of Mark Antony and Cleopatra , Queen of Egypt , in

22059-460: The next decade, the pirates defeated several Roman commanders, and raided unhindered even to the shores of Italy, reaching Rome's harbor, Ostia . According to the account of Plutarch , "the ships of the pirates numbered more than a thousand, and the cities captured by them four hundred." Their activity posed a growing threat for the Roman economy, and a challenge to Roman power: several prominent Romans, including two praetors with their retinue and

22230-594: The now-abandoned Corvus to achieve victory. After the Roman victory, the balance of naval power in the Western Mediterranean had shifted from Carthage to Rome. This ensured Carthaginian acquiescence to the conquest of Sardinia and Corsica, and also enabled Rome to deal decisively with the threat posed by the Illyrian pirates in the Adriatic . The Illyrian Wars marked Rome's first involvement with

22401-486: The one 11 m tall white spruce, Fraser et al. (1964) speculated that if the photosynthate used in making apical growth in 1961 was manufactured the previous year, then the 4 million needles that were produced up to 1960 manufactured food for about 600,000 mm of apical growth or 730 g dry weight, over 12 million mm of wood for the 1961 annual ring, plus 1 million new needles, in addition to new tissue in branches, bark, and roots in 1960. Added to this would be

22572-424: The one-year and the two-year cycles differ mainly in the duration of the pollination-fertilization interval. Three-year reproductive cycle : Three of the conifer species are pine species ( Pinus pinea , Pinus leiophylla , Pinus torreyana ) which have pollination and fertilization events separated by a two-year interval. Female strobili initiated during late summer or autumn of a year, then overwinter until

22743-519: The operational landscape had changed: for the remainder of the Principate, no opponent existed to challenge Roman naval hegemony, and no massed naval confrontation was likely. The tasks at hand for the Roman navy were now the policing of the Mediterranean waterways and the border rivers, suppression of piracy, and escort duties for the grain shipments to Rome and for imperial army expeditions. Lighter ships were far better suited to these tasks, and after

22914-631: The outbreak of the Third Mithridatic War , Marcus Antonius (the father of Mark Antony ) was appointed praetor with extraordinary imperium against the pirate threat, but signally failed in his task: he was defeated off Crete in 72 BC, and died shortly after. Finally, in 67 BC the Lex Gabinia was passed in the Plebeian Council , vesting Pompey with unprecedented powers and authorizing him to move against them. In

23085-425: The overwintering storage capacity of stock thus treated was much improved (Eastman 1980). The concentrations of nutrients in plant tissues depend on many factors, including growing conditions. Interpretation of concentrations determined by analysis is easy only when a nutrient occurs in excessively low or occasionally excessively high concentration. Values are influenced by environmental factors and interactions among

23256-569: The paraphyletic assemblage of " walchian conifers ", which were small trees, and probably originated in dry upland habitats. The range of conifers expanded during the Early Permian ( Cisuralian ) to lowlands due to increasing aridity. Walchian conifers were gradually replaced by more advanced voltzialean or "transition" conifers. Conifers were largely unaffected by the Permian–Triassic extinction event , and were dominant land plants of

23427-429: The photosynthate to produce energy to sustain respiration over this period, an amount estimated to be about 10% of the total annual photosynthate production of a young healthy tree. On this basis, one needle produced food for about 0.19 mg dry weight of apical growth, 3 mm wood, one-quarter of a new needle, plus an unknown amount of branch wood, bark and roots. The order of priority of photosynthate distribution

23598-561: The plant for several (2–40) years before falling, but five genera ( Larix , Pseudolarix , Glyptostrobus , Metasequoia and Taxodium ) are deciduous , shedding their leaves in autumn. The seedlings of many conifers, including most of the Cupressaceae, and Pinus in Pinaceae, have a distinct juvenile foliage period where the leaves are different, often markedly so, from the typical adult leaves. Tree rings are records of

23769-416: The pollen tube. At fertilization, one of the sperm cells unites its haploid nucleus with the haploid nucleus of an egg cell. The female cone develops two ovules, each of which contains haploid megaspores. A megasporocyte is divided by meiosis in each ovule. Each winged pollen grain is a four celled male gametophyte . Three of the four cells break down leaving only a single surviving cell which will develop into

23940-420: The ram continued to be a standard feature of all warships and ramming the standard mode of attack, these developments transformed the role of a warship: from the old "manned missile", designed to sink enemy ships, they became mobile artillery platforms, which engaged in missile exchange and boarding actions . The Romans in particular, being initially inexperienced at sea combat, relied upon boarding actions through

24111-514: The removal of individual plants beyond plantations is encouraged. At least 20 species of roundheaded borers of the family Cerambycidae feed on the wood of spruce , fir , and hemlock (Rose and Lindquist 1985). Borers rarely bore tunnels in living trees, although when populations are high, adult beetles feed on tender twig bark, and may damage young living trees. One of the most common and widely distributed borer species in North America

24282-803: The reorganization of the fleet following Actium, the largest ship kept in service was a hexareme, the flagship of the Classis Misenensis . The bulk of the fleets was composed of the lighter triremes and liburnians (Latin: liburna , Greek: libyrnis ), with the latter apparently providing the majority of the provincial fleets. In time, the term "liburnian" came to mean "warship" in a generic sense. Roman ships were commonly named after gods ( Mars , Iuppiter , Minerva , Isis ), mythological heroes ( Hercules ), geographical maritime features such as Rhenus or Oceanus , concepts such as Harmony, Peace, Loyalty, Victory ( Concordia , Pax , Fides , Victoria ) or after important events ( Dacicus for

24453-478: The resources and commandeered the ships of the Eastern Mediterranean port cities. These conflicts thus brought about a renewal of naval activity, culminating in the Battle of the Hellespont in 324 between the forces of Constantine I under Caesar Crispus and the fleet of Licinius , which was the only major naval confrontation of the 4th century. Vegetius , writing at the end of the 4th century, testifies to

24624-635: The responsible provincial fleets were heavily debilitated. It was not until the attackers made a tactical error, that their onrush could be stopped. In 267–270 another, much fiercer series of attacks took place. A fleet composed of Heruli and other tribes raided the coasts of Thrace and the Pontus . Defeated off Byzantium by general Venerianus, the barbarians fled into the Aegean, and ravaged many islands and coastal cities, including Athens and Corinth . As they retreated northwards over land, they were defeated by Emperor Gallienus at Nestos . However, this

24795-541: The rise of the naval power of the Vandal Kingdom under Geiseric in North Africa, and its raids in the Western Mediterranean, were practically uncontested. Although there is some evidence of West Roman naval activity in the first half of the 5th century, this is mostly confined to troop transports and minor landing operations. The historian Priscus and Sidonius Apollinaris affirm in their writings that by

24966-408: The river frontiers of Europe. It remained however engaged in active warfare in the periphery of the Empire. Under Augustus and after the conquest of Egypt there were increasing demands from the Roman economy to extend the trade lanes to India. The Arabian control of all sea routes to India was an obstacle. One of the first naval operations under princeps Augustus was therefore the preparation for

25137-453: The same effect in 105-day-old white spruce. The general short-term effect of nitrogen fertilization on coniferous seedlings is to stimulate shoot growth more so than root growth (Armson and Carman 1961). Over a longer period, root growth is also stimulated. Many nursery managers were long reluctant to apply nitrogenous fertilizers late in the growing season, for fear of increased danger of frost damage to succulent tissues. A presentation at

25308-404: The same strength, is impervious to rot, and can be produced as a single extruded length. During the 1960s wood was eclipsed by aluminum. Aluminum alloys, generally 6000 series, are commonly utilised. Recently some sailing yachts (particularly home-built yachts) have begun to use steel masts. Whilst somewhat heavier than aluminum, steel has its own set of advantages. It is significantly cheaper, and

25479-927: The seeds as far as 12–22 km (7.5–13.7 mi) from the source. The birds store the seeds in the soil at depths of 2–3 cm ( 3 ⁄ 4 – 1 + 1 ⁄ 4  in) under conditions which favor germination . Conifers are the dominant plants over large areas of land, most notably the taiga of the Northern Hemisphere , but also in similar cool climates in mountains further south. A number of conifers originally introduced for forestry have become invasive species in parts of New Zealand , including radiata pine ( Pinus radiata ), lodgepole pine ( P. contorta ), Douglas fir ( Pseudotsuga mensiezii ) and European larch ( Larix decidua ). In parts of South Africa , maritime pine ( Pinus pinaster ), patula pine ( P. patula ) and radiata pine have been declared invasive species. These wilding conifers are

25650-545: The seeds may be stored in closed cones for up to 60–80 years, being released only when a fire kills the parent tree. In the families Podocarpaceae , Cephalotaxaceae , Taxaceae , and one Cupressaceae genus ( Juniperus ), the scales are soft, fleshy, sweet, and brightly colored, and are eaten by fruit-eating birds, which then pass the seeds in their droppings. These fleshy scales are (except in Juniperus ) known as arils . In some of these conifers (e.g. most Podocarpaceae),

25821-513: The separate position of praefectus classis ("fleet prefect") first appeared. Initially subordinate to the magistrate in command, after the fleet's reorganization by Augustus, the praefectus classis became a procuratorial position in charge of each of the permanent fleets. These posts were initially filled either from among the equestrian class, or, especially under Claudius , from the Emperor's freedmen , thus securing imperial control over

25992-405: The ship's centurion is unclear. Squadrons, most likely of ten ships each, were put under a nauarchus , who often appears to have risen from the ranks of the trierarchi . The post of nauarchus archigubernes or nauarchus princeps appeared later in the Imperial period, and functioned either as a commander of several squadrons or as an executive officer under a civilian admiral, equivalent to

26163-623: The situation changed dramatically. The so-called " Crisis of the Third Century " ushered a period of internal turmoil, and the same period saw a renewed series of seaborne assaults, which the imperial fleets proved unable to stem. In the West, Picts and Irish ships raided Britain, while the Saxons raided the North Sea, forcing the Romans to abandon Frisia . In the East, the Goths and other tribes from modern Ukraine raided in great numbers over

26334-429: The sole source of nitrogen guanidine compounds were less prominent. Durzan and Steward noted that their results, drawn from determinations made in late summer, did not rule out the occurrence of different interim responses at other times of the year. Ammonium nitrogen produced significantly heavier (dry weight) seedlings with a higher nitrogen content after 5 weeks than did the same amount of nitrate nitrogen. Swan found

26505-517: The termination -aceae in the name of an included family, in this case preferably Pinaceae , by the appropriate termination, in the case of this division -ophyta . Alternatively, " descriptive botanical names " may also be used at any rank above family. Both are allowed. This means that if conifers are considered a division, they may be called Pinophyta or Coniferae. As a class, they may be called Pinopsida or Coniferae. As an order they may be called Pinales or Coniferae or Coniferales . Conifers are

26676-475: The tree against insect infestation and fungal infection of wounds. Fossilized resin hardens into amber , which has been commercially exploited historically (for example, in New Zealand's 19th-century kauri gum industry). The size of mature conifers varies from less than one metre to over 100 metres in height. The world's tallest, thickest, largest, and oldest living trees are all conifers. The tallest

26847-416: The usual 2-year life cycle. Conifers – notably Abies (fir), Cedrus , Chamaecyparis lawsoniana (Lawson's cypress), Cupressus (cypress), juniper , Picea (spruce), Pinus (pine), Taxus (yew), Thuja (cedar) – have been the subject of selection for ornamental purposes. Plants with unusual growth habits, sizes, and colours are propagated and planted in parks and gardens throughout

27018-515: The western Mediterranean, possessing a long maritime and naval experience and a large fleet. Although Rome had relied on her legions for the conquest of Italy, operations in Sicily had to be supported by a fleet, and the ships available by Rome's allies were insufficient. Thus in 261 BC, the Roman Senate set out to construct a fleet of 100 quinqueremes and 20 triremes. According to Polybius ,

27189-468: The world. Conifers can absorb nitrogen in either the ammonium (NH 4 ) or nitrate (NO 3 ) form, but the forms are not physiologically equivalent. Form of nitrogen affected both the total amount and relative composition of the soluble nitrogen in white spruce tissues (Durzan and Steward). Ammonium nitrogen was shown to foster arginine and amides and lead to a large increase of free guanidine compounds, whereas in leaves nourished by nitrate as

27360-403: The years 1955 through 1961, respectively. The total number of needles of all ages present on the 36-year-old tree in 1961 was 5.25 million weighing 14.25 kg. In 1961, needles as old as 13 years remained on the tree. The ash weight of needles increased progressively with age from about 4% in first-year needles in 1961 to about 8% in needles 10 years old. In discussing the data obtained from

27531-554: The years 82 to 85, the Romans under Gnaeus Julius Agricola launched a campaign against the Caledonians in modern Scotland . In this context the Roman navy significantly escalated activities on the eastern Scottish coast. Simultaneously multiple expeditions and reconnaissance trips were launched. During these the Romans would capture the Orkney Islands ( Orcades ) for a short period of time and obtained information about

27702-403: The young Julius Caesar , were captured and held for ransom . Perhaps most important of all, the pirates disrupted Rome's vital lifeline, namely the massive shipments of grain and other produce from Africa and Egypt that were needed to sustain the city's population. The resulting grain shortages were a major political issue, and popular discontent threatened to become explosive. In 74 BC, with

27873-400: Was "long ship" (Latin: navis longa , Greek: naus makra ), as opposed to the sail-driven navis oneraria (from onus, oneris: burden ), a merchant vessel, or the minor craft ( navigia minora ) like the scapha . The navy consisted of a wide variety of different classes of warships, from heavy polyremes to light raiding and scouting vessels. Unlike the rich Hellenistic Successor kingdoms in

28044-400: Was a long plank with a spike for hooking onto enemy ships. Using it as a boarding bridge, marines were able to board an enemy ship, transforming sea combat into a version of land combat, where the Roman legionaries had the upper hand. However, it is believed that the Corvus weight made the ships unstable, and could capsize a ship in rough seas. Although the first sea engagement of the war,

28215-587: Was able to defeat them at the Battle of Naissus , ending the Gothic threat for the time being. Barbarian raids also increased along the Rhine frontier and in the North Sea . Eutropius mentions that during the 280s, the sea along the coasts of the provinces of Belgica and Armorica was "infested with Franks and Saxons". To counter them, Maximian appointed Carausius as commander of the British Fleet . However, Carausius rose up in late 286 and seceded from

28386-532: Was defeated off Kos . In the West, against the triumvirs stood Sextus Pompeius , who had been given command of the Italian fleet by the Senate in 43 BC. He took control of Sicily and made it his base, blockading Italy and stopping the politically crucial supply of grain from Africa to Rome. After suffering a defeat from Sextus in 42 BC, Octavian initiated massive naval armaments, aided by his closest associate, Marcus Agrippa : ships were built at Ravenna and Ostia,

28557-399: Was found convenient to dispense with the main-mast and carry larger sails on the remaining masts. This gave more working room, particularly on fishing vessels. On square-rigged vessels, each mast carries several horizontal yards from which the individual sails are rigged . Folding mast ships use a tabernacle anchor point. Definitions include: "the partly open socket or double post on

28728-443: Was hence engaged primarily with raiding the shores of Africa and guarding Italy, a task which included the interception of Carthaginian convoys of supplies and reinforcements for Hannibal's army, as well as keeping an eye on a potential intervention by Carthage's ally, Philip V. The only major action in which the Roman fleet was involved was the siege of Syracuse in 214–212 BC with 130 ships under Marcus Claudius Marcellus . The siege

28899-399: Was initially set at a minimum of 26 years (one year more than the legions), and was later expanded to 28. Upon honorable discharge ( honesta missio ), the sailors received a sizable cash payment as well. As in the army, the ship's centuria was headed by a centurion with an optio as his deputy, while a beneficiarius supervised a small administrative staff. Among the crew were also

29070-569: Was merely the prelude to an even larger invasion that was launched in 268/269: several tribes banded together (the Historia Augusta mentions Scythians, Greuthungi , Tervingi , Gepids , Peucini, Celts and Heruli ) and allegedly 2,000 ships and 325,000 men strong, raided the Thracian shore, attacked Byzantium and continued raiding the Aegean as far as Crete , while the main force approached Thessalonica . Emperor Claudius II however

29241-480: Was now the undisputed master of the Western Mediterranean, and turned her gaze from defeated Carthage to the Hellenistic world. Small Roman forces had already been engaged in the First Macedonian War , when, in 214 BC, a fleet under Marcus Valerius Laevinus had successfully thwarted Philip V from invading Illyria with his newly built fleet. The rest of the war was carried out mostly by Rome's allies,

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