Malla-yuddha ( Sanskrit : मल्लयुद्ध, IAST : mallayuddha ) is the traditional form of combat-wrestling originating in the Indian subcontinent . It is closely related to Southeast Asian wrestling styles such as naban and is one of the two ancestors of kushti . Indian wrestling is described in the 13th century Malla Purana .
102-418: Malla-yuddha incorporates wrestling, joint-breaking, punching, biting, choking and pressure point striking . Matches were traditionally codified into four types which progressed from purely sportive contests of strength to actual full-contact fights known as yuddha . Due to the extreme violence, this final form is generally no longer practised. The second form, wherein the wrestlers attempt to lift each other off
204-587: A fertility goddess is known. Jainism too was a prominent religion during this period. The kings of the dynasty were however secular and actively encouraged Jainism . One of the Badami Cave temples is dedicated to the Jain faith. Jain temples were also erected in the Aihole complex, the temple at Maguti being one such example. Ravikirti, the court poet of Pulakeshin II was a Jain. Queen Vinayavati consecrated
306-556: A 2nd-century chieftain called Kandachaliki Remmanaka, a feudatory of the Andhra Ikshvaku (from an Ikshvaku inscription of the 2nd century) was put forward. This according to Kamath has failed to explain the difference in lineage. The Kandachaliki feudatory call themselves Vashisthiputras of the Hiranyakagotra . The Chalukyas, however, address themselves as Harithiputras of Manavyasagotra in their inscriptions, which
408-420: A Ramayana character, is worshipped as the patron of wrestlers and general feats of strength. The Mahabharata epic also describes a wrestling match between Bhima and Jarasandha . Other early literary descriptions of wrestling matches include the story of Balarama and Krishna . Stories describing Krishna report that he sometimes engaged in wrestling matches where he used knee strikes to the chest, punches to
510-465: A blunt weapon such as a stick or staff. Varma Kalai is usually taught in the advanced stage of Adimurai , Kalaripayattu , and Silambam in Kerala and Tamil Nadu ; strikes are often targeted at the nerves and soft tissues. Folk traces varma kalai to the god Shiva who is said to have taught it to his son Murugan . While disguised as an old man, Murugan passed the knowledge of 108 Varmams to
612-480: A different standard compared to the coins of the northern kingdoms. The coins had Nagari and Kannada legends. The coins of Mangalesha had the symbol of a temple on the obverse and a 'sceptre between lamps' or a temple on the reverse. Pulakeshin II's coins had a caparisoned lion facing right on the obverse and a temple on the reverse. The coins weighed 4 grams and were called, in old-Kannada, hun (or honnu ) and had fractions such as fana (or fanam ) and
714-530: A more limited-contact style of folk wrestling rather than true grappling combat. The term malla was historically a proper name referring to, among other things, an asura known as mallāsura and the name of a tribe from the Malla Kingdom mentioned in the Mahabharata. The name Malla was also used in this sense for an ancient mahajanapada , a Nepalese dynasty descended from them, and
816-593: A poet named Vijayanaka who describes herself as the "dark Sarasvati " have been preserved. It is possible that she may have been a queen of prince Chandraditya (a son of Pulakeshin II). Famous writers in Sanskrit from the Western Chalukya period are Vijnaneshwara who achieved fame by writing Mitakshara , a book on Hindu law, and King Someshvara III , a noted scholar, who compiled an encyclopaedia of all arts and sciences called Manasollasa . From
918-439: A substantial cash prize from the king and presented with a victory standard. Possession of this standard brought national distinction. The scene of action was gay with flags flapping, and the citizenry quickly packed the rows of benches. When the wrestlers climbed into the arena, they strutted around, flexing their muscles, leaping in the air, crying out and clapping their hands. Then they grappled, holding each other tightly around
1020-511: A temple for the Trimurti ("Hindu trinity") at Badami. Sculptures of the Trimurti, Harihara (half Vishnu, half Shiva) and Ardhanarishwara (half Shiva, half woman) provide ample evidence of their tolerance. Buddhism was on a decline, having made its ingress into Southeast Asia. This is confirmed by the writings of Hiuen-Tsiang. Badami, Aihole, Kurtukoti and Puligere (modern Lakshmeshwar in
1122-417: A traditional arena or akhara . Matches take place in a clay or dirt pit, thirty feet across and either square or circular in shape. The soil of the floor is mixed with various ingredients, including ghee . Before training, the floor is raked of any pebbles or stones. Water is added approximately every three days to keep it at the right consistency; soft enough to avoid injury but hard enough so as not to impede
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#17327722517171224-567: A vast empire, the Chalukyan workshops concentrated most of their temple building activity in a relatively small area within the Chalukyan heartland – Aihole , Badami , Pattadakal and Mahakuta in modern Karnataka state. Their temple building activity can be categorised into three phases. The early phase began in the last quarter of the 6th century and resulted in many cave temples, prominent among which are three elementary cave temples at Aihole (one Vedic , one Jain and one Buddhist which
1326-518: Is a Kula Purana associated with the Jyesthimalla , a Brahmin jāti of wrestlers from Gujarat , dating most likely to the 13th century. According to Alter, "It categorizes and classifies types of wrestlers, defines necessary physical characteristics, ... describes types of exercises and techniques of wrestling as well as the preparation of the wrestling pit", and provides a fairly precise account of which foods wrestlers should eat in each season of
1428-465: Is a tatpurusha compound of malla (wrestler, boxer, athlete) and yuddha or juddho (fight, battle, conflict). The compound is first attested in the Mahabharata referring to boxing matches such as those fought by Bhima . Another word for a sportive wrestling match or athletic sports more generally is malakhra . The second element, khra (sport, play, pastime, amusement) implies
1530-529: Is a celebration of the achievements of the Chalukyas in the realm of art, craft, music and dance. The program, which starts at Pattadakal and ends in Aihole, is inaugurated by the Chief Minister of Karnataka . Singers, dancers, poets and other artists from all over the country take part in this event. In the 26 February 2006 celebration, 400 art troupes took part in the festivities. Colorful cutouts of
1632-484: Is an Indian traditional art of pressure points . It combines massage, alternative medicine, traditional yoga and martial arts in which the body's pressure points ( varmam ) are manipulated to heal or cause harm. The healing application called Vaidhiya Murai is part of Siddha medicine ( siddha vaidyam ). Its combat application is known as Adimurai (it includes a component called Varma Adi , meaning "pressure-point striking") can be done either empty-handed or with
1734-514: Is claimed to be the Pulakeshin ;I 's father. However, according to the historians K. V. Ramesh, Chopra and Sastri, there are Badami Chalukya inscriptions that confirm Jayasimha was Pulakeshin I's grandfather and Ranaraga , his father. Kamath and Moraes claim it was a popular practice in the 11th century to link South Indian royal family lineage to a Northern kingdom. The Badami Chalukya records themselves are silent with regards to
1836-701: Is incomplete), followed by four developed cave temples at Badami (of which cave 3, a Vaishnava temple, is dated accurately to 578 CE). These cave temples at Badami are similar, in that, each has a plain exterior but an exceptionally well finished interior consisting of a pillared verandah , a columned hall ( mantapa ) and a cella (shrine, cut deep into rock) which contains the deity of worship. In Badami, three caves temples are Vedic and one in Jain. The Vedic temples contain large well sculpted images of Harihara , Mahishasuramardhini , Varaha , Narasimha , Trivikrama, Vishnu seated on Anantha (the snake) and Nataraja (dancing Shiva ). The second phase of temple building
1938-527: Is now virtually extinct in the northern states , but most of its traditions are perpetuated in modern kusti. The descendants of the Jyesti clan continued to practice their ancestral arts of malla-yuddha and vajra-musti into the 1980s but rarely do so today. Malla-yuddha has survived ceremonially in south India however, and can still be seen in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu today. Wrestlers train and fight in
2040-485: Is presumed Pulakeshin II, "the great hero", died fighting. The Badami Chalukya dynasty went into a brief decline following the death of Pulakeshin II due to internal feuds when Badami was occupied by the Pallavas for a period of thirteen years. It recovered during the reign of Vikramaditya I , who succeeded in pushing the Pallavas out of Badami and restoring order to the empire. Vikramaditya I took
2142-541: Is repeated by his court poet Bilhana, who claims that the first member of the family, "Chalukya", was so named as he was born in the "hollow of the hands" of God Brahma . Some genealogical accounts point to an Ayodhya origin and claim that the Chalukyas belonged to the Solar dynasty . According to a theory put forward by Lewis, the Chalukya were descendants of the " Seleukia " tribe of Iraq and that their conflict with
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#17327722517172244-714: Is said to have authored the Prabhrita , and Srivaradhadeva (also called Tumubuluracharya, 650 or earlier), the possible author of the Chudamani ("Crest Jewel"), a lengthy commentary on logic . The rule of the Western and Eastern Chalukyas, however, is a major event in the history of Kannada and Telugu literatures respectively. By the 9th–10th centuries, Kannada language had already seen some of its most notable writers. The "three gems" of Kannada literature , Adikavi Pampa , Sri Ponna and Ranna belonged to this period. In
2346-519: Is seen clearly in the field of architecture. The Chalukyas spawned the Vesara style of architecture which includes elements of the northern nagara and southern dravida styles. During this period, the expanding Sanskritic culture mingled with local Dravidian vernaculars which were already popular. Dravidian languages maintain these influences even today. This influence helped to enrich literature in these languages. The Hindu legal system owes much to
2448-949: Is similar to the Dasagrama unit used by the Kadambas . At the lower levels of administration, the Kadamba style prevailed fully. The Sanjan plates of Vikramaditya I even mentions a land unit called Dasagrama . In addition to imperial provinces, there were autonomous regions ruled by feudatories such as the Alupas, the Gangas , the Banas and the Sendrakas. Local assemblies and guilds looked after local issues. Groups of mahajanas (learned brahmins ) looked after agraharas (called ghatika or "place of higher learning") such as at Badami which
2550-464: Is the same lineage as their early overlords, the Kadambas of Banavasi. This makes them descendants of the Kadambas. The Chalukyas took control of the territory formerly ruled by the Kadambas. A later record of Eastern Chalukyas mentions the northern origin theory and claims one ruler of Ayodhya came south, defeated the Pallavas and married a Pallava princess. She had a child called Vijayaditya who
2652-557: The Varaha the Chalukya emblem, Satyashraya Pulakeshin (Pulakeshin II), famous sculptural masterpieces such as Durga , Mahishasuramardhini (Durga killing demon Mahishasura ) were present everywhere. The program at Pattadakal is named Anivaritacharigund vedike after the famous architect of the Virupaksha temple, Gundan Anivaritachari . At Badami it is called Chalukya Vijayambika Vedike and at Aihole, Ravikirti Vedike after
2754-576: The Chola kingdom. Choda Bhima's invasion of Tondaimandalam, a Chola territory, and his subsequent death on the battlefield opened up a new era in Chola–Chalukya relations. Saktivarman I, the elder son of Danarnava was crowned as the ruler of Vengi in 1000, though under the control of king Rajaraja Chola I . This new relationship between the Cholas and the coastal Andhra kingdom was unacceptable to
2856-473: The Gadag district ) were primary places of learning. The Hindu caste system was present and devadasis were recognised by the government. Some kings had concubines ( ganikas ) who were given much respect, and Sati was perhaps absent since widows like Vinayavathi and Vijayanka are mentioned in records. Devadasis were however present in temples. Sage Bharata 's Natyashastra , the precursor to Bharatanatyam ,
2958-624: The Kadamba kingdom of Banavasi and rapidly rose to prominence during the reign of Pulakeshin II . After the death of Pulakeshin II, the Eastern Chalukyas became an independent kingdom in the eastern Deccan . They ruled from Vengi until about the 11th century. In the western Deccan, the rise of the Rashtrakutas in the middle of the 8th century eclipsed the Chalukyas of Badami before being revived by their descendants,
3060-938: The Karnata dravida tradition. The most notable of the many buildings dating from this period are the Mahadeva Temple at Itagi in the Koppal district , the Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi in the Gadag district , the Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti, and the Kallesvara Temple at Bagali, both in the Davangere district . Other notable constructions are the Dodda Basappa Temple at Dambal (Gadag district),
3162-589: The Mahakuta Pillar inscription of Mangalesha (595) and the Aihole inscription of Pulakeshin II (634) are examples of important Sanskrit inscriptions written in old Kannada script . The reign of the Chalukyas saw the arrival of Kannada as the predominant language of inscriptions along with Sanskrit, in areas of the Indian peninsula outside what is known as Tamilakam (Tamil country). Several coins of
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3264-481: The Malaprabha river basin in modern Bagalkot district of northern Karnataka. The building material they used was a reddish-golden Sandstone found locally. These cave temples are basically excavations, cut out of the living rock sites they occupy. They were not built as their structural counterparts were, rather created by a special technique known as "subtraction" and are basically sculptural. Though they ruled
3366-761: The Mallabhum kingdom in Bishnapur. In the Manusmriti (10.22; 12.45), it is the technical term for the offspring of an out-caste kshatriya by a kshatriya female who was previously the wife of another out-caste. Wrestling in the Indian subcontinent , making it the oldest known codified form of fighting in the region. Competitions held for entertainment were popular among all social classes, with even kings and other royalty taking part. Wrestlers represented their kings in matches between rival kingdoms; death matches before
3468-598: The Pallava of Kanchi was, but a continuation of the conflict between ancient Seleukia and " Parthians ", the proposed ancestors of Pallavas . However, this theory has been rejected by Kamath as it seeks to build lineages based simply on similar-sounding clan names. The Chalukyas ruled over the Deccan plateau in India for over 600 years. During this period, they ruled as three closely related, but individual dynasties. These are
3570-589: The Siddhesvara Temple at Haveri ( Haveri district ), and the Amrtesvara Temple at Annigeri ( Dharwad district ). The Eastern Chalukyas built some fine temples at Alampur, in modern eastern Andhra Pradesh. The Aihole inscription of Pulakeshin II (634) written by his court poet Ravikirti in Sanskrit language and Kannada script is considered as a classical piece of poetry. A few verses of
3672-699: The Vishnukundina kingdom. He appointed his brother Kubja Vishnuvardhana as Viceroy in 621. Thus the Eastern Chalukyas were originally of Kannada stock. After the death of Pulakeshin II, the Vengi Viceroyalty developed into an independent kingdom and included the region between Nellore and Visakhapatnam . After the decline of the Badami Chalukya empire in the mid-8th century, territorial disputes flared up between
3774-607: The Western Chalukyas , in the late 10th century. These Western Chalukyas ruled from Kalyani (modern Basavakalyan ) until the end of the 12th century. The rule of the Chalukyas marks an important milestone in the history of South India and a golden age in the history of Karnataka . The political atmosphere in South India shifted from smaller kingdoms to large empires with the ascendancy of Badami Chalukyas. A Southern India-based kingdom took control and consolidated
3876-804: The gada (mace) and sword before wrestling with his favourite opponent. His many wives were tended to by only female servants and guards, and among the 12,000 women in the palace were those who wrestled and others who fought with sword and shield. During the Navaratri festival, wrestlers compete in front of the king, as described by the Portuguese traveller Domingo Paes . Then the wrestlers begin their play. Their wrestling does not seem like ours, but there are blows (given), so severe as to break teeth, and put out eyes, and disfigure faces, so much so that here and there men are carried off speechless by their friends; they give one another fine falls too. Malla-yuddha
3978-652: The quarter fana (the modern day Kannada equivalent being hana – which literally means "money"). A gold coin called gadyana is mentioned in a record at the Vijayeshwara Temple at Pattadakal , which later came to be known as varaha (their royal emblem). Both Shaivism and Vaishnavism flourished during the Badami Chalukya period, though it seems the former was more popular. Famous temples were built in places such as Pattadakal, Aihole and Mahakuta, and priests ( archakas ) were invited from northern India. Vedic sacrifices, religious vows ( vrata ) and
4080-478: The "Chalukyas of Badami" (also called "Early Chalukyas"), who ruled between the 6th and the 8th century, and the two sibling dynasties, the "Chalukyas of Kalyani" (also called Western Chalukyas or "Later Chalukyas") and the "Chalukyas of Vengi" (also called Eastern Chalukyas ). In the 6th century, with the decline of the Gupta dynasty and their immediate successors in northern India, major changes began to happen in
4182-526: The 11th century, Telugu literature was born under the patronage of the Eastern Chalukyas with Nannaya Bhatta as its first writer. The army was well organised and this was the reason for Pulakeshin II's success beyond the Vindyas. It consisted of an infantry, a cavalry, an elephant corps and a powerful navy. The Chinese traveller Hiuen-Tsiang wrote that the Chalukyan army had hundreds of elephants which were intoxicated with liquor prior to battle. It
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4284-542: The 8th century and now a UNESCO World Heritage Site , marks the culmination and mature phase of Badami Chalukyan architecture. The Bhutanatha group of temples at Badami are also from this period. There are ten temples at Pattadakal, six in southern dravida style and four in the northern nagara style. Well known among these are the Sangamesvara Temple (725), the Virupaksha Temple (740–745) and
4386-569: The Ayodhya origin. While the northern origin theory has been dismissed by many historians, the epigraphist K. V. Ramesh has suggested that an earlier southern migration is a distinct possibility which needs examination. According to him, the complete absence of any inscriptional reference of their family connections to Ayodhya, and their subsequent Kannadiga identity may have been due to their earlier migration into present day Karnataka region where they achieved success as chieftains and kings. Hence,
4488-691: The Badami Chalukyas with Kannada legends have been found. All this indicates that Kannada language flourished during this period. Travelogues of contemporary foreign travellers have provided useful information about the Chalukyan empire. The Chinese traveller Xuanzang had visited the court of Pulakeshin II . At the time of this visit, as mentioned in the Aihole record, Pulakeshin II had divided his empire into three Maharashtrakas or great provinces comprising 99,000 villages each. This empire possibly covered present day Karnataka , Maharashtra and coastal Konkan . Xuanzang, impressed with
4590-583: The British Indian court system. It was during the Western Chalukya rule that the Bhakti movement gained momentum in South India, in the form of Ramanujacharya and Basavanna , later spreading into northern India. A celebration called Chalukya utsava , a three-day festival of music and dance, organised by the Government of Karnataka , is held every year at Pattadakal, Badami and Aihole. The event
4692-526: The Chalukya king Pulakeshin II was war-like and loved "military arts", because he was a Kshatriya by birth. The historians Jan Houben and Kamath, and the epigraphist D.C. Sircar note the Badami Chalukya inscriptions are in Kannada and Sanskrit . According to the historian N. L. Rao, their inscriptions call them Karnatas and their names use indigenous Kannada titles such as Priyagallam and Noduttagelvom . The names of some Chalukya princes end with
4794-461: The Chalukya rule in the western Deccan and recovered most of the Chalukya empire. The Western Chalukyas ruled for over 200 years and were in constant conflict with the Cholas , and with their cousins, the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. Vikramaditya VI is widely considered the most notable ruler of the dynasty. Starting from the very beginning of his reign, which lasted fifty years, he abolished
4896-573: The Chalukyas maintained close family and marital relationships. Pulakeshin II extended the Chalukya Empire up to the northern extents of the Pallava kingdom and halted the southward march of Harsha by defeating him on the banks of the river Narmada . He then defeated the Vishnukundins in the south-eastern Deccan. Pallava Narasimhavarman however reversed this victory in 642 by attacking and occupying Badami temporarily. It
4998-467: The Eastern Chalukyas. The Badami Chalukya era was an important period in the development of South Indian architecture. The kings of this dynasty were called Umapati Varlabdh and built many temples for the Hindu god Shiva. Their style of architecture is called "Chalukyan architecture" or "Karnata Dravida architecture". Nearly a hundred monuments built by them, rock cut (cave) and structural, are found in
5100-591: The Mallikarjuna Temple (740–745) in the southern style. The Papanatha temple (680) and Galaganatha Temple (740) are early attempts in the nagara – dravida fusion style. Inscriptional evidence suggests that the Virupaksha and the Mallikarjuna Temples were commissioned by the two queens of King Vikramaditya II after his military success over the Pallavas of Kanchipuram. Some well known names of Chalukyan architects are Revadi Ovajja, Narasobba and Anivarita Gunda . The reign of Western Chalukyas
5202-652: The Meguti Jain Temple (634) which shows progress in structural design; the Durga Temple with its northern Indian style tower (8th century) and experiments to adapt a Buddhist Chaitya design to a brahminical one (its stylistic framework is overall a hybrid of north and south Indian styles. ); the Huccimalli Gudi Temple with a new inclusion, a vestibule , connecting the sanctum to the hall. Other dravida style temples from this period are
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#17327722517175304-933: The Naganatha Temple at Nagaral; the Banantigudi Temple, the Mahakutesvara Temple and the Mallikarjuna Temple at Mahakuta; and the Lower Sivalaya Temple, the Malegitti Sivalaya Temple (upper) and the Jambulingesvara Temple at Badami. Located outside the Chalukyan architectural heartland, 140 km south-east of Badami, with a structure related to the Early Chalukya style is the unusual Parvati Temple at Sanduru which dates to
5406-415: The Rashtrakutas, the new rulers of the western deccan, and the Eastern Chalukyas. For much of the next two centuries, the Eastern Chalukyas had to accept subordination towards the Rashtrakutas. Apart from a rare military success, such as the one by Vijayaditya II(c.808–847), it was only during the rule of Bhima I (c.892–921) that these Chalukyas were able to celebrate a measure of independence. After
5508-417: The Sanskrit work Mitakshara by Vijnaneshwara in the court of Western Chalukya King Vikramaditya VI. Perhaps the greatest work in legal literature, Mitakshara is a commentary on Yajnavalkya and is a treatise on law based on earlier writings and has found acceptance in most parts of India. Englishman Henry Thomas Colebrooke later translated into English the section on inheritance, giving it currency in
5610-441: The Western Chalukyas, who had by then replaced the Rashtrakutas as the main power in the western Deccan. The Western Chalukyas sought to brook the growing Chola influence in the Vengi region but were unsuccessful. Initially, the Eastern Chalukyas had encouraged Kannada language and literature, though, after a period of time, local factors took over and they gave importance to Telugu language . Telugu literature owes its growth to
5712-432: The age of ten to twelve. To avoid stunting their growth, young trainees are first taught kundakavartana , callisthenics and exercises to develop their overall strength and endurance without equipment. Exercises that employ the wrestler's own bodyweight include the sun salutation ( Surya Namaskara ), shirshasana , Hindu squat ( bethak ) and the Hindu press-up ( danda ), which are also found in hatha yoga . After acquiring
5814-429: The animals. The national museums of Sri Lanka have documented at least 86 nila and their functions. Varma kalai is attributed to several Siddhars , namely Agastya , Bogar , Theriyar, Pulipani and famously Avvaiyar. Out of these, only the Agastya school is commonly practiced in Tamil Nadu and in the neighboring state of Kerala . Nokku marma Chalukya The Chalukya dynasty ( [tʃaːɭukjə] )
5916-460: The area south of the Vindhyas – the Deccan and Tamilakam . The age of small kingdoms had given way to large empires in this region. The Chalukya dynasty was established by Pulakeshin I in 543. Pulakeshin I took Vatapi (modern Badami in Bagalkot district, Karnataka ) under his control and made it his capital. Pulakeshin I and his descendants are referred to as "Chalukyas of Badami". They ruled over an empire that comprised
6018-439: The arms, legs and upper-body. In a later variation, the pole was replaced with a hanging rope. Rope mallakhamba is today most commonly practiced by children as a spectator sport in itself rather than its traditional role as a form of training for wrestling. Other training concepts include the following. Varma kalai Traditional Varma Kalai ( Tamil : varmakkalai , Malayalam and Sanskrit : marma-vidya/marmam )
6120-407: The body remains pure and the wrestlers are able to focus on cultivating themselves physically, mentally and spiritually. This purity is also said to help achieve the highest level of martial and sporting perfection. A wrestler's only belongings are a blanket, a kowpeenam (loincloth) and some clothes. In this regard, they are often compared to Hindu-Buddhist holy men. Boys typically start training at
6222-428: The body's vital points in India included not only humans but also elephants. Known as nila , learning these points on an elephant's body was and remains necessary for mahouts . Prodding particular nila with a stick elicits various responses such as bringing the animal under control or making them kneel. Warriors would learn to attack certain nila on opposing war-elephants during battle, which could either kill or frighten
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#17327722517176324-415: The classical dance of South India, was popular and is seen in many sculptures and is mentioned in inscriptions. Some women from the royal family enjoyed political power in administration. Queen Vijayanka was a noted Sanskrit poet, Kumkumadevi, the younger sister of Vijayaditya (and queen of Alupa King Chitravahana) made several grants and had a Jain basadi called Anesajjebasadi constructed at Puligere, and
6426-402: The death of Bhima I, the Andhra region once again saw succession disputes and interference in Vengi affairs by the Rashtrakutas. The fortunes of the Eastern Chalukyas took a turn around 1000. Danarnava, their king, was killed in battle in 973 by the Telugu Choda King Bhima who then imposed his rule over the region for twenty-seven years. During this time, Danarnava's two sons took refuge in
6528-401: The development of Kannada literature and Sanskrit literature . They went into their final dissolution towards the end of the 12th century with the rise of the Hoysala Empire , the Pandyas , the Kakatiya and the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri . Pulakeshin II conquered the eastern Deccan, corresponding to the coastal districts of modern Andhra Pradesh in 616, defeating the remnants of
6630-420: The early Chalukyas, suggests that the Western Chalukya kings belonged to the same family line as the illustrious Badami Chalukya dynasty of the 6th century while other Western Chalukya inscriptional evidence indicates they were a distinct line unrelated to the Early Chalukyas. Tailapa II , a Rashtrakuta feudatory ruling from Tardavadi – 1000 ( Bijapur district ) overthrew Karka II , re-established
6732-446: The entire region between the Kaveri and the Narmada rivers. The rise of this empire saw the birth of efficient administration, overseas trade and commerce and the development of new style of architecture called "Chalukyan architecture". Kannada literature , which had enjoyed royal support in the 9th century Rashtrakuta court found eager patronage from the Western Chalukyas in the Jain and Veerashaiva traditions. The 11th century saw
6834-435: The entire state of Karnataka and most of Andhra Pradesh in the Deccan. Pulakeshin II , whose pre-coronation name was Ereya, commanded control over the entire Deccan and is perhaps the most well-known emperor of the Badami dynasty. He is considered one of the notable kings in Indian history. His queens were princess from the Alupa Dynasty of South Canara and the Western Ganga Dynasty of Talakad , clans with whom
6936-430: The giving of gifts ( dana ) was important. The Badami kings were followers of Vedic Hinduism and dedicated temples to popular Hindu deities in Aihole. Sculptures of deities testify to the popularity of Hindu Gods such as Vishnu , Shiva , Kartikeya , Ganapathi , Shakti , Surya and Sapta Matrikas ("seven mothers"). The Badami kings also performed the Ashwamedha ("horse sacrifice"). The worship of Lajja Gauri ,
7038-532: The governance of the empire observed that the benefits of the king's efficient administration was felt far and wide. Later, Persian emperor Khosrau II exchanged ambassadors with Pulakeshin II. Court poets of the Western Chalukya dynasty of Kalyani narrate: Some scholars connect the Chalukyas with the Chaulukyas (Solankis) of Gujarat . According to a myth mentioned in latter manuscripts of Prithviraj Raso , Chaulukyas were born out of fire-pit (Agnikund) at Mount Abu . However it has been reported that
7140-410: The governor of the Chalukya branch of Navsari . Vikramaditya II later overran the other traditional kingdoms of Tamil country, the Pandyas , the Cholas and the Cheras in addition to subduing a Kalabhra ruler. The last Chalukya king, Kirtivarman II , was overthrown by the Rashtrakuta king Dantidurga in 753. At their peak, the Chalukyas ruled a vast empire stretching from the Kaveri in
7242-403: The ground for three seconds, still exists in south India . Additionally, malla-yuddha is divided into four categories (see below). Each yuddhan is named after Hindu gods and legendary fighters: In Sanskrit , mallayuddha literally translates to "wrestling combat". Strictly speaking, the term denotes a single pugilistic encounter or prize-fight rather than a style or school of wrestling. It
7344-542: The gym's patron deity, most commonly Hanuman . Every training hall has a small makeshift altar for this purpose, where incense is lit and small yellow flower garlands are offered to the god. This is followed by paying respect to the guru by touching the head to his feet, a traditional sign of respect for elders in the Indian subcontinent. Many wrestlers live at their training hall but this is not always required. Traditionally revered as extensions of Hanuman, all wrestlers are required to abstain from sex, smoking and drinking so
7446-524: The head, hair pulling, and strangleholds. He defeated Kamsa , king of Mathura, in a wrestling match and became new king in his place. Siddhartha Gautama himself was said to be an expert wrestler, archer and sword-fighter before becoming the Buddha . Based on such accounts, Svinth traces press ups and squats used by Indian wrestlers to the pre-classical era. Later, the Pallava king Narasimhavarman acquired
7548-436: The late 7th century. It is medium-sized, 48 ft long and 37 ft wide. It has a nagara (north Indian) style vimana (tower) and dravida (south Indian) style parts, has no mantapa (hall) and consists of an antarala ( vestibule ) crowned with a barrel-vaulted tower ( sukhanasi ). The "staggered" base plan of the temple became popular much later, in the 11th century. The structural temples at Pattadakal, built in
7650-656: The main source of information about Badami Chalukya history. Among them, the Badami cave inscriptions of Mangalesha (578), Kappe Arabhatta record of c. 700, Peddavaduguru inscription of Pulakeshin II , the Kanchi Kailasanatha Temple inscription and Pattadakal Virupaksha Temple inscription of Vikramaditya II (all in Kannada language) provide more evidence of the Chalukya language. The Badami cliff inscription of Pulakeshin I (543),
7752-430: The necessary power and stamina, students may begin khambhasrama , referring to exercises that use the mallakhamba or wrestler's pillar. There are a number of pillars, although the most common is a free-standing upright pole, some eight to ten inches in diameter, planted into the ground. Wrestlers mount, dismount and utilize this pole for various complex callisthenics designed to develop their grip, stamina, and strength in
7854-458: The nickname Mahamalla meaning "great wrestler" for his passion and prowess in the art. Competitions in medieval times were announced by a kanjira -player a week beforehand. Matches took place at the palace entrance, in an enclosure set aside for games and shows. The wrestlers typically came of their own accord during public festivals, along with magicians, actors and acrobats. Other times they would be hired by nobles to compete. Winners were awarded
7956-631: The original Saka era and established the Vikrama Era . Most subsequent Chalukya inscriptions are dated in this new era. Vikramaditya VI was an ambitious and skilled military leader. Under his leadership the Western Chalukyas were able to end the Chola influence over Vengi (coastal Andhra) and become the dominant power in the Deccan. The Western Chalukya period was an important age in
8058-408: The patronage of Telugu literature under the Eastern Chalukyas . While opinions vary regarding the early origins of the Chalukyas, the consensus among noted historians such as John Keay , D.C. Sircar , Hans Raj, S. Sen, Kamath , K. V. Ramesh and Karmarkar is that the founders of the empire at Badami were native to the modern Karnataka region. A theory that they were descendants of
8160-608: The people and the monuments of Kanchipuram, the Pallava capital. He thus avenged the earlier humiliation of the Chalukyas by the Pallavas and engraved a Kannada inscription on the victory pillar at the Kailasanatha Temple. During his reign Arab intruders of the Caliphal province of Sind invaded southern Gujarat which was under Chalukya rule, but the Arabs were defeated and driven out by Avanijanashraya Pulakeshin ,
8262-619: The period of the Badami Chalukyas, references are made to the existence of Kannada literature, though not much has survived. Inscriptions however refer to Kannada as the "natural language". The Kappe Arabhatta record of c. 700 in tripadi (three line) metre is the earliest available work in Kannada poetics. Karnateshwara Katha , which was quoted later by Jayakirti, is believed to be a eulogy of Pulakeshin II and to have belonged to this period. Other probable Kannada writers, whose works are not extant now but titles of which are known from independent references are Syamakundacharya (650), who
8364-458: The place of origin of their ancestors may have been of no significance to the kings of the empire who may have considered themselves natives of the Kannada speaking region. The writing of 12th century Kashmiri poet Bilhana suggests the Chalukya family belonged to the Shudra while other sources claim they were born in the arms of Brahma, and hence were Kshatriya caste. According to Xuanzang ,
8466-455: The pure Kannada term arasa (meaning "king" or "chief"). The Rashtrakuta inscriptions call the Chalukyas of Badami Karnatakabala ("Power of Karnataka"). It has been proposed by the historian S. C. Nandinath that the word "Chalukya" originated from Salki or Chalki which is a Kannada word for an agricultural implement. According to some historians, the Chalukyas originated from agriculturists. Inscriptions in Sanskrit and Kannada are
8568-530: The queens of Vikramaditya II, Lokamahadevi and Trailokyamahadevi made grants and possibly consecrated the Lokesvara Temple (now called Virupaksha temple) but also and the Mallikarjuna temple respectively at Pattadakal. The Chalukya era may be seen as the beginning of the fusion of cultures of northern and southern India, making way for the transmission of ideas between the two regions. This
8670-414: The royal court served as a way to settle disputes and avoid large-scale wars. As such, professional wrestlers were held in high regard. In pastoral communities, people would even wrestle against steers. The first written attestation of the term mallayuddha is found in the epic Ramayana , in the context of a wrestling match between the vanara -king Vali and Ravana , the king of Lanka . Hanuman ,
8772-456: The sage Agastya who then recorded it and disseminated the skill among his students. Nadars tribe believes varma kalai was given to them by Agastya . Siddha medicine is also attributed to Agastya. With numerous other scattered references to Varmam in Vedic and epic sources, it is certain that Tamil Nadu 's early fighters knew and practiced attacking and defending vital points. Knowledge of
8874-515: The south to the Narmada in the north. The Chalukyas revived their fortunes in 973 after over 200 years of dormancy when much of the Deccan was under the rule of the Rashtrakutas. The genealogy of the kings of this empire is still debated. One theory, based on contemporary literary and inscriptional evidence plus the finding that the Western Chalukyas employed titles and names commonly used by
8976-493: The south, however, and was particularly common in the Vijayanagara Empire . The 16th-century Jaina classic Bharatesa Vaibhava describes wrestlers challenging their opponents with grunts and traditional signs of patting the shoulders. Sculptures at Bhatkal depict wrestling matches, including female wrestlers. As part of his daily routine, the king Krishna Deva Raya would rise early and exercise his muscles with
9078-587: The story of Agnikula is not mentioned at all in the original version of the Prithviraj Raso preserved in the Fort Library at Bikaner . According to the Nilagunda inscription of King Vikramaditya VI (11th century or later), the Chalukyas originally hailed from Ayodhya where fifty-nine kings ruled, and later, sixteen more of this family ruled from South India where they had migrated. This
9180-538: The title "Rajamalla" ( lit "Sovereign of the Mallas " or Pallavas). The thirty-seven year rule of Vijayaditya (696–733) was a prosperous one and is known for prolific temple building activity. The empire was its peak again during the rule of the illustrious Vikramaditya II (733–744) who is known not only for his repeated invasions of the territory of Tondaimandalam and his subsequent victories over Pallava Nandivarman II , but also for his benevolence towards
9282-399: The use of heavy and light stone rings fastened to poles; Pramada exercises with clubs; Amardankisrama , that Sjoman suspects is a form of massage; Asthadanaka gymnastic exercises for the lower body; Kundakarsank "callisthenics with circular movements"; the unknown Anyakrtkarasrama ; Jalasrama , swimming; Sopanarohana , climbing steps; and Bhojanordhavabhramanika , which Sjoman assumes
9384-482: The waist, their necks resting on each other's shoulder, their legs entwined, while each attempted to win a fall or break the hold. The Manasollasa of the Chalukya king Someswara III (1124–1138) is a treatise on kingly fine arts and leisure. Anthropologist Joseph Alter writes of it, "The chapter entitled 'Malla Vinod' describes the classification of wrestlers into types by age, size and strength. It also outlines how
9486-428: The wrestlers were to exercise and what they were to eat. In particular the king was responsible for providing the wrestlers with pulses, meat, milk, sugar as well as 'high-class sweets'. The wrestlers were kept isolated from the women of the court and were expected to devote themselves to building their bodies." The Manasollasa "gives the names of moves and exercises but does not provide descriptions". The Malla Purana
9588-399: The wrestlers' movements. Wrestlers begin each session by flattening the soil, an act which is considered both a part of endurance training and an exercise in self-discipline. During practice, wrestlers throw a few handfuls of dirt onto their own bodies and that of their opponents as a form of blessing, which also provides for a better grip. Once the arena has been prepared a prayer is offered to
9690-460: The year. The scholar-practitioner Norman Sjoman states that the Malla Purana describes 16 types of exercises for wrestling, namely Rangasrama wrestling as such; Stambhasrama pole exercises; Bhamramanikasrama of unknown meaning; Svasaprenaikasrama stamina exercises like running and skipping; Sthapitasrama , "perhaps exercises done erect"; Uhapohasrama "said not to be an exercise";
9792-404: Was a Classical Indian dynasty that ruled large parts of southern and central India between the 6th and the 12th centuries. During this period, they ruled as three related yet individual dynasties. The earliest dynasty, known as the "Badami Chalukyas", ruled from Vatapi (modern Badami ) from the middle of the 6th century. The Badami Chalukyas began to assert their independence at the decline of
9894-468: Was a type of callisthenics. Sjoman notes that the Malla Purana (16-21) names 18 hatha yoga postures ( asanas ) including Simhasana , Kurmasana , Kukkutasana , Garudasana and Sirsasana . As the influence of Indian culture spread to Southeast Asia, malla-yuddha was adopted in what are now Cambodia , Malaysia , Java , and other neighbouring countries. It became popular not only among commoners but also patronized by royalty. The legendary hero Badang
9996-721: Was an important period in the development of Deccan architecture. Their architecture served as a conceptual link between the Badami Chalukya architecture of the 8th century and the Hoysala architecture popularised in the 13th century. The centre of their cultural and temple-building activity lay in the Tungabhadra region of modern Karnataka state, encompassing the present-day Dharwad district ; it included areas of present-day Haveri and Gadag districts. Here, large medieval workshops built numerous monuments. These monuments, regional variants of pre-existing dravida temples, defined
10098-516: Was at Aihole (where some seventy structures exist and has been called "one of the cradles of Indian temple architecture" ) and Badami. Though the exact dating of these temples has been debated, there is consensus that the beginnings of these constructions are from c. 600. These are the Lad Khan Temple (dated by some to c. 450 but more accurately to 620) with its interesting perforated stone windows and sculptures of river goddesses;
10200-519: Was said to have engaged in such a wrestling match against a visiting champion in Singapore . Traditional Indian wrestling first began to decline in the north after the medieval Muslim invasions when influences from Persian wrestling were incorporated into native malla-yuddha. Under Mughal rule , courtly fashion favoured the Persianate pehlwani style. Traditional malla-yuddha remained popular in
10302-401: Was served by 2000 mahajans and Aihole which was served by 500 mahajanas . Taxes were levied and were called the herjunka – tax on loads, the kirukula – tax on retail goods in transit, the bilkode – sales tax, the pannaya – betel tax, siddaya – land tax and the vaddaravula – tax levied to support royalty. The Badami Chalukyas minted coins that were of
10404-541: Was with their navy that they conquered Revatidvipa ( Goa ), and Puri on east coast of India. Rashtrakuta inscriptions use the term Karnatakabala when referring to the powerful Chalukya armies. The government, at higher levels, was closely modelled after the Magadhan and Satavahana administrative machinery. The empire was divided into Maharashtrakas (provinces), then into smaller Rashtrakas ( Mandala ), Vishaya (district), Bhoga (group of 10 villages) which
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