79-515: Malla ( Prakrit : š«š®šš®š MallaÄ« ; Pali : Malla ; Sanskrit : ą¤®ą¤²ą„ą¤²ā Malla ) was an ancient Indo-Aryan tribe of north-eastern Indian subcontinent whose existence is attested during the Iron Age . The population of Malla, the Mallakas , were divided into two branches, each organised into a gaį¹asaį¹ gha (an aristocratic oligarchic republic ), presently referred to as
158-733: A classical language on 3 October 2024 by the Government of India as the earliest Prakrit texts are older than literature of most of the languages. In 1955, government of Bihar established at Vaishali , the Research Institute of Prakrit Jainology and Ahimsa with the aim to promote research work in Prakrit. The National Institute of Prakrit Study and Research is located in Shravanabelagola , Karnataka, India. Magadha (Mahajanapada) Magadha , also called
237-556: A cover term for languages that were not actually called Prakrit in ancient India, such as: According to some scholars, such as German Indologists Richard Pischel and Oskar von HinĆ¼ber , the term "Prakrit" refers to a smaller set of languages that were used exclusively in literature: According to Sanskrit and Prakrit scholar Shreyansh Kumar Jain Shastri and A. C. Woolner , the Ardhamagadhi (or simply Magadhi ) Prakrit, which
316-562: A cultural area termed " Greater Magadha ", defined as roughly the geographical area in which the Buddha and Mahavira lived and taught. With regard to the Buddha, this area stretched by and large from ÅrÄvastÄ« , the capital of Kosala , in the north-west to RÄjagį¹ha , the capital of Magadha, in the south-east". According to Bronkhorst "there was indeed a culture of Greater Magadha which remained recognizably distinct from Vedic culture until
395-536: A distinction between Jain and non-Jain Prakrit literature. Jacobi used the term "Jain Prakrit" (or "Jain Maharashtri", as he called it) to denote the language of relatively late and relatively more Sanskrit-influenced narrative literature, as opposed to the earlier Prakrit court poetry. Later scholars used the term "Jain Prakrit" for any variety of Prakrit used by Jain authors, including the one used in early texts such as Tarangavati and Vasudeva-Hindi . However,
474-536: A grave offence committed by the Licchavikas towards the MÄgadhÄ« king BimbisÄra. The hostilities between Licchavi and Magadha continued under the rule of AjÄtasattu , who was BimbisÄra's son with another Licchavika princess, VÄsavÄ«, after he had killed BimbisÄra and usurped the throne of Magadha. Eventually Licchavi supported a revolt against AjÄtasattu by his younger step-brother and the governor of Aį¹ ga , Vehalla, who
553-426: A highly systematized Prakrit grammar, but the surviving Prakrit texts do not adhere to this grammar. For example, according to Vishvanatha (14th century), in a Sanskrit drama, the characters should speak Maharashtri Prakrit in verse and Shauraseni Prakrit in prose. But the 10th century Sanskrit dramatist Rajashekhara does not abide by this rule. Markandeya, as well as later scholars such as Sten Konow, find faults with
632-402: A language (or languages) spoken by the common people, because it is different from Sanskrit, which is the predominant language of the ancient Indian literature. Several modern scholars, such as George Abraham Grierson and Richard Pischel , have asserted that the literary Prakrit does not represent the actual languages spoken by the common people of ancient India. This theory is corroborated by
711-515: A limited degree of autonomy in terms of their internal administration, and they stopped existing as a republican tribe when the Maurya dynasty ruled Magadha or shortly after. Just like a Vaidehas, Licchavikas, and NÄyikas, the Mallakas were a kį¹£atriya tribe, and each of the republics of the Mallakas were organised into a gaį¹asaį¹ gha (an aristocratic oligarchic republic ), which had
790-503: A market scene in Uddyotana's Kuvalaya-mala (779 CE), in which the narrator speaks a few words in 18 different languages: some of these languages sound similar to the languages spoken in modern India; but none of them resemble the language that Uddyotana identifies as "Prakrit" and uses for narration throughout the text. The local variants of Apabhramsha evolved into the modern day Indo-Aryan vernaculars of South Asia. Literary Prakrit
869-567: A ruling Assembly consisting of the heads of the kį¹£atriya clans belonging to the VÄseį¹į¹ha / VaÅiį¹£į¹ha gotra , and who were given the title of rÄjÄ s. The position of rÄjÄ was hereditary, and after the death of one of them, his eldest son would succeed him by being introduced to the Assembly following a ceremony held, for the Mallakas of KusinÄrÄ, at the Makuį¹a-bandhana , which
SECTION 10
#1732772993657948-476: A share because they were dependencies of the Licchavikas without their own sovereignty, and therefore could not put forth their own claim while Licchavi could. The Mallakas of PÄvÄ were the first ones to arrive with an army to KusinÄrÄ, and they put forth their claim to the relics in rude and hostile terms. In the end, each Malla republic obtained a share of the Buddha's relics and built their own stÅ«pa s and gave their own feasts to commemorate this event. After
1027-571: Is kį¹£atriya s who had not been initiated, because they did not practice orthodox Vedic traditions. Prakrit Prakrit ( / Ė p r ÉĖ k r ÉŖ t / ) is a group of vernacular classical Middle Indo-Aryan languages that were used in the Indian subcontinent from around the 3rd century BCE to the 8th century CE. The term Prakrit is usually applied to the middle period of Middle Indo-Aryan languages, excluding earlier inscriptions and Pali . The oldest stage of Middle Indo-Aryan language
1106-623: Is attested in the inscriptions of Ashoka (ca. 260 BCE), as well as in the earliest forms of PÄli, the language of the TheravÄda Buddhist canon. The most prominent form of Prakrit is ArdhamÄgadhıĢ, associated with the ancient kingdom of Magadha, in modern Bihar, and the subsequent Mauryan Empire. MahÄvıĢra, the last tirthankar of 24 tirthankar of Jainism, was born in Magadha, and the earliest Jain texts were composed in ArdhamÄgadhıĢ. Almost all
1185-495: Is inextricably linked to the uncertain chronology of the Buddha and Mahavira . According to historian K. T. S. Sarao , a proponent of the Short Chronology wherein the Buddha's lifespan was c.477ā397 BCE, it can be estimated that Bimbisara was reigning c.457ā405 BCE, and Ajatashatru was reigning c.405ā373 BCE. According to historian John Keay , a proponent of the "Long Chronology," Bimbisara must have been reigning in
1264-535: Is now the basis for all Sanskrit grammar. Similarly, the Agamas, and texts like Shatkhandagama , do not follow the modern Prakrit grammar. Prakrita Prakasha, a book attributed to Vararuchi , summarizes various Prakrit languages. Prakrit literature was produced across a wide area of South Asia. Outside India, the language was also known in Cambodia and Java. Literary Prakrit is often wrongly assumed to have been
1343-580: Is very vast, it can be divided into many periods as: There is much uncertainty about the succession of kings and the precise chronology of Magadha prior to Mahapadma Nanda; the accounts of various ancient texts (all of which were written many centuries later than the era in question) contradict each other on many points. Two notable rulers of Magadha were Bimbisara (also known as Shrenika ) and his son Ajatashatru (also known as Kunika ), who are mentioned in Buddhist and Jain literature as contemporaries of
1422-515: The Ganges ; its first capital was Rajagriha (modern day Rajgir ), then Pataliputra (modern Patna ). Rajagriha was initially known as 'Girivrijja' and later came to be known as so during the reign of Ajatashatru . Magadha expanded to include most of Bihar and Bengal with the conquest of Vajjika League and Anga , respectively. The kingdom of Magadha eventually came to encompass Bihar , Jharkhand, Orissa , West Bengal, eastern Uttar Pradesh , and
1501-746: The Greater Magadha cultural region. Similarly to the other populations of the Greater Magadha cultural area, Mallakas were initially not fully Brahmanised despite being an Indo-Aryan people, but, like the Vaidehas, they later became Brahmanised and adopted the VÄseį¹į¹ha (in Pali) or VaÅiį¹£į¹ha (in Sanskrit) gotra . At some point in time, the Mallakas became divided into two separate republics with their respective capitals at KusinÄrÄ and PÄvÄ, possibly due to internal trouble, and henceforth
1580-501: The Jains used Prakrit for religious literature, including commentaries on the Jain canonical literature, stories about Jain figures, moral stories, hymns and expositions of Jain doctrine. Prakrit is also the language of some Shaiva tantras and Vaishnava hymns. Besides being the primary language of several texts, Prakrit also features as the language of low-class men and most women in
1659-886: The Kingdom of Magadha or the Magadha Empire , was a kingdom and empire , and one of the sixteen Mahajanapadas during the Second Urbanization period, based in southern Bihar in the eastern Ganges Plain , in Ancient India . Magadha was ruled by the Brihadratha dynasty (1700-682 BCE), the Haryanka dynasty (544ā413 BCE), the Shaishunaga dynasty (413ā345 BCE), the Nanda dynasty (345ā322 BCE),
SECTION 20
#17327729936571738-748: The Malla Republics , which were part of the larger Vajjika League . The Mallakas lived in the region now covered by the Gorakhpur district in India , although their precise borders are yet to be determined. The Mallakas' neighbours to the east across the SadÄnirÄ river were the Licchavikas , their neighbours to the west were the Sakyas , Koliyas , Moriyas , and KauÅalyas , the southern neighbours of
1817-756: The Mauryan dynasty (322ā184 BCE), the Shunga dynasty (184ā73 BCE), the Kanva dynasty (73ā28 BCE), the Gupta dynasty (240-550 CE) and the Later Gupta dynasty (490ā700). Kanva dynasty lost much of its territory after being defeated by the Satavahanas of Deccan in 28 BCE and was reduced to a small principality around Pataliputra . However, with the rule of Gupta Empire (240-550 CE), The Gupta Empire regained
1896-523: The Nanda Empire ( c. 345 ā c. 322 BCE ), Maurya Empire ( c. 322 ā185 BCE), Shunga Empire ( c. 185 ā78 BCE) and Gupta Empire ( c. 240 ā550 CE). The Pala Empire also ruled over Magadha and maintained a royal camp in Pataliputra . The Pithipatis of Bodh Gaya referred to themselves as MagadhÄdipati and ruled in parts of Magadha until
1975-605: The Pithipatis of Bodh Gaya ruled as tributaries to Pala Empire. Several Åramaį¹ic movements had existed before the 6th century BCE, and these influenced both the Ästika and nÄstika traditions of Indian philosophy. The Åramaį¹a movement gave rise to diverse range of heterodox beliefs, ranging from accepting or denying the concept of soul, atomism, antinomian ethics, materialism, atheism, agnosticism, fatalism to free will, idealization of extreme asceticism to that of family life, strict ahimsa (non-violence) and vegetarianism to
2054-577: The Sanskrit stage plays . American scholar Andrew Ollett traces the origin of the Sanskrit Kavya to Prakrit poems. Some of the texts that identify their language as Prakrit include: The languages that have been labeled "Prakrit" in modern times include the following: Not all of these languages were actually called "Prakrit" in the ancient period. Dramatic Prakrits were those that were used in dramas and other literature. Whenever dialogue
2133-670: The hostilities between the ancient Macedonian king Philip II to the Athenian and Theban republics. As important members of the Vajjika League, the Malla republics were also threatened by AjÄtasattu, and the Vajjika Gaį¹a Mukhya Ceįøaga held war consultations with the rÄjÄ s of the Licchavikas and Mallikas before the fight started. The Mallakas therefore fought on the side of the other confederate tribes of
2212-694: The sramana traditions and include Jainism , Buddhism and ÄjÄ«vika . Buddhism and Jainism were the religions promoted by the early Magadhan kings, such as Srenika, Bimbisara and Ajatashatru , and the Nanda Dynasty (345ā321 BCE) that followed was mostly Jain. These Sramana religions did not worship the Vedic deities , practised some form of asceticism and meditation ( jhana ) and tended to construct round burial mounds (called stupas in Buddhism). These religions also sought some type of liberation from
2291-627: The 13th century. The territory of the Magadha kingdom proper before its expansion was bounded to the north, west, and east respectively by the Gaį¹ gÄ , Son , and CampÄ rivers, and the eastern spurs of the Vindhya mountains formed its southern border. The territory of the initial Magadha kingdom thus corresponded to the modern-day Patna and Gaya districts of the Indian state of Bihar . The region of Greater Magadha also included neighbouring regions in
2370-516: The Buddha and Mahavira. Later, the throne of Magadha was usurped by Mahapadma Nanda , the founder of the Nanda Dynasty ( c. 345 ā c. 322 BCE ), which conquered much of north India. The Nanda dynasty was overthrown by Chandragupta Maurya , the founder of the Maurya Empire ( c. 322 ā185 BCE). Furthermore, there is a "Long Chronology" and a contrasting "Short Chronology" preferred by some scholars, an issue that
2449-581: The Buddha and his followers went to KusinÄrÄ, and on the way they crossed two rivers, the first one being named KakutthÄ in Pali and KukustÄ in Sanskrit, and the second one being the HiraƱƱavatÄ« which separated the two Mallaka republics. The Buddha spent his final days in the Malla republic of KusinÄrÄ, and when he sent Änanda to inform the Mallakas of KusinÄrÄ of his impending death, Änanda found
Malla (tribe) - Misplaced Pages Continue
2528-569: The Glory of Magadh. Under the Mauryas , Magadha became a pan-Indian empire, covering large swaths of the Indian subcontinent and Afghanistan . The Magadh under the Gupta Empire emerged as the most prosperous kingdom in the history of Ancient India. Magadha played an important role in the development of Jainism and Buddhism . It was the core of four of northern India's greatest empires,
2607-630: The Kashi province. Accounts differ slightly as to the cause of King Ajatashatru's war with the Licchavi , a powerful tribe north of the river Ganges . It appears that Ajatashatru sent a minister to the area who worked for three years to undermine the unity of the Licchavis. To launch his attack across the Ganges River, Ajatashatru built a fort at the town of Pataliputra . Torn by disagreements,
2686-640: The KauÅalyas and the Licchavikas. Bandhula was later treacherously murdered along with his sons by Pasenadi , and, in retaliation, some Mallakas helped Pasenadi's son ViįøÅ«įøabha usurp the throne of Kosala to avenge the death of Bandhula, after which Pasenadi fled from Kosala and died in front of the gates of the MÄgadhÄ« capital of RÄjagaha . The Buddha arrived in PÄvÄ shortly after the Mallakas there had inaugurated their new santhÄgÄra , which they had named Ubbhataka. From PÄvÄ,
2765-616: The Licchavikas, the Mallakas' Assemblies met rarely while the Assemblies' inner councils, the Mallaka Councils, consisting of four members for the Mallakas of KusinÄrÄ and of five members for the Mallakas of PÄvÄ, met more often and performed the public administration within each republic. These Councils were the sovereign bodies of the Mallaka republics. The Manusmį¹iti refers to the Mallakas as VrÄį¹yakį¹£atriya s, that
2844-519: The Licchavis fought with Ajatashatru . It took fifteen years for Ajatashatru to defeat them. Jain texts tell how Ajatashatru used two new weapons: a catapult, and a covered chariot with swinging mace that has been compared to a modern tank. Pataliputra began to grow as a centre of commerce and became the capital of Magadha after Ajatashatru's death. The Haryanka dynasty was overthrown by the Shishunaga dynasty . The last Shishunaga ruler, Mahanandin ,
2923-481: The Mallaka Council holding a meeting about public affairs in their santhÄgÄra. When Änanda went again to the Mallakas of KusinÄrÄ to inform them of the Buddha's passing, he found them this time holding a meeting to discuss the funeral ceremony of the Buddha in the santhÄgÄra. After the Buddha's cremation, his remains were honoured in the santhÄgÄra of KusinÄrÄ for seven days, and it was in this santhÄgÄra that
3002-613: The Mallakas and the Licchavikas did arise, such as in the case of the man named Bandhula, a Mallaka who, thanks to his education received in Takį¹£aÅilÄ , had offered his services as a general to the KauÅalya king Pasenadi so as to maintain the good relations between the Mallakas and Kosala. Bandhula, along with his wife MallikÄ, violated the Abhiseka-Pokkharaį¹Ä« sacred tank of the Licchavikas, which resulted in armed hostilities between
3081-455: The Mallakas of KusinÄrÄ received the envoys of Magadha , Licchavi , Shakya , Buli , Koliya , the Mallakas of PÄvÄ, and Moriya , who all went to KusinÄrÄ to claim their shares of the Buddha's relics. The Licchavikas, the Mallakas, and the Sakyas were able to claim shares of the relics, but the other members of the Vajjika League, the Vaidehas and the NÄyikas , were not among the states claiming
3160-585: The Mallakas were the KÄlÄmas and the Gaį¹ gÄ river, and the northern Mallaka borders were the HimÄlaya mountains. The territory of the Mallakas was a tract of land between the Vaidehas and the KauÅalyas. The territories of the two Malla republics were divided by the river named HiraƱƱavatÄ« in PÄli , and Hiraį¹yavatÄ« in Sanskrit , and the two Malla republics respectively had their capitals at KusinÄrÄ , identified with
3239-430: The Prakrit portions of Rajashekhara's writings, but it is not clear if the rule enunciated by Vishvanatha existed during Rajashekhara's time. Rajashekhara himself imagines Prakrit as a single language or a single kind of language, alongside Sanskrit, Apabhramsha, and Paishachi . German Indologist Theodor Bloch (1894) dismissed the medieval Prakrit grammarians as unreliable, arguing that they were not qualified to describe
Malla (tribe) - Misplaced Pages Continue
3318-620: The Theravada commentaries, the Pali language has been identified with Magahi , the language of the kingdom of Magadha, and this was taken to also be the language that the Buddha used during his life. In the 19th century, the British Orientalist Robert Caesar Childers argued that the true or geographical name of the Pali language was Magadhi Prakrit , and that because pÄįø·i means "line, row, series",
3397-867: The areas that are today the nations of Bangladesh and Nepal . The ancient kingdom of Magadha is heavily mentioned in Jain and Buddhist texts . It is also mentioned in the Ramayana , the Mahabharata and the Puranas . There is little certain information available on the early rulers of Magadha. The most important sources are the Buddhist PÄli Canon , the Jain Agamas and the Hindu Puranas . Based on these sources, it appears that Magadha
3476-615: The common people ā as well as the converse influence of Sanskrit on the Prakrits, gave Prakrits progressively higher cultural prestige. Mirza Khan's Tuhfat al-hind (1676) characterizes Prakrit as the language of "the lowest of the low", stating that the language was known as Patal-bani ("Language of the underground") or Nag-bani ("Language of the snakes"). Among modern scholars, Prakrit literature has received less attention than Sanskrit. Few modern Prakrit texts have survived in modern times, and even fewer have been published or attracted critical scholarship. Prakrit has been designated as
3555-443: The cyclic rounds of rebirth and karmic retribution through spiritual knowledge. Among the Buddhist sites currently found in the Magadha region include two UNESCO World Heritage Sites such as the Mahabodhi temple at Bodh Gaya and the Nalanda monastery. The Mahabodhi temple is one of the most important places of pilgrimage in the Buddhist world and is said to mark the site where the Buddha attained enlightenment. Beginning in
3634-417: The death of the 24th Jain TÄ«rthaį¹ kara , MahÄvÄ«ra , the Mallakas and the Licchavikas jointly instituted a festival of lights to commemorate his passing. The relations of the Licchavikas, who led the Vajjika League which the Mallakas were part of, with their southern neighbour, the kingdom of Magadha , were initially good, and the wife of the MÄgadhÄ« king BimbisÄra was the VesÄlia princess VÄsavÄ«, who
3713-513: The early Buddhists extended the meaning of the term to mean "a series of books", so pÄįø·ibhÄsÄ means "language of the texts". Nonetheless, Pali does retain some eastern features that have been referred to as MÄgadhisms . Magadhi Prakrit was one of the three dramatic prakrits to emerge following the decline of Sanskrit. It was spoken in Magadha and neighbouring regions and later evolved into modern eastern Indo-Aryan languages like Magahi , Maithili and Bhojpuri . The history of Magadha region
3792-405: The eastern Gangetic plains and had a distinct culture and belief. Much of the Second Urbanisation took place here from ( c. 500 BCE ) onwards and it was here that Jainism and Buddhism arose. Some scholars have identified the KÄ«kaį¹a tribeāmentioned in the Rigveda (3.53.14) with their ruler Pramagandaāas the forefathers of Magadhas because Kikata is used as synonym for Magadha in
3871-413: The failure of this rebellion, Vehalla sought refuge at his grandfather's place in the Licchavika and Vajjika capital of VesÄlÄ«, following which AjÄtasattu repeatedly attempted to negotiate with the Licchavikas-Vajjikas. After AjÄtasattu's repeated negotiation attempts ended in failure, he declared war on the Vajjika League in 484 BCE. Tensions between Licchavi and Magadha were exacerbated by the handling of
3950-399: The joint MÄgadhÄ«-Licchavika border post of Koį¹igÄma on the Gaį¹ gÄ by the Licchavika-led Vajjika League who would regularly collect all valuables from Koį¹igÄma and leave none to the MÄgadhÄ«s. Therefore AjÄtasattu decided to destroy the Vajjika League in retaliation, but also because, as an ambitious empire-builder whose mother VÄsavÄ« was Licchavika princess of VaidehÄ« descent, he was interested in
4029-409: The kingdom. According to Indologist Johannes Bronkhorst , the culture of Magadha was in fundamental ways different from the Vedic kingdoms of the Indo-Aryans . According to Bronkhorst, the Åramana culture arose in " Greater Magadha ," which was Indo-Aryan, but not Vedic . In this culture, Kshatriyas were placed higher than Brahmins , and it rejected Vedic authority and rituals. He argues for
SECTION 50
#17327729936574108-404: The language of the texts composed centuries before them. Other scholars such as Sten Konow , Richard Pischel and Alfred Hillebrandt disagree with Bloch. It is possible that the grammarians sought to codify only the language of the earliest classics of the Prakrit literature, such as the Gaha Sattasai . Another explanation is that the extant Prakrit manuscripts contain scribal errors. Most of
4187-401: The late 5th century BCE, and Ajatashatru in the early 4th century BCE. Keay states that there is great uncertainty about the royal succession after Ajatashatru's death, probably because there was a period of "court intrigues and murders," during which "evidently the throne changed hands frequently, perhaps with more than one incumbent claiming to occupy it at the same time" until Mahapadma Nanda
4266-400: The later texts; Like the Magadhas in the Atharvaveda, the Rigveda speaks of the Kikatas as a hostile tribe, living on the borders of Brahmanical India, who did not perform Vedic rituals. The earliest reference to the Magadha people occurs in the Atharvaveda , where they are found listed along with the Angas , Gandharis and Mujavats. The core of the kingdom was the area of Bihar south of
4345-458: The league against Magadha. The military forces of the Vajjika League were initially too strong for AjÄtasattu to be successful against them, and it required him having recourse to diplomacy and intrigues over the span of a decade to finally defeat the Vajjika League by 468 BCE and annex its territories, including Licchavi, Videha and NÄya, to the kingdom of Magadha. The Mallakas also became part of AjÄtasattu's MÄgadhÄ« empire, although they were allowed
4424-428: The meeting with his officer Coenus , was persuaded that it was better to return and turned south, conquering his way down the Indus to the Ocean. Around 321 BCE, the Nanda Dynasty ended with the defeat of Dhana Nanda at the hands of Chandragupta Maurya who became the first king of the Mauryan Empire with the help of his mentor Chanakya . The Empire later extended over most of India under King Ashoka The Great , who
4503-423: The modern village of KÄsiÄ in Kushinagar , and at PÄvÄ (now known as Fazilnagar ). KusinÄrÄ was close to the Sakya capital of Kapilavatthu to its north-east, and PÄvÄ was close to the Licchavika capital of VesÄlÄ«. The Mallakas are called Malla in PÄli texts, MallaāÄ« in Jain PrÄkrit texts, and Malla in Sanskrit texts. The Mallakas were an Indo-Aryan tribe in the eastern Gangetic plain in
4582-420: The native prÄkrit grammarians identify prÄkį¹ta to be named so because they originate in the source language (prakį¹ti) which is Sanskrit . Thus the name prÄkį¹ta indicates that they depend on Sanskrit for their origin and are not themselves the prakį¹ti (or originary languages, originating independent of Sanskrit): The dictionary of Monier Monier-Williams (1819ā1899), and other modern authors, however, interpret
4661-609: The other two being Sanskrit and the vernacular languages. It describes Prakrit as a mixture of Sanskrit and vernacular languages, and adds that Prakrit was "mostly employed in the praise of kings, ministers, and chiefs". During a large period of the first millennium, literary Prakrit was the preferred language for the fictional romance in India. Its use as a language of systematic knowledge was limited, because of Sanskrit's dominance in this area, but nevertheless, Prakrit texts exist on topics such as grammar, lexicography , metrics, alchemy, medicine, divination , and gemology . In addition,
4740-445: The permissibility of violence and meat-eating. Magadha kingdom was the nerve centre of this revolution. Jainism was revived and re-established after Mahavira , the last and the 24th Tirthankara , who synthesised and revived the philosophies and promulgations of the ancient Åramaį¹ic traditions laid down by the first Jain tirthankara Rishabhanatha millions of years ago. Buddha founded Buddhism which received royal patronage in
4819-466: The relations between the two Mallaka republics remained uncordial. Both Mallaka republics nevertheless became members of the Licchavi-led Vajjika League , within which, unlike the Vaidehas, they maintained their own sovereign rights because they had not been conquered by the Licchavikas, and the Mallakas held friendly relations with the Licchavikas, the Vaidehas, and the NÄyikas who were the other members of this league. However occasional tensions between
SECTION 60
#17327729936574898-434: The rubric of 'Prakrits', while others emphasize the independent development of these languages, often separated from the history of Sanskrit by wide divisions of caste , religion , and geography . The broadest definition uses the term "Prakrit" to describe any Middle Indo-Aryan language that deviates from Sanskrit in any manner. American scholar Andrew Ollett points out that this unsatisfactory definition makes "Prakrit"
4977-512: The surviving Prakrit manuscripts were produced in a variety of regional scripts during 1300ā1800 CE. It appears that the scribes who made these copies from the earlier manuscripts did not have a good command of the original language of the texts, as several of the extant Prakrit texts contain inaccuracies or are incomprehensible. Also, like Sanskrit and other ancient languages Prakrit was spoken and written long before grammars were written for it. The Vedas do not follow Panini's Sanskrit grammar which
5056-442: The territory of the former MahÄ-Videha kingdom which by then was part of the Vajjika League. AjÄtasattu's hostility towards the Vajjika League was also the result of the differing forms of political organisation between Magadha and the Vajjika League, with the former being monarchical and the latter being republican, not unlike the opposition of the ancient Greek kingdom of Sparta to the democratic form of government in Athens , and
5135-408: The time of the grammarian PataƱjali (ca. 150 BCE) and beyond". The Buddhologist Alexander Wynne writes that there is an "overwhelming amount of evidence" to suggest that this rival culture to the Vedic Aryans dominated the eastern Gangetic plain during the early Buddhist period. Orthodox Vedic Brahmins were, therefore, a minority in Magadha during this early period. The Magadhan religions are termed
5214-477: The word in the opposite sense: "the most frequent meanings of the term prakį¹ta , from which the word "prakrit" is derived, are "original, natural, normal" and the term is derived from prakį¹ti , "making or placing before or at first, the original or natural form or condition of anything, original or primary substance". Modern scholars have used the term "Prakrit" to refer to two concepts: Some modern scholars include all Middle Indo-Aryan languages under
5293-423: The works written by Jain authors do not necessarily belong to an exclusively Jain history, and do not show any specific literary features resulting from their belief in Jainism. Therefore, the division of Prakrit literature into Jain and non-Jain categories is no longer considered tenable. Under the Mauryan Empire various Prakrits enjoyed the status of royal language. Prakrit was the language of Emperor Ashoka who
5372-442: Was a shrine holding an important political meaning for the republic (the Mallakas of PÄvÄ had a similar shrine of their own). Similarly to that of the Licchavikas, the Mallaka General Assembly had a large number of members, with the meetings being only rarely attended by all of them. The Mallaka republics, like the other gaį¹asaį¹ gha of the Vajjika League, held their Assembly and Council meetings in their own santhÄgÄras . Like
5451-507: Was a strict structure to the use of these different Prakrits in dramas. Characters each spoke a different Prakrit based on their role and background; for example, Dramili was the language of "forest-dwellers", Sauraseni was spoken by "the heroine and her female friends", and Avanti was spoken by "cheats and rogues". Maharashtri and Shaurseni Prakrit were more common and were used in literature extensively. Some 19thā20th century European scholars, such as Hermann Jacobi and Ernst Leumann , made
5530-444: Was among the main languages of the classical Indian culture. Dandin 's Kavya-darsha ( c. 700 ) mentions four kinds of literary languages: Sanskrit, Prakrit, Apabhramsha , and mixed. Bhoja 's Sarasvati-Kanthabharana (11th century) lists Prakrit among the few languages suitable for composition of literature. Mirza Khan's Tuhfat al-hind (1676) names Prakrit among the three kinds of literary languages native to India,
5609-447: Was assassinated by Mahapadma Nanda in 345 BCE, the first of the so-called "Nine Nandas", i. e. Mahapadma and his eight sons, last being Dhana Nanda . In 326 BCE, the army of Alexander approached the western boundaries of Magadha. The army, exhausted and frightened at the prospect of facing another giant Indian army at the Ganges, mutinied at the Hyphasis (the modern Beas River ) and refused to march further east. Alexander, after
5688-643: Was at first known as 'Ashoka the Cruel' but later became a disciple of Buddhism and became known as ' Dharma Ashoka'. Later, the Mauryan Empire ended, as did the Shunga and KhÄrabÄįø·a empires, to be replaced by the Gupta Empire . The capital of the Gupta Empire remained Pataliputra in Magadha. During the Pala-period in Magadha from the 11th to 13th century CE, a local Buddhist dynasty known as
5767-423: Was killed by his minister Pulika, who established his son Pradyota as the new king. Pradyota dynasty was succeeded by Haryanka dynasty founded by Bimbisara . Bimbisara led an active and expansive policy, conquering the kingdom of Anga in what is now West Bengal . King Bimbisara was killed by his son, Ajatashatru . Pasenadi , king of neighbouring Kosala and brother-in-law of Bimbisara, promptly reconquered
5846-463: Was patron of Buddhism. Prakrit languages are said to have held a lower social status than Sanskrit in classical India. In the Sanskrit stage plays , such as Kalidasa 's Shakuntala , lead characters typically speak Sanskrit, while the unimportant characters and most female characters typically speak Prakrit. While Prakrits were originally seen as 'lower' forms of language, the influence they had on Sanskrit ā allowing it to be more easily used by
5925-593: Was ruled by the Haryanka dynasty for some 200 years, c. 543 to 413 BCE. Gautama Buddha , the founder of Buddhism , lived much of his life in the kingdom of Magadha. He attained enlightenment in Bodh Gaya , gave his first sermon in Sarnath and the first Buddhist council was held in Rajgriha . The Hindu Mahabharata calls Brihadratha the first ruler of Magadha. Ripunjaya, last king of Brihadratha dynasty,
6004-517: Was the daughter of the Licchavika NÄyaka Sakala's son Siį¹ha. There were nevertheless occasional tensions between Licchavi and Magadha, such as the competition at the Mallaka capital of KusinÄrÄ over acquiring the relics of the Buddha after his death. In another case, the Licchavikas once invaded MÄgadhÄ« territory from across the Gaį¹ gÄ , and at some point the relations between Magadha and Licchavi permanently deteriorated as result of
6083-559: Was the son of BimbisÄra by another Licchavika wife of his, CellanÄ, a daughter of Ceįøaga , who was the head of both the Licchavi republic and the Vajjika League; BimbisÄra had chosen Vehalla as his successor following AjÄtasattu's falling out of his favour after the latter had been caught conspiring against him, and the Licchavikas had attempted to place Vehalla on the throne of Magadha after AjÄtasattu's usurpation and had allowed Vehalla to use their capital VesÄlÄ« as base for his revolt. After
6162-448: Was used extensively to write the scriptures of Jainism , is often considered to be the definitive form of Prakrit, while others are considered variants of it. Prakrit grammarians would give the full grammar of Ardhamagadhi first, and then define the other grammars with relation to it. For this reason, courses teaching 'Prakrit' are often regarded as teaching Ardhamagadhi. Medieval grammarians such as Markandeya (late 16th century) describe
6241-440: Was written in a Prakrit, the reader would also be provided with a Sanskrit translation. The phrase "Dramatic Prakrits" often refers to three most prominent of them: Shauraseni Prakrit , Magadhi Prakrit , and Maharashtri Prakrit . However, there were a slew of other less commonly used Prakrits that also fall into this category. These include Prachya, Bahliki, Dakshinatya, Shakari, Chandali, Shabari, Abhiri, Dramili, and Odri. There
#656343