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82-484: Majok is a Dinka given name and surname. Notable people with the surname include: People with the given name include: Dinka They number around 4.5 million, according to the 2008 Sudan census, constituting about 40% of the population of that country and the largest ethnic tribe in South Sudan . The Dinka refer to themselves as Muonyjang (singular) and jieng (plural). The Dinka originated from

164-567: A chain of lesser shrines in the former Nyarruweng Dinka region in what has now become the territory of the Gaweir Nuer. Around the shrine and within a few miles of it reside a small section of Rut Dinka who have settled back and live there by agreement with the Nuer to tend the shrine. Luak Deng has become a shrine of great significance for both the Dinka and Nuer people. The pyramid of Pwom Ayuel

246-633: A crucial role in shaping their territorial dominance in what is now South Sudan . Following the collapse of the Alodian Kingdom and the establishment of the Funj Sultanate in 1504 by Sultan Amara Dunqas, the Dinka, alongside other Nilotic groups like the Shilluk , moved further south, clashing with the Funj and other local populations. Oral traditions and archaeological evidence suggest that

328-442: A day. Adults also eat two meals a day. In Dinka territory there exist a number of mounds, described by the Dinka as “pyramids,” which have religious significance to those who tend them. These mounds were built in the form of a cone and the material used was cattle ashes, cow dung, cotton soil, clay, and debris. In all cases the history of the origin of each mound is connected to a prominent Dinka priest who ordered its construction by

410-473: A powerful king. So, he sent a group of his merchants headed by Mahmud Yalavach with gifts to visit Shah Muhammad and inform him about the size of his country, prosperity of his possessions, and the strength of his army. Shah Muhammad, who was trying to expand Khwarazmia's territory, got angry that Genghis had called him "his son" in his letter, but Mahmud Yalavach quelled his anger and made him agree to establish friendly relations with Genghis Khan. In this way,

492-519: A series of diplomatic provocations on the part of Muhammad II , the ruler of the neighbouring Khwarazmian Empire , the Mongols launched an invasion in 1219. The invaders laid waste to the Transoxianan cities of Bukhara , Samarkand , and Gurganj in turn, before obliterating the region of Khorasan , slaughtering the inhabitants of Herat , Nishapur , and Merv , three of the largest cities in

574-454: A significant historical connection between the Dinka and the Kingdom of Alwa . Cultural practices, such as beer-drinking rituals during sowing and harvesting dhurra , reflect similarities to Nubian traditions noted by Ibn Selim el-Assouani, indicating a continuity of influence from Alwa. Historical accounts, including manuscripts from the 18th century, reference the Dinka's ancestral ties to

656-445: Is acquired when a man and his family produce a small surplus of crops which they convert into a more stable and valuable resource, cattle. In turn, this enables a man to acquire more wives, more children, and thus more economic and political power. In Dinka society cattle acquired by the wealth yielded from agriculture are considered a more stable form of "property." If a Dinka couple divorce the cows given as bridewealth may be returned to

738-695: Is located north of the Paliang region in the Bahr el-Ghazal, and local Dinka estimate that it pre-dates the Egyptian colonial period (1821) and hence is at least over 200 years old. In Padang territory in northern Dinka territory east of the Nile among the Dunghol Dinka and north of the city of Malakal, the pyramid of a great ancestor and prominent priest, Ayuong Dit, is located at the holy village of Rukcuk. It

820-400: Is more honored. However, no one has all cattle that are free of ties." Because of the link between agriculture, wealth, and marriage the Dinka grow a wide variety of crops. During their migrations, the Dinka introduced a new variety of sorghum into southern Sudan. Caudatum sorghum is drought resistant and produces well with very little care. This variety of Sorghum was not grown by tribes in

902-400: Is said to be the burial place of Ayuel , the culture hero of the Dinka. It is found in what has now become Nuer territory on the southern part of an island formed by the Bahr el-Zeraf and Bahr el-Jebel Rivers (Zeraf Island). Some Dinka myths suggest that Ayuel was killed by external forces beyond his control. Aliab Dinka Parmena Awerial Aluong recounts a different oral history that suggests that

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984-603: Is subdivided into Aguok , Kuac , and many other things, but they speak the same language; only the pronunciation is slightly different. The number of Dinka sub-divisions is contested, as the border between groups, sub-divisions, and sections is blurred and often difficult to determine. The Atuot people can be divided into Apaak and Reel, Bor, Twic, Nyarweng and Hol and Panaruu into Awet and Kuel and Jieng into Ador and Lou. The Dinka people have no centralised political authority. Instead their clans are independent but interlinked. Some traditionally provide ritual chiefs, known as

1066-530: The Arab Islamic government in Khartoum . The Sudan People's Liberation Army , led by Dinka Dr. John Garang De Mabior , took arms against the government in 1983. During the subsequent 21-year civil war , many thousands of Dinka, along with non-Dinka southerners, were massacred by government forces. Since the independence of South Sudan, the Dinka, led by Salva Kiir Mayardit , engaged in a civil war with

1148-856: The Gezira in what became Sudan . In medieval times this region was ruled by the kingdom of Alodia , a Christian , multi-ethnic empire in Nubia . Living in its southern periphery and interacting with the Nubians, the Dinka absorbed a sizable amount of Nubian vocabulary . From the 13th century, with the disintegration of Alodia, the Dinka began to migrate out of Gezira, fleeing slave raids, military conflict, and droughts. Conflict over pastures and cattle raids has been happening between Dinka and Nuer as they battled for grazing land. Dinka migration from Gezira & Alodia The Dinka presence in Alwa suggests

1230-595: The Khwarazmian Empire with anti- Muslim measures. As a Mongol detachment led by Jebe hunted Kuchlug down, he fled; meanwhile, Muhammad was able to vassalize the territories of Balochistan and Makran in modern-day Pakistan and Iran , and to gain the allegiance of the Eldiguzids . After extending the borders of the Khwarazmian Empire from the north-east and east to Kashgar and

1312-847: The Middle East and Central Asia between 1219 and 1258. These campaigns led to the termination of the Khwarazmian Empire , the Nizari Ismaili state , and the Abbasid Caliphate of Baghdad , and the establishment of the Mongol Ilkhanate government in their place in Persia . Genghis Khan had unified the Mongolic peoples and conquered the Western Xia state in the late 12th and early 13th centuries. After

1394-524: The Mongol attack. During preparations for the war, he collected taxes from his people three times in one year, causing dissatisfaction and unrest among the population. Before the invasion, Shah Muhammad formed a council composed of his army commanders. Imam Shahab al-Din Khiyoqi , one of the famous jurists and teachers of Khwarazm , proposed to bring as many soldiers as possible from different corners of

1476-643: The Mongol invasion of Central Asia . Historians cite the fact that Genghis was already bogged down in his war against the Jin in China, and that he had to deal with the Hoi-yin Irgen rebellion in Siberia in 1216, so he didn't want to start another war. The Mongols had a need for the goods of more advanced regions; therefore, it was very important for them to keep trade routes open since ancient times. From

1558-532: The Nuer and other groups, who accuse them of monopolising power. In 1983, due to Sudan's second civil war , many educated Dinka were forced to flee the cities to rural areas. Some were Christians who had been converted by the Church Missionary Society . Among them were ordained clergymen who began preaching in the villages. Songs and praise were used to teach the mostly illiterate Dinka about

1640-686: The Sindh , Shah Muhammad decided to conquer the west, i.e. Iraq . At that time, these lands were in the hands of the Eldiguzids and Salghurids , and the authority of the Abbasid caliph's clergymen remained partly in these two regions. Shah Muhammad was at enmity with the Abbasid caliph, because the caliph asked for help from the Ismailis and the Qara Khitai to overthrow his rule and also because

1722-589: The Uyghur clans to obey him, Kuchlug Khan , the leader of the Naiman tribes, who had dominated the lands of the Qara Khitai tribes, was driven from there, and thus Genghis found a common border with the Khwarazmian Empire , whose eastern border had reached these areas. Genghis was very interested in the spread of commerce and the movement of merchants, therefore he encouraged commerce and tried to establish friendly relations with Shah Muhammad II , whom he considered as

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1804-574: The "masters of the fishing spear" or beny bith , who provide leadership and are at least in part hereditary. Davies, K., Riddle, T., Johnson, A., & Xiong, C. (2023). Chitin and its derivatives: A review of their applications and potential in various fields. University College London. Retrieved from https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10090610/1/Davies_Kay%20et%20al%20final%20submission.pdf Mongol invasion of Persia and Mesopotamia The Mongol conquest of Persia and Mesopotamia comprised three Mongol campaigns against islamic states in

1886-516: The 13th century. Shared Nilotic traditions, such as human sacrifice and ceremonial regicide, further indicate a cultural heritage influenced by Nubian practices. Additionally, 13th-century accounts by Ibn Sa'id al-Andalusi describe the Damadim, who were engaged in conflict with the Alodians, highlighting interactions between Nilotic groups and Nubian territories. Archaeological evidence, including

1968-583: The Abbasid caliph should not be mentioned in sermons and not be inserted on coins, and appointed one of the Termezi Alawi Sadats, as the caliphate. In 1217, Shah Muhammad marched towards Baghdad , but because it was winter, his troops suffered a lot from the snow and cold in the Asadabad pass between Kermanshah and Hamadan , and thus he returned to Khorasan . Genghis Khan conquered Beijing after raiding northern China . Then he forced

2050-514: The Alwan Nubians , with early modern Sudanese manuscript writers noting that they are derived from the "Anag", a term used by Spaulding to describe eastern sudanic speaking peoples who were a part of the kingdom of Alodia. Linguistic studies support the idea that the Dinka resided in the Gezira , which was under Alwa's influence before their migration southward, likely due to political upheaval and increased slavery following Alwa's decline in

2132-570: The Dinka a large advantage when they introduced them in their southern migration. There was a long series of droughts that plagued Southern Sudan during this time period intensified the reliance on cattle for the people of the region, since livestock are indispensable in bad years when crop failure occurs. The introduction of this new breed by the Dinka was a significant causative factor in the spread of modern patterns of Nilotic pastoralism in Southern Sudan. Eventually these cattle replaced all of

2214-480: The Dinka displaced and absorbed various groups in their path, including the remnants of the Funj people, who were themselves possibly linked to the Nubian traditions of medieval Alodia. These conflicts between the Dinka and the Funj are well-documented in Dinka oral histories, with stories of fierce battles where the Dinka eventually forced the Funj northward, allowing them to establish their sultanate as Sennār , which

2296-509: The Dinka would also raid in the following centuries. Over time, however, the Dinka and Funj developed more complex relations, with Dinka warriors serving as mercenaries in the Funj provinces, and Dinka merchants engaging in the regional slave trade . Despite these evolving relations, the Dinka continued to expand into western and southern territories, solidifying their presence and dominance in much of modern South Sudan . The Dinka's religions, beliefs, and lifestyle have led to conflict with

2378-641: The Dinka's ancestors could have been based along the White Nile in the Gezira plains . The Damadim were known for their raids and conquests, notably their sacking of the Christian Kingdom of Alodia's capital, Soba , around 1220 A.D. During this period, they were referred to as the "Tatars of the Sudan" due to their simultaneous raids with the Mongol invasions of Persia . Archaeological evidence from Soba indicates significant destruction, including

2460-426: The Dinka. The adoption of Sanga and Zebu hump backed cattle was invaluable to the expansion of the Dinka throughout South Sudan. Hump backed cattle were considerably stronger than the previous humpless breeds in southern Sudan and are capable of withstanding long-distance transhumance patterns. Even more importantly, they were less affected by drought. The tribes of south Sudan did not possess these cattle, which gave

2542-667: The Lost Boys include The Lost Boys of Sudan by Mark Bixler, God Grew Tired of Us by John Bul Dau , They Poured Fire On Us From The Sky by Alephonsion Deng, Benson Deng, and Benjamin Ajak and A Long Walk to Water by Linda Sue Park . In 2004 the first volume of the graphic novel Echoes of the Lost Boys of Sudan was released in Dallas, Texas . This list of Dinka tribal grouping by region. Note that these divisions are further divided into several subdivisions; for example, Dinka Rek

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2624-595: The Mongols. Shah Muhammad didn't want to surrender Inalchuq because most of the leaders of the Khwarazmian army were his relatives, and also Terken Khatun who had influence in the Khwarazmian court was supporting him. Therefore, Shah Muhammad not only did not accept Genghis Khan's request, but also executed his Muslim envoy who came to Samarkand , the capital of the Khwarazmian Empire , and sent his companions back to Genghis Khan with their beards and mustaches cut off. This bellicose behavior of Shah Muhammad accelerated

2706-412: The Mongols. The final stage began in 1254. On the orders of his brother, Möngke Khan , Hulagu systematically captured the fortresses of the Nizari Ismaili state in northern Persia, seizing their capital of Alamut in 1256. In 1258, Hulagu marched on the Abbasid Caliphate of Baghdad ; capturing the city , he ended the 500-year-old Abbasid dynasty by killing the caliph Al-Musta'sim , marking

2788-559: The Shah's field army impotent, unable to either engage the enemy or help his people. The Khan faced strong resistance from the defenders of the city; But this resistance did not last long. The city fell in less than two weeks, because the city's communication routes were cut off from all sides, and so they Inevitably gave up their resistance. After capturing Bukhara , the Mongol invaders killed thousands of unarmed and defenseless citizens and took

2870-528: The Sobat, all merging into a vast barrier swamp . Vast oil areas are present to the south and east on the flood plain, a basin in southern Sudan into which the rivers of Congo , Uganda , Kenya , and Ethiopia drain from an ironstone plateau that belts the regions of Bahr El Ghazal and Upper Nile . The terrain can be divided into four land classes: The ecology of the large basin is unique; until recently, wild animals and birds flourished, rarely hunted by

2952-482: The agro-pastoralists. The climate determines the Dinka's migration patterns, responding to the periodic flooding and dryness of their surroundings. They begin moving around May–June, at the onset of the rainy season, migrating to their settlements of mud and thatch housing situated above flood level, where they plant their crops of millet and other grains. These rainy season settlements feature other permanent structures such as cattle byres ( luak ) and granaries. During

3034-485: The beginning of his monarchy, Genghis Khan attached great importance to commerce because he needed to procure weapons from India and Damascus ; he also needed markets to sell Mongolian and Chinese products. But the conflict between Shah Muhammad and Kuchlug Khan , the leader of the Naimans , had caused the closure of the roads and the interruption between the east and west trade. At the same time as this interruption in

3116-409: The city to the enemy, and Genghis' army entered the city and massacred and looted the people. After the attack, the city of Samarkand became a ruin and was deserted. Mongol soldiers took the city of Otrar after a decisive attack, but the fortress of Otrar resisted for a month (according to some documents, six months). After taking the fortress of Otrar, Mongols killed all the defenders of the city and

3198-492: The command of Jochi to take the cities around the Syr Darya towards the city of Jand , and he himself moved towards Bukhara with his son Tolui at the head of the main forces. Genghis always used the services of advisers, roadmen and merchants during his campaigns. Therefore, there was always a group of Muslim merchants who were familiar with the roads of Khwarazmia , and were in his camp for their advice. Also, after

3280-472: The defense of Samarkand and had gathered a large force in this city and the fortifications of the city had been repaired. According to various historians, between 50,000 and 110,000 soldiers had gathered in Samarkand to defend the city. It seems that the city could have resisted the siege for several years. On the third day of the siege, a group of the city's defenders came out of their positions and attacked

3362-523: The dry season (beginning about December–January), everyone except the aged, ill, and nursing mothers migrates to semi-permanent dwellings in the toic for cattle grazing. The cultivation of sorghum , millet , and other crops begins in the highlands in the early rainy season, and the harvest begins when the rains are heavy in June–August. Cattle are driven to the toic in September and November when

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3444-527: The east. In 1209, he conquered Mazandaran , which had been held by the Bavands for a long time. In the 12th century, a group of Khitan people from North China who were Buddhists , had formed a large political entity in the province of Kashgar and Hotan called Qara Khitai . In order to block their expansionism, the Khwarazmians had agreed to pay them a yearly tribute. This custom continued until

3526-411: The empire and prevent Mongols from crossing Syr Darya (medieval Arabs called this river Seyhan ) but the commanders of the Khwarazmian army did not fancy his plan. They suggested that they wait for the Mongols to arrive to Transoxiana and reach the difficult straits. They also proposed to attack the Mongols when they would be having certain difficulties considering their supposed lack of knowledge of

3608-576: The end of the Islamic Golden Age . Persia would later become the heartland of the Mongol Ilkhanate . After the fall of the Seljuks of Persian Iraq , with the defeat of Toghrul III by Ala al-Din Tekish (the father of Shah Muhammad ), a severe enmity arose over the governance of Western Iran between the Abbasid caliph Al-Nasir and Ala al-Din Tekish. These conflicts continued during

3690-402: The end of the first millennium suggests an established presence in the region prior to major migrations. Lastly, Dinka oral traditions recounting southward migrations align with their historical narrative in the Gezira , reinforcing the significance of their interactions with Nubian cultures. Collectively, these factors support the argument that the ancestors of the Dinka were closely connected to

3772-410: The enemy. They killed some of the Mongol soldiers, but then they were surrounded by the enemy, and most of them perished on the battlefield. This unsuccessful attack had an unfortunate effect on the morale of the defenders. Some influential people of the city decided to surrender and sent the qadi and Shaykh al-Islām of the city to Genghis Khan to talk about surrender. Finally, they opened the gates of

3854-524: The faith. Most Dinka converted to Christianity and are learning to adapt traditional religious practices to Christian teachings. The conversion took place in rural villages and among Dinka refugees country. The Lost Boys of Sudan were converted in significant numbers in the refugee camps of Ethiopia . Forces led by the breakaway Riek Machar faction deliberately killed an estimated 2,000 civilians from Hol, Nyarweng, Twic east and Bor and wounded several thousand more over two months. Much of their wealth

3936-619: The first ambassador of Shah Muhammad was accepted in Beijing , and Genghis declared trade between the Mongols and Khwarazmians as a necessity for establishing friendly relations. During this situation, a number of Muslim merchants from Shah Muhammad's territory took some goods to the Mongol Empire , and although Genghis treated them violently at the beginning of their arrival, he finally appeased them and sent them back with respect. At

4018-439: The forehead with a sharp object. During this ceremony, they acquire a second cow-color name. The Dinka believe they derive religious power from nature and the world around them rather than from scripture. Men and women eat separately. When milk supply is low, children get priority. Children are fed milk from 9–12 months. After about one year, children start eating solid food (porridge). After children turn three, they eat two meals

4100-488: The former husband. However, those Dinka male members of a clan who possess animals bought with grain, rather than acquired by way of marriage payments, are more honored and given more respect because their wealth is perceived as being more stable. Thus: "this cattle is not returnable and does not have external links and cannot be taken back easily, for example, by divorce. It therefore represents ‘pure property’ derived from labor and this kind of man has much more stable wealth and

4182-620: The kingdom of Alwa, shaping their cultural practices and historical trajectory. The Damadim, a group of Africans mentioned by various medieval Arab writers during the 13th century, may have been ancestors of the Dinka and other Western Nilotic groups like the Luo peoples . They were reported to live southwest of Alodia, possibly in the Southern Gezira or around the Bahr al-Ghazal and Sobat regions of South Sudan. Stephanie Beswick suggests that

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4264-509: The land of their non-Dinka neighbors. According to the Balanda Bviri politician Bandindi Pascal Uru: "The Dinka are good cultivators; they cultivate slowly but surely for hours. When the Dinka leave the business of cattle they take the hoe very seriously." The connection of agriculture and economics to Dinka marriage is important. Grain as well as cattle have been and continue to be used in both bartering and bridewealth payments. Wealth

4346-535: The land routes, the sea route of the Persian Gulf was also blocked due to the war between the ruler of Kish and the ruler of Hormuz , which resulted in a trade crisis in the Central Asian region. The merchants wanted the end of the conflicts and the opening of the roads. Hence, during the Mongols' attacks, some Muslim merchants helped Genghis to progress to the west. To solve this crisis, Kuchlug Khan

4428-431: The looting of burial sites and the destruction of two major churches, possibly tied to the Damadim conquest. Despite the limited sources, the Damadim's movements and activities provide a potential link to the later (western) Nilotic migrations into South Sudan that would occur post-1000 A.D. and are linked with the introduction of humped cattle . The Dinka migrations southward during the 15th to 18th centuries played

4510-525: The loсal terrain. The Shah didn't give importance to the counsel of Shahab al-Din, and accepted the plan of scattering his troops to protect major cities of the empire. In the meanwhile, Shah Muhammad left for Balkh . In September 1219, Genghis Khan arrived at Otrar , on the border of the Khwarazmian territory, and divided his forces into three parts; He assigned one part to his sons Ögedei and Chagatai to besiege Otrar, sent another part under

4592-535: The mound remains a center of great sanctity, but is no longer attended with communal gatherings and ritual operations." Dinka refugees were portrayed in works such as Lost Boys of Sudan by Megan Mylan and Jon Shenk and God Grew Tired Of Us , Joan Hechts' book The Journey of the Lost Boys and the fictionalized autobiography of a Dinka refugee, Dave Eggers ' What Is the What: The Autobiography of Valentino Achak Deng . Other books on and by

4674-410: The mound was built on the orders of Ayuel Longar himself. According to historical accounts there were many years of toil in the early days during which Ayuel, who had reached the Nile and Sobat Rivers, ordered his people to construct a large monument. Some people died in the building of this structure, their bodies adding to the rising edifice. Some Dinka say this mound was built after Ayued's death. Today

4756-569: The overthrow of the Khwarazmian Empire, but also the subsequent overthrow of the Abbasid government. Simultaneously with the coronation of Shah Muhammad , the Ghurids captured the remaining lands of the Ghaznavids and Khorasan cities such as Balkh . Shah Muhammad defeated the Ghurid dynasty in 1212 and captured Ghazni in 1215, thus he extended the border of his territory to India from

4838-444: The people as a monument to his name. A pyramid of stones known as Alel exists in the territory of Western Luaic Dinka in the town of Makuac. This pyramid entombs the body of a prominent Eastern Twic Dinka priest named Kuol Alel who led his people across from the banks of the eastern Nile and in the process of migrating west died in this region. Every year there is a celebration held ar Aled in honor of this prominent leader. The pyramid

4920-437: The previous humpless breeds. The domestication of caudatum sorghum along with the more durable breeds of cattle introduced into this region of Southern Sudan an economic system of the greatest efficiency in Sudan and East Africa, giving the Dinka a military and political advantage over all other tribes in the region. These integrated systems were able to support population increases in the Bahr el-Ghazal and later expansions towards

5002-463: The rainfall drops off and graze on crop remnants. While the Dinka are often seen as only pastoralists, they are actually agro-pastoralists. Agriculture plays a very big part in their livelihood, with Sorghum being their most important crop grown. The Dinka also grow okra, sesame, pumpkin, cow peas, maize, cassava, ground nuts, different types of beans, water melons, tobacco and millet. In Dinka society, both genders engage in cultivation, and on big farms

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5084-470: The region and during the 1300s to 1600s great droughts were occurring all over east and southern Africa which caused many former tribes of south Sudan like the Luo to migrate southwards (this drought is recorded in Luo oral history as the "Nyarubanga" famine). The tribes that did not migrate had only the option (if their crops completely died) to be in service of their incoming wealthier Agro-pastoral neighbours like

5166-612: The region. Soon after his accession to the khaganate in 1227, Ögedei Khan sent an army under Chormaqan Noyan to end Jalal al-Din's renewed resistance and subjugate several minor polities in Persia. This was carried out gradually: al-Din was killed in 1231, with Isfahan and Maragheh being besieged and captured the same year; Erbil was captured in 1234; and Georgia was gradually subjugated and vassalised before Chormaqan's death in 1241. Several other Persian towns and cities, such as Hamadan , Ray , and Ardabil , were also captured by

5248-404: The reign of Shah Muhammad, and Western Iran became the battleground of the Khwarazmian troops and the caliphate troops. In order to destroy the Khwarazmian Empire , Al-Nasir not only provoked the Ghurids and fanatical religious scholars from Transoxiana against it, but also asked help from the Nizari Ismaili state , the Qara Khitai and Mongol tribes. These actions eventually not only led to

5330-484: The rest as slaves. Genghis Khan summoned the elders of Bukhara and told them that the purpose of summoning them is to collect the assets that Shah Muhammad had sold to merchants (The Otrar Incident), because these objects belonged to the Mongols. They brought all the property they had from the Otrar caravan and handed them over to Genghis Khan. Then they took the road to Samarkand . Shah Muhammad greatly emphasized

5412-417: The resulting amount to the capital of the Khwarazmian government. When the news of Otrar incident reached Genghis Khan, he decided to control his anger and made his last attempt to gain satisfaction through diplomacy. He sent a Muslim, who was previously in the service of Ala al-Din Tekish and was accompanied by two Mongols, to protest against the performance of Inalchuq and requested to surrender him to

5494-524: The shah wanted the authority of the Khwarazmians sentence in Baghdad . As a result of this dispute and enmity, Shah Muhammad received a fatwa from the scholars of his country that " Bani Abbas " do not deserve the caliphate and one of "Husayni Sadat" (a person from the generation of Imam Husayn ) should be chosen for this position. Therefore, he declared the caliph deposed and ordered that the name of

5576-481: The start of the invasion, some of the commanders of Khwarazmia who were hostile to the Shah, like Badr al-Din Omid , whose father and uncle were killed by the order of Shah Muhammad, also joined the Mongol army and gave a lot of information to Genghis Khan about the situation in the Shah's court and the roads. From the method of attack, the division of the army and other decisions of Genghis Khan, it can be said that Genghis

5658-490: The stature of Dinka males later declined, possibly as a consequence of undernutrition and conflicts. An anthropometric survey of Dinka men, war refugees in Ethiopia , published in 1995, found a mean height of 176.4 cm (5 ft 9.4 in). Southern Sudan is "a large basin gently sloping northward", through which flow the Bahr el Jebel River, the White Nile , the Bahr el Ghazal (Nam) River and its tributaries, and

5740-411: The time that they were returning in 1218, a number of Mongol merchants, whose number reached 450 and apparently most of them were Muslims, was sent by Genghis with some goods and a letter containing his advice and request to establish relations between the two governments. But Inalchuq , the ruler of Otrar who was the nephew of Terken Khatun (Shah Muhammad's mother) and supported by her, was greedy for

5822-693: The times of Shah Muhammad, but then he refused to pay tribute to the "polytheist" king. Shah Muhammad fought three times with the Qara Khitai. At last in 1210, the Shah asked for help from Kuchlug , a prince and leader of the Naimans , in order to defeat the Qara Khitai. Kuchlug defeated them in Transoxiana and conquered Bukhara and Samarkand , usurping the Qara Khitai Empire from his father-in-law Yelü Zhilugu . After conquering Transoxiana , Kuchlug alienated both his subjects and

5904-460: The tradition of king-killing, links the Dinka to later groups who lived in Alodia's successor state Fazughli where the custom persisted into the 19th century. The political instability of Alwa coincided with the rise of slave raiding , creating social pressures that may have prompted Dinka migration south. Linguistically , the divergence of the Dinka language from other Western Nilotic languages at

5986-497: The wealth of the merchants and arrested the Mongol merchants on the charge of espionage on the border of the territory under his rule, and then with the permission of Shah Muhammad, who was in Persian Iraq at that time, massacred all these merchants. Then the officials of the Khwarazmian Empire sold the cargo of the caravan, which included 500 camels of gold, silver, Chinese silk artefacts, precious skins and such on, and sent

6068-491: The west. Dinka religious beliefs and practices also reflect their lifestyle. The Dinka religion, like most other Nilotic faiths, is polytheistic , but has one creator, Nhialic , who leads the Dinka pantheon of gods and spirits. He is generally distant from humans and does not directly interact with them. The sacrificing of oxen by the "masters of the fishing spear" is central to Dinka religious practice. Young men become adults through an initiation ritual that includes marking

6150-612: The women brew beer and everyone is involved. Before the Sudanese civil wars each household cultivated an average of two acres of sorghum around their homestead along with other crops. An estimated 87% of total calories and 76% of protein by weight are provided by crop production compared with 13% of calories and 24% of protein derived from livestock produce. Today, 83% of all available labor is estimated to be employed in agricultural activities compared with only 17% in livestock husbandry. In recent times, some poor or cattleless Dinka have farmed

6232-456: The women." Today this mound is known as Yik Ayuong. The pyramid of Luak Deng is said to be the "Mecca" of the Dinka and Nuer people and contains the shrine of their deity (and possibly real historical figure) Deng Dit (Deng the Great). It comprises a palisade standing on higher ground near a picturesque pool of water surrounded by ardeiba and suba trees. This pyramid is connected in mythology with

6314-583: The world. Muhammad died destitute on an island in the Caspian Sea . His son and successor, Jalal al-Din , tried to resist the Mongols, but was defeated and forced into exile. Genghis returned to his campaign against the Jin dynasty in 1223, only retaining governance of the northern Khwarazmian regions. The war had been one of the bloodiest in human history, with total casualties estimated to be between two and fifteen million people. The next three decades saw conflicts of lesser scale but equal destruction in

6396-458: Was cleared of grass, more earth was added to it, and the surface smoothed by women who made stripes along the pyramid with large quantities of durra (flour). This was in preparation for the annual ceremony yairunka baiet, which took place at the pyramid. During the celebrations the people gathered together for communal offerings to the spirit of Ayuong Dit and a “new fire” ceremony was performed in which eight bulls were sacrificed to bring fertility to

6478-474: Was constructed on the site of this priest's luak. The mound was built over the body of this priest who, with his wife and eight bulls, was locked up in their cattle byre by his express orders. District Commissioner Ibrahim Bedri who served during the British colonial period noted that the pyramid "was seventy-five paces in circumference and twenty-six paces along the slope. During the harvest season of each year it

6560-563: Was destroyed, which led to mass starvation deaths. It is estimated that 100,000 people left the area following the attack. Dinka are noted for their height, and, along with the Tutsi of Rwanda , they are the tallest group in Africa. Roberts and Bainbridge reported an average height of 182.6 cm (5 ft 11.9 in) in a sample of 52 Dinka Agaar and 181.3 cm (5 ft 11.4 in) in 227 Dinka Ruweng measured in 1953–1954. However,

6642-525: Was killed by the Mongols in 1218. Shah Muhammad didn't care to the importance of trade relations with the Far East and the significance of the location of his lands on the Silk Road , and he was indifferent to the merchants' needs and Genghis' wishes, so after removing Kuchlug Khan, it was Shah Muhammad's turn. ِDespite Muhammad II 's apparent authority, he was unprepared to defend his polity in case of

6724-475: Was really well familiar with the geographical situation of Transoxania . In 1220, Genghis Khan attacked Bukhara with the main forces of his army. Shah Muhammad was caught completely unaware. He had anticipated that Genghis would attack Samarkand first, where both his field army and the garrison stationed at Bukhara would relieve the siege. The Khan's march through the Kyzylkum Desert had left

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