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112-597: Abuse is the improper usage or treatment of a person or thing, often to unfairly or improperly gain benefit. Abuse can come in many forms, such as: physical or verbal maltreatment, injury, assault, violation, rape, unjust practices, crimes, or other types of aggression . To these descriptions, one can also add the Kantian notion of the wrongness of using another human being as means to an end rather than as ends in themselves. Some sources describe abuse as "socially constructed", which means there may be more or less recognition of

224-471: A penguin ( Linux mascot ), to represent "Peace, Love, and Linux." IBM paid Chicago and San Francisco collectively US$ 120,000 for punitive damages and clean-up costs. In 2005, a similar ad campaign was launched by Sony and executed by its advertising agency in New York, Chicago, Atlanta, Philadelphia, Los Angeles, and Miami, to market its handheld PSP gaming system. In this campaign , taking notice of

336-416: A breach of confidence or plagiarism, or extending the confidence of information beyond those authorised. In the financial world, Insider trading can also be considered a misuse of internal information that gives an unfair advantage in investment. Abuse of power, in the form of "malfeasance in office" or "official misconduct", is the commission of an unlawful act, done in an official capacity, which affects

448-405: A community in which people stand in relation of equality to others." The main issue with egalitarian conceptions of distributive justice is the question concerning what kind of equality should be pursued. This is because one kind of equality might imply or require inequality of another kind. Strict egalitarianism, for instance, requires the equal allocation of material resources to every person of

560-411: A context of social cooperation. Rawls presents the concept of an original position as a hypothetical idea of how to establish "a fair procedure so that any principles agreed on will be just." In his envisioning of the original position, it is created from a judgement made through negotiations between a group of people who will decide on what a just distribution of primary goods is (according to Rawls,

672-402: A desired outcome. Gaslighting is manipulation through persistent denial , misdirection, contradiction, and lying in an attempt to destabilize and delegitimize a target. Its intent is to sow seeds of doubt in the targets, hoping to make them question their own memory, perception, and sanity. Instances may range from the denial by an abuser that previous abusive incidents ever occurred up to

784-619: A form of public art . According to many art researchers, particularly in the Netherlands and in Los Angeles graffiti is an effective tool of social emancipation , or for the achievement of a political goal. In times of conflict graffiti has offered a means of communication and self-expression for members of these socially, ethnically, or racially divided communities, and has been an effective tool for establishing dialog. The Berlin Wall

896-419: A form of vandalism. And many graffitists choose to protect their identities and remain anonymous to hinder prosecution. With the commercialization of graffiti (and hip hop in general), in most cases, even with legally painted "graffiti" art, graffitists tend to choose anonymity. This may be attributed to various reasons or a combination of reasons. Graffiti still remains the one of four hip hop elements that

1008-546: A given society. The principle of strict equality therefore holds that even if an unequal distribution would make everyone better off, or if an unequal distribution would make some better off but no one worse off, the strictly egalitarian distribution should be upheld. This notion of distributive justice can be critiqued because it can result in Pareto suboptimal distributions. Thus, the Pareto norm suggests that principles of distributive justice should result in allocations in which it

1120-425: A graffiti-like gesture "the avant-garde won't give up". People who appreciate graffiti often believe that it should be on display for everyone in public spaces, not hidden away in a museum or a gallery. Art should color the streets, not the inside of some building. Graffiti is a form of art that cannot be owned or bought. It does not last forever, it is temporary, yet one of a kind. It is a form of self promotion for

1232-550: A large number of graffiti influences in Southeast Asian countries that mostly come from modern Western culture , such as Malaysia, where graffiti have long been a common sight in Malaysia's capital city, Kuala Lumpur . Since 2010, the country has begun hosting a street festival to encourage all generations and people from all walks of life to enjoy and encourage Malaysian street culture. Spray paint and markers are

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1344-512: A modern view on social contract theory , Rawls bases his work on an idea of justice being rooted in the basic structure , constituting the fundamental rules in society, which shape the social and economic institutions, as well as the governance. This basic structure is what shapes the citizens’ life opportunities. According to Rawls, the structure is based on principles about basic rights and duties that any self-interested, rational individual would accept in order to further his/her own interests in

1456-442: A more universal list of conditions required for human prosperity. Opposite this, another path focuses on a subjective evaluation of happiness and satisfaction in human lives. Based on a fundamental notion of equal worth and moral status of human beings, egalitarianism is concerned with equal treatment of all citizens in both respect and in concern, and in relation to the state as well as one another. Egalitarianism focuses more on

1568-439: A much broader philosophical consideration, also translates into a theory of justice. While the basic notion that utilitarianism builds on seems simple, one major dispute within the school of utilitarianism revolved around the conceptualisation and measurement of welfare . With disputes over this fundamental aspect, utilitarianism is evidently a broad term embracing many different sub-theories under its umbrella, and while much of

1680-522: A need for attention to the development of fundamentally different institutions that would eradicate the need for redistribution and instead focus on the initial equal distribution of opportunities from which people then themselves be able to shape their lives. The slogan " From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs " refers to distributive justice in Marxism according to Karl Marx . In Marxism-Leninism according to Vladimir Lenin

1792-609: A negative image. It is usually – but not always, a requirement that this claim be false and that the publication be communicated to someone other than the person defamed (termed the claimant ). It has been noted that disabled people are disproportionately affected by disability abuse and bullying , and such activity has been cited as a hate crime . The bullying is not limited to those who are visibly disabled – such as wheelchair-users or individuals with physical differences (e.g., cleft lip ) – but also those with learning disabilities , autism or developmental coordination disorder . In

1904-455: A prime example of the classic controversy: vandalism vs. art. Art supporters endorse his work distributed in urban areas as pieces of art and some councils, such as Bristol and Islington, have officially protected them, while officials of other areas have deemed his work to be vandalism and have removed it. Graffiti artists may become offended if photographs of their art are published in a commercial context without their permission. In March 2020,

2016-548: A result a distribution that will be just, without the need for considerations about the specific model or standard it should follow. Graffiti Graffiti (singular graffiti or graffito , the latter only used in graffiti archeology ) is writing or drawings made on a wall or other surface, usually without permission and within public view. Graffiti ranges from simple written "monikers" to elaborate wall paintings, and has existed since ancient times , with examples dating back to ancient Egypt , ancient Greece , and

2128-437: A result of coercion ; particularly when physical force, threats, trickery, or emotional manipulation are used to elicit co-operation. Clandestine abuse is sexual , psychological , or physical abuse "that is kept secret for a purpose, concealed, or underhanded." Cyberbullying "involves the use of information and communication technologies to support deliberate, repeated, and hostile behavior by an individual or group, that

2240-413: A single pursuit for social and distributive justice results in realizing the fact that it cannot be pursued. Lastly, Hayek claims for the incompatibility between the free market and social justice, for, in essence, they are different kinds of inequalities. The former is one determined by the interaction of free individuals and the latter by the decision of an authority. Hayek will, on ethical grounds, choose

2352-622: A site for graffiti, reminiscent in this sense of the Berlin Wall . Many writers in Israel come from other places around the globe, such as JUIF from Los Angeles and DEVIONE from London. The religious reference "נ נח נחמ נחמן מאומן" (" Na Nach Nachma Nachman Meuman ") is commonly seen in graffiti around Israel. Graffiti has played an important role within the street art scene in the Middle East and North Africa ( MENA ), especially following

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2464-452: A stern look at whose turf is whose. The subject matter of gang-related graffiti consists of cryptic symbols and initials strictly fashioned with unique calligraphies . Gang members use graffiti to designate membership throughout the gang, to differentiate rivals and associates and, most commonly, to mark borders which are both territorial and ideological. Many analysts and art critics see artistic value in some graffiti and recognize it as

2576-498: A strong hatred towards the Umayyad regime and its walis , and people used to read and circulate them very widely. Graffiti, known as Tacherons, were frequently scratched on Romanesque Scandinavian church walls. When Renaissance artists such as Pinturicchio , Raphael , Michelangelo , Ghirlandaio , or Filippino Lippi descended into the ruins of Nero's Domus Aurea , they carved or painted their names and returned to initiate

2688-463: A synthesis combining the two branches. In his synthesis, he argues that instead of focusing on compensations for unjust inequalities in society via redistribution of primary goods, egalitarianism scholars should instead, given the fundamental notion upon which the theory is built, strive to create institutions that creates and promotes meaningful equal opportunities from the get-go. Pierik thus moves egalitarianism's otherwise reactive nature by emphasising

2800-627: A very active graffiti culture, and graffiti are very common in Brazilian cities. This is blamed on the high uneven distribution of income, changing laws, and disenfranchisement. Pichação is a form of graffiti found in Brazil, which involves tall characters and is usually used as a form of protest. It contrasts with the more conventionally artistic values of the practitioners of grafite . Prominent Brazilian writers include Os Gêmeos , Boleta, Nunca , Nina, Speto, Tikka, and T.Freak. There are also

2912-403: A wide range of offensive behaviour. It is commonly understood as behaviour intended to disturb or upset. In the legal sense, it is behaviour which is found threatening or disturbing. Power harassment is harassment or unwelcome attention of a political nature, often occurring in the environment of a workplace. Sexual harassment refers to persistent and unwanted sexual advances, typically in

3024-651: Is Bozo Texino? . Contemporary graffiti has been seen on landmarks in the US, such as Independence Rock , a national landmark along the Oregon Trail . In World War II , an inscription on a wall at the fortress of Verdun was seen as an illustration of the US response twice in a generation to the wrongs of the Old World: Austin White – Chicago, Ill – 1918 Austin White – Chicago, Ill – 1945 This

3136-405: Is a form of child abuse in which an adult or older adolescent abuses a child for sexual stimulation. Different forms of this include: asking or pressuring a child to engage in sexual activities (regardless of the outcome), some types of indecent exposure of genitalia to a child, displaying pornography to a child, actual sexual contact against a child, viewing or engaging in physical contact with

3248-408: Is about the unfeasibility of attaining distributive justice in a free market order and this is defended on the basis of the determinate goal that all distributive justice aims to. In a catallactic order, the individual morality should freely determine what are distributive fairness and the values that govern economic activity, and the fact that it is impossible to gather all the individual information in

3360-530: Is an absence of consensus as to the precise definition of emotional abuse, it is classified by the U.S. federal Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act as a form of mental injury. The typical legal definition, particularly in the area of child welfare, accepted by the majority of U.S. states describes it as injury to the psychological capacity or emotional stability as evidenced by an observable or substantial change in behavior, emotional response or cognition. False accusations (or false allegations) can be in any of

3472-488: Is an example of a country that deals with issues of re-allocating resources with respect to the distributive justice framework. Distributive justice is also fundamental to the Catholic Church 's social teaching , inspiring such figures as Dorothy Day and Pope John Paul II . Within the context of Western liberal democracies in the post-WWII decades, Friedrich von Hayek was one of the most famous opposers of

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3584-602: Is another form of alcohol use disorder. Frequent binge drinking or getting severely drunk more than twice is classed as alcohol misuse. According to research done through international surveys, the heaviest drinkers happen to be the United Kingdom's adolescent generation. Animal abuse is the infliction of suffering or harm upon animals, other than humans, for purposes other than self-defense. More narrowly, it can be harm for specific gain, such as killing animals for fur. Diverging viewpoints are held by jurisdictions throughout

3696-494: Is considered abuse. An abuse of discretion is a failure to take into proper consideration, the facts and laws relating to a particular matter; an arbitrary or unreasonable departure from precedent and settled judicial custom. Market dominance by companies is regulated by public and private enforcement of competition law, also known as antitrust or anti-monopoly law. These laws stop companies from doing things that hurt customers or block fair competition. For example, Article 102 of

3808-428: Is defined as perceived fairness of how rewards and costs are shared by (distributed across) group members. For example, when some workers work more hours but receive the same pay, group members may feel that distributive justice has not occurred. To determine whether distributive justice has taken place, individuals often turn to the behavioral expectations of their group. If rewards and costs are allocated according to

3920-633: Is different; for example concerning: Discriminatory laws such as redlining have existed in many countries. In some countries, controversial attempts such as racial quotas have been used to redress negative effects of discrimination. Other acts of discrimination include political libel , defamation of groups and stereotypes based on exaggerations . Domestic abuse can be broadly defined as any form of abusive behaviours by one or both partners in an intimate relationship , such as marriage, cohabitation, family, dating, or even friends. Domestic violence has many forms, including: Depending on local statues,

4032-753: Is highly competitive and has a well defined hierarchy, with junior staff being particularly vulnerable. Adult abuse refers to the abuse of vulnerable adults. Alcohol use disorder, as described in the DSM-IV , is a psychiatric diagnosis describing the recurring use of alcoholic beverages despite its negative consequences. Alcohol use disorder is sometimes referred to by the less specific term alcoholism. There are two types of people with alcohol use disorder: those who have anti-social and pleasure-seeking tendencies, and those who are anxiety-ridden- people who are able to go without drinking for long periods of time but are unable to control themselves once they start. Binge drinking

4144-457: Is intended to harm others." -Bill Belsey Dating abuse is a pattern of abusive behaviour exhibited by one or both partners in a dating relationship. The behaviour may include, but is not limited to; physical abuse ; psychological abuse ; and sexual abuse . Defamation is the communication of a statement that makes a claim, expressly stated or implied to be factual, that may give an individual , business, product , group , government or nation

4256-523: Is known about who made them or why. Early artists created stencil graffiti of their hands with paint blown through a tube. These stencils may have functioned similarly to a modern-day tag . The oldest written graffiti was found in Ancient Rome around 2500 years ago. Most graffiti from the time was boasts about sexual experiences, but also includes word games such as the Sator Square , "I

4368-515: Is known for his political, anti-war stencil art mainly in Bristol , England, but his work may be seen anywhere from Los Angeles to Palestine . In the UK, Banksy is the most recognizable icon for this cultural artistic movement and keeps his identity a secret to avoid arrest. Much of Banksy's artwork may be seen around the streets of London and surrounding suburbs, although he has painted pictures throughout

4480-585: Is no longer possible to make anyone better off without making anyone else worse off. This illustrates a concern for the equality of welfare, which is an ex post conception of equality as it is concerned with the equality in outcomes. This conception has been critiqued by those in favour of ex ante equality, that is equality in people´s prospects, which is captured by alternative conceptions of equality such as those that demand equality of opportunity. While much academic work distinguishes between luck egalitarianism and social egalitarianism , Roland Pierik presents

4592-405: Is not considered "performance art" despite the image of the "singing and dancing star" that sells hip hop culture to the mainstream. Being a graphic form of art, it might also be said that many graffitists still fall in the category of the introverted archetypal artist . Banksy is one of the world's most notorious and popular street artists who continues to remain faceless in today's society. He

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4704-434: Is only understood in the aggregation of individual actions which follow common rules, social and distributive justice are the negative opposite as they need a command economy. Secondly, following Tebble's (2009) view, the concept of social justice is for Hayek a reminiscence of an atavistic view towards society, that has been overcome by the survival capacity of the catallactic order and its values. The third Hayekian critique

4816-434: Is realised through a veil of ignorance , which these people will be behind. The veil prevents the people from knowing what particular preferences they will have by concealing their talents, objectives, and, most importantly, where in society they themselves will end up. The veil, on the other hand, does not conceal general information about the society, and the people are assumed to possess societal and economic knowledge beyond

4928-484: Is repeated acts over time that involves a real or perceived imbalance of power with the more powerful individual or group attacking those who are less powerful. Bullying may consist of three basic types of abuse – verbal , physical and emotional . It typically involves subtle methods of coercion such as intimidation . Bullying can be defined in many different ways. Although the UK currently has no legal definition of bullying, some US states have laws against it. Bullying

5040-533: Is the equitable distribution of a society's technological and environmental risks, impacts, and benefits. These burdens include exposure to hazardous waste, land appropriation, armed violence, and murder. Distributive justice is an essential principle of environmental justice because there is evidence that shows that these burdens cause health problems, negatively affect quality of life, and drive down property value. The potential negative social impacts of environmental degradation and regulatory policies have been at

5152-407: Is the last time I want to write my name here. During World War II and for decades after, the phrase " Kilroy was here " with an accompanying illustration was widespread throughout the world, due to its use by American troops and ultimately filtering into American popular culture. Shortly after the death of Charlie Parker (nicknamed "Yardbird" or "Bird"), graffiti began appearing around New York with

5264-573: Is the most complex form of modern graffiti. It can be difficult for those unfamiliar with the art form to read. Wildstyle draws inspiration from calligraphy and has been described as partially abstract. The term "wildstyle" was popularized by the Wild Style graffiti crew formed by Tracy 168 of the Bronx , New York in 1974. Modern graffiti art often incorporates additional arts and technologies. For example, Graffiti Research Lab has encouraged

5376-706: Is then placed on the "canvas" gently and with quick, easy strokes of the aerosol can, the image begins to appear on the intended surface. Some of the first examples were created in 1981 by artists Blek le Rat in Paris, in 1982 by Jef Aerosol in Tours (France); by 1985 stencils had appeared in other cities including New York City, Sydney, and Melbourne , where they were documented by American photographer Charles Gatewood and Australian photographer Rennie Ellis. Stickers, also known as slaps, are drawn or written on before being put up in public. Traditionally, free paper stickers like

5488-430: Is treating people of a lower rank in an abusive, discriminatory, or exploitative way. Robert W. Fuller claims that rankism includes the abuse of the power inherent in superior rank, with the view that rank-based abuse underlies many other phenomena such as bullying, racism, sexism , and homophobia . Abusive supervision is most commonly studied in the context of the workplace, although can arise in other areas such as in

5600-413: Is usually done to coerce others by fear or threat . Character assassination is an attempt to tarnish a person's reputation. It may involve exaggeration or manipulation of facts to present an untrue picture of the targeted person. It is a form of defamation and can be a form of an ad hominem (to the person) argument. Child abuse is the physical or psychological/emotional mistreatment of children. In

5712-647: The grottesche style of decoration. In the 1790s, French soldiers carved their names on monuments during the Napoleonic campaign of Egypt . Lord Byron 's survives on one of the columns of the Temple of Poseidon at Cape Sounion in Attica , Greece. The oldest known example of graffiti monikers were found on traincars created by hobos and railworkers since the late 1800s. The Bozo Texino monikers were documented by filmmaker Bill Daniel in his 2005 film, Who

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5824-555: The Finnish graffiti artist Psyke expressed his displeasure at the newspaper Ilta-Sanomat publishing a photograph of a Peugeot 208 in an article about new cars, with his graffiti prominently shown on the background. The artist claims he does not want his art being used in commercial context, not even if he were to receive compensation. Territorial graffiti marks urban neighborhoods with tags and logos to differentiate certain groups from others. These images are meant to show outsiders

5936-585: The Gulf countries like Bahrain or the United Arab Emirates , Israel , and in Iran . The major Iranian newspaper Hamshahri has published two articles on illegal writers in the city with photographic coverage of Iranian artist A1one 's works on Tehran walls. Tokyo-based design magazine, PingMag , has interviewed A1one and featured photographs of his work. The Israeli West Bank barrier has become

6048-615: The Roman Empire . Modern graffiti is a controversial subject. In most countries, marking or painting property without permission is considered vandalism . Modern graffiti began in the New York City subway system and Philadelphia in the early 1970s and later spread to the rest of the United States and throughout the world. "Graffiti" (usually both singular and plural) and the rare singular form "graffito" are from

6160-534: The Safaitic language, an ancient form of Arabic , is from graffiti: inscriptions scratched on to the surface of rocks and boulders in the predominantly basalt desert of southern Syria , eastern Jordan and northern Saudi Arabia . Safaitic dates from the first century BC to the fourth century AD. Ancient tourists visiting the 5th-century citadel at Sigiriya in Sri Lanka write their names and commentary over

6272-484: The United States Postal Service 's Label 228 or name tags were used. Eggshell stickers, which are very difficult to remove, are also frequent. Stickers allow artists to put up their art quickly and discreetly, making them a relatively safer option for illegal graffiti. Tagging is the practice of writing ones "their name, initial or logo onto a public surface" in a handstyle unique to

6384-468: The anarcho-punk band Crass , who conducted a campaign of stenciling anti-war , anarchist , feminist , and anti-consumerist messages throughout the London Underground system during the late 1970s and early 1980s. In Amsterdam , graffiti was a major part of the punk scene. The city was covered in names such as "De Zoot", "Vendex", and "Dr Rat". To document the graffiti, a punk magazine

6496-567: The difference principle , addresses how the arrangement of social and economic inequalities, and thus the just distribution should look. Firstly, Rawls argues that such distribution should be based on a reasonable expectation of advantage for all, but also to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged in society. Secondly, the offices and positions attached to this arrangement should be open to all. These principles of justice are then prioritised according to two additional principles: In 1789, Jeremy Bentham published his book An Introduction to

6608-413: The liberty principle , is the equal access to basic rights and liberties for all. With this, each person should be able to access the most extensive set of liberties that is compatible with similar schemes of access by other citizens. Thereby, it is not only a question of positive individual access but also of negative restrictions so as to respect others’ basic rights and liberties. The second principle,

6720-427: The "mirror wall", adding up to over 1800 individual graffiti produced there between the 6th and 18th centuries. Most of the graffiti refer to the frescoes of semi-nude females found there. Among the ancient political graffiti examples were Arab satirist poems. Yazid al-Himyari, an Umayyad Arab and Persian poet, was most known for writing his political poetry on the walls between Sajistan and Basra , manifesting

6832-607: The Italian word graffiato ("scratched"). In ancient times graffiti were carved on walls with a sharp object, although sometimes chalk or coal were used. The word originates from Greek γράφειν — graphein —meaning "to write". Most petroglyphs and geoglyphs date between 40,000 and 10,000 years old, the oldest being cave paintings in Australia. Paintings in the Chauvet Cave were made 35,000 years ago, but little

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6944-473: The Principles of Morals and Legislation . Centred on individual utility and welfare, utilitarianism builds on the notion that any action which increases the overall welfare in society is good, and any action that decreases welfare is bad. By this notion, utilitarianism's focus lies with its outcomes and pays little attention to how these outcomes are shaped. This idea of utilisation maximisation, while being

7056-832: The Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU) prohibits companies in a dominant market position from abusing their power, such as through unfair pricing, limiting production, or refusing to deal with others. In the Catholic Church, an indulgence is a way to reduce punishment for sin, often by prayer, pilgrimage or good works. In the Middle Ages, some Church officials demanded money in exchange both for forgiveness of sins and for other rewards such as future salvation. Abuse of information typically involves

7168-528: The United States and Canada, hazing is often associated with Greek-letter organisations ( fraternities and sororities ). Hazing is often prohibited by law and may be either physical (possibly violent ) or mental (possibly degrading ) practices. It may also include nudity or sexually oriented activities. Human rights are "basic rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled." Examples of rights and freedoms which have come to be commonly thought of as human rights include civil and political rights , such as

7280-608: The United States, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) define child maltreatment as any act or series of acts of commission or omission by a parent or other caregiver that results in harm, potential for harm, or threat of harm to a child. Most child abuse occurs in a child's home, with a smaller amount occurring in the organisations, schools or communities the child interacts with. There are four major categories of child abuse: neglect , physical abuse , psychological/emotional abuse , and sexual abuse . Child sexual abuse

7392-720: The arrival of American graffiti and was associated more with the punk rock scene than with hip-hop. In the 1980s, American graffiti and hiphop began to influence the European graffiti scene. Modern graffiti reached Eastern Europe in the 1990s. Some of the earliest graffiti exhibitions outside of the USA were in Amsterdam , The Netherlands. Graffiti in the Middle East has emerged slowly, with taggers operating in Egypt , Lebanon ,

7504-401: The artist that can be displayed anywhere from sidewalks, roofs, subways, building wall, etc. Art to them is for everyone and should be shown to everyone for free. Graffiti is a way of communicating and a way of expressing onesself. It is both art and a functional thing that can warn people of something or inform people of something. However, graffiti is to some people a form of art, but to some

7616-444: The capacity to work, can be assured to everybody". Providing this type of security is for Hayek compatible with individual freedom as it does not involve planning. But already in this early work, he acknowledges the fact that this provision must keep the incentives and the external pressure going and not select which group enjoys security and which does not, for under these conditions "the striving for security tends to become higher than

7728-734: The center environmental discussions since the rise of environmental justice. Environmental burdens fall disproportionately upon the Global South , while benefits are primarily accrued to the Global North. Distributive justice theory argues that societies have a duty to individuals in need and that all individuals have a duty to help others in need. Proponents of distributive justice link it to human rights . Many governments are known for dealing with issues of distributive justice, especially in countries with ethnic tensions and geographically distinctive minorities. Post- apartheid South Africa

7840-406: The child's genitals for sexual purposes, or using a child to produce child pornography . Child-on-child sexual abuse refers to a form of child sexual abuse in which a prepubescent child is sexually abused by one or more other children or adolescent youths, and in which no adult is directly involved. This includes sexual activity between children that occurs without consent, without equality, or as

7952-491: The city after the NYC metro began to buy new trains and paint over graffiti. While the art had many advocates and appreciators—including the cultural critic Norman Mailer —others, including New York City mayor Ed Koch , considered it to be defacement of public property, and saw it as a form of public blight. While those who did early modern graffiti called it "writing", the 1974 essay "The Faith of Graffiti" referred to it using

8064-404: The country's own national flag and flags of other countries. Countries may have laws protecting the right to burn a flag as free speech. Gaming the system (also called bending the rules, gaming the rules, playing the system, abusing the system, milking the system, or working the system) can be defined as using the rules and procedures meant to protect a system to instead manipulate the system for

8176-508: The designated distributive norms of the group, distributive justice has occurred. Five types of distributive norm are defined by Donelson R. Forsyth : The listed theories below are some of the most prominent theories within the field. With this in mind, the list is in no way to be considered exhaustive for distributive justice theory. In his book A Theory of Justice , John Rawls outlines his famous theory about justice as fairness. The theory consists of three core components: Building

8288-399: The distribution of goods among the members of society at a given time is subjectively acceptable. Not all advocates of consequentialist theories are concerned with an equitable society. What unites them is the mutual interest in achieving the best possible results or, in terms of the example above, the best possible distribution of wealth . Distributive justice in an environmental context

8400-447: The domestic violence may or may not constitute a crime, also depending on the severity and duration of specific acts, and other variables. Alcohol consumption and mental illness have frequently been associated with abuse. Economic abuse is a form of abuse when one intimate partner has control over the other partner's access to economic resources, which diminishes the victim's capacity to support him/herself and forces him/her to depend on

8512-540: The early 1980s. Fab   5 Freddy and Futura 2000 took hip hop graffiti to Paris and London as part of the New York City Rap Tour in 1983. With the popularity and legitimization of graffiti has come a level of commercialization. In 2001, computer giant IBM launched an advertising campaign in Chicago and San Francisco which involved people spray painting on sidewalks a peace symbol , a heart , and

8624-739: The events of the Arab Spring of 2011 or the Sudanese Revolution of 2018/19. Graffiti is a tool of expression in the context of conflict in the region, allowing people to raise their voices politically and socially. Famous street artist Banksy has had an important effect in the street art scene in the MENA area, especially in Palestine where some of his works are located in the West Bank barrier and Bethlehem . South America has

8736-478: The following contexts: Flag abuse (or flag desecration) is a term applied to various acts that intentionally destroy, damage or mutilate a flag in public, most often a national flag. Often, such action is intended to make a political point against a country or its policies. Some countries have laws forbidding methods of destruction (such as burning in public) or forbidding particular uses (such as for commercial purposes); such laws may distinguish between desecration of

8848-427: The former. One of the major exponents of the libertarian outlook toward distributive justice is Robert Nozick. In his book Anarchy, State, and Utopia he stresses how the term distributive justice is not a neutral one. In fact, there is no central distributor that can be regarded as such. What each person gets, he or she gets from the outcomes of Lockean self-ownership (a condition that implies one's labor mixed with

8960-464: The household and at school. "Abusive supervision has been investigated as an antecedent to negative subordinate workplace outcome". " Workplace violence has combination of situational and personal factors". The study that was conducted looked at the link between abusive supervision and different workplace events. Academic abuse is a form of workplace bullying which takes place in institutions of higher education, such as colleges and universities. Academia

9072-410: The idea of distributive justice. For him, social and distributive justice were meaningless and impossible to attain, on the grounds of being within a system where the outcomes are not determined deliberately by the people but contrarily spontaneity is the norm. Therefore, distributive justice, redistribution of wealth , and the demands for social justice in a society ruled by an impersonal process such as

9184-596: The latter case, this is linked to a poor ability in physical education, and this behaviour can be encouraged by an ignorant physical education teacher. Abuse of disabled people is not limited to schools; there are many known cases in which disabled people have been abused by staff of a "care institution", such as the case revealed in a BBC Panorama programme on a Castlebeck care home ( Winterbourne View ) near Bristol , leading to its closure and suspension or firing of staff members. Discriminatory abuse involves picking on or treating someone unfairly because something about them

9296-787: The legal problems of the IBM campaign, Sony paid building owners for the rights to paint on their buildings "a collection of dizzy-eyed urban kids playing with the PSP as if it were a skateboard, a paddle, or a rocking horse". When graffiti is done as an art form, it often utitlises the Latin script even in countries where it is not the primary writing system. English words are also often used as monikers. Stencil graffiti artists such as Blek le Rat existed in Western Europe, especially in Paris , before

9408-472: The listed conditions. Incidents may involve physical assault , damage to property, bullying , harassment , verbal abuse or insults , or offensive graffiti or inflammatory letters (hate mail). Hazing is considered any activity involving harassment , abuse, or humiliation as a way of initiating a person into a group . Hazing is seen in many different types of groups; including within gangs , clubs, sports teams , military units , and workplaces . In

9520-403: The love of freedom". Therefore, fostering a certain kind of security (the one that for him socialist economic policies follow) can entail growing insecurity as the privilege increases social differences. Notwithstanding, he concludes that "adequate security against severe privation, and the reduction of the avoidable causes of misdirected effort and consequent disappointment, will have to be one of

9632-430: The main goals of policy". Hayek dismisses an organizational view that ascribes certain outcomes to an intentional design, which would be contrary to his proposed spontaneous order. For this, Hayek famously firstly regards the term social (or distributive) justice as meaningless when it is applied to the results of a liberal market system that should yield spontaneous outcomes. Justice has an individual component for Hayek,

9744-457: The main tools used for tagging , throw ups , and pieces . Paint markers , paint dabbers, and scratching tools are also used. Some art companies, such as Montana Colors , make art supplies specifically for graffiti and street art. Many major cities have graffiti art stores. Stencil graffiti is created by cutting out shapes and designs in a stiff material (such as cardboard or subject folders ) to form an overall design or image. The stencil

9856-480: The market are in this sense incompatible with that system. In his book The Road to Serfdom , there can be found considerations about social assistance from the state. There, in talking about the importance of a restrictive kind of security (the one against physical privation) in front of one that necessarily needs to control or abolish the market, Hayek poses that "there can be no doubt that some minimum of food, shelter, and clothing, sufficient to preserve health and

9968-404: The performance of official duties. Malfeasance in office is often grounds for a for cause removal of an elected official by statute or recall election . A cause of action in tort arising from one party making a malicious and deliberate misuse or perversion of regularly issued court process (civil or criminal) not justified by the underlying legal action. Rankism (also called abuse of rank)

10080-601: The perpetrator financially. Elder abuse is a type of harm to older adults involving abuse by trusted individuals in a manner that "causes harm or distress to an older person". This definition has been adopted by the World Health Organization from a definition put forward by Action on Elder Abuse in the UK. The abuse includes violence, neglect , and other crimes committed against an elderly person and their forms include physical, mental, and financial abuses as well as passive and active neglect. While there

10192-478: The personal level. Thereby, such veil creates an environment for negotiations where the evaluation of the distribution of goods is based on general considerations, regardless of place in society, rather than biased considerations based on personal gains for specific citizen positions. By this logic, the negotiations will be sensitive to both those who are worst off, given that a risk of being in that category yourself will incentivize protection of these people, but also

10304-510: The primary goods include freedoms, opportunities, and control over resources). These people are assumed to be guided by self-interest, while also having a basic idea of morality and justice, and thus capable of understanding and evaluating a moral argument. Rawls then argues that procedural justice in the process of negotiation will be possible via a nullification of temptations for these people to exploit circumstances so as to favor their own position in society. This nullification of temptations

10416-444: The process through which distribution takes place, egalitarianism evaluates the justification for a certain distribution based on how the society and its institutions have been shaped, rather than what the outcome is. Attention is mainly given to ways in which unchosen person circumstances affect and hinder individuals and their life opportunities. As Elizabeth Anderson defines it, "the positive aim of egalitarian justice is...to create

10528-419: The rest of society, as one would not wish to hinder maximal utilisation for these in case you would end up in higher classes. In this original position, the main concern will be to secure the goods that are most essential for pursuing the goals of each individual, regardless of what this specific goal might be. With this in mind, Rawls theorizes two basic principles of just distribution . The first principle,

10640-404: The right to life and liberty , freedom of expression , and equality before the law ; and economic, social and cultural rights , including the right to participate in culture, the right to be treated with respect and dignity, the right to food , the right to work , and – in certain countries – the right to education . Distributive justice In social psychology , distributive justice

10752-460: The scope of their job description. Such behaviors depend on the degree to which an organization is perceived to be distributively just. As organizational actions and decisions are perceived as more just, employees are more likely to engage in OCBs. Perceptions of distributive justice are also strongly related to the withdrawal of employees from the organization. Distributive justice considers whether

10864-412: The slogan " He who does not work, neither shall he eat " is a necessary approach to distributive justice on the path towards a communist society. Distributive justice affects performance when efficiency and productivity are involved. Improving perceptions of justice increases performance. Organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs) are employee actions in support of the organization that are outside

10976-477: The staging of bizarre events by the abuser with the intention of disorienting the victim. The term owes its origin to Gaslight , a 1938 play and 1944 film, and has been used in clinical and research literature. Gay bashing and gay bullying are verbal or physical abuse against a person perceived by the aggressor to be gay, lesbian, or bisexual , including people who are actually heterosexual, or of non-specific or unknown sexual orientation . Harassment covers

11088-410: The suffering of a victim at different times and societies. Abuse of authority includes harassment, interference, pressure, and inappropriate requests or favors. Necrophilia involves possessing a physical attraction to dead bodies that may led to acting upon sexual urges. As corpses are dead and cannot give consent, any manipulation, removal of parts, mutilation, or sexual acts performed on a dead body

11200-522: The term "graffiti", which stuck. An early graffito outside of New York or Philadelphia was the inscription in London reading " Clapton is God " in reference to the guitarist Eric Clapton . Creating the cult of the guitar hero, the phrase was spray-painted by an admirer on a wall in Islington , north London, in the autumn of 1967. The graffito was captured in a photograph, in which a dog is urinating on

11312-524: The theoretical framework transects across these conceptualisations, using the different conceptualisation have clear implications for how we understand the more practical side of utilitarianism in distributive justice. Bentham originally conceptualised this according to the hedonistic calculus , which also became the foundation for John Stuart Mill's focus on intellectual pleasures as the most beneficial contribution to societal welfare. Another path has been painted by Aristotle , based on an attempt to create

11424-488: The use of projected images and magnetic light-emitting diodes ( throwies ) as new media for graffitists. Yarnbombing is another recent form of graffiti. Yarnbombers occasionally target previous graffiti for modification, which had been avoided among the majority of graffitists. Theories on the use of graffiti by avant-garde artists have a history dating back at least to the Asger Jorn , who in 1962 painting declared in

11536-504: The wall . Films like Style Wars in the 80s depicting famous writers such as Skeme, Dondi , MinOne, and ZEPHYR reinforced graffiti's role within New York's emerging hip-hop culture. Although many officers of the New York City Police Department found this film to be controversial, Style Wars is still recognized as the most prolific film representation of what was going on within the young hip hop culture of

11648-419: The words "Bird Lives". Modern graffiti style has been heavily influenced by hip hop culture and started with young people in 1960s and 70s in New York City and Philadelphia . Tags were the first form of stylised contemporary graffiti, starting with artists like TAKI 183 and Cornbread . Later, artists began to paint throw-ups and pieces on trains on the sides subway trains. and eventually moved into

11760-535: The workplace, where the consequences of refusing sexual requests are potentially very disadvantageous to the victim. Hate crimes occur when a perpetrator targets a victim because of his or her perceived membership in a certain social group ; usually defined by racial group , religion, sexual orientation , disability , ethnicity , nationality, age , gender , gender identity , or political affiliation . "Hate crime" generally refers to criminal acts which are seen to have been motivated by hatred of one or more of

11872-497: The world), or others who give to him in exchange for something, or as a gift. For him, "there is no more a distributing or distribution of shares than there is a distribution of mates in a society in which persons choose whom they shall marry". This means that there can be no pattern to which to conform or aim. The market and the result of individual actions provided the conditions for libertarian principles of just acquisition and exchange (contained in his Entitlement Theory) will have as

11984-401: The world, including the Middle East, where he has painted on Israel's controversial West Bank barrier with satirical images of life on the other side. One depicted a hole in the wall with an idyllic beach, while another shows a mountain landscape on the other side. A number of exhibitions also have taken place since 2000, and recent works of art have fetched vast sums of money. Banksy's art is

12096-495: The world. Anti-social behavior is often seen as public behavior that lacks judgement and consideration for others and may damage them or their property. It may be intentional, as with vandalism or graffiti , or the result of negligence. Persistent anti-social behavior may be a manifestation of an antisocial personality disorder . The counterpart of anti-social behavior is pro-social behavior , namely any behavior intended to help or benefit another person, group or society. Bullying

12208-649: The writer. Tags were the first form of modern graffiti. A number of recent examples of graffiti make use of hashtags . Throw ups, or throwies are large, bubble-writing graffiti which aim to be "throw onto" a surface as largely and quickly as possible. Throw ups can have fills or be "hollow". They prioritise minimal negative space and consistency or letter space and height. Pieces are large, elaborate, letter-based graffiti which usually use spray paint or rollers. Pieces often have multi-coloured fills and outlines, and may use highlights, shadows, backgrounds, extensions, 3D effects, and sometimes characters . Wildstyle

12320-492: Was extensively covered by graffiti reflecting social pressures related to the oppressive Soviet rule over the GDR . Graffiti often has a reputation as part of a subculture that rebels against authority, although the considerations of the practitioners often diverge and can relate to a wide range of attitudes. It can express a political practice and can form just one tool in an array of resistance techniques. One early example includes

12432-567: Was here" type markings, and comments on gladiators. Graffiti in Ancient Rome was a form of communication, and was generally not considered vandalism. Certain graffiti was seen as blasphemous and was removed, such as the Alexamenos graffito , which may contain one of the earliest depictions of Jesus . The graffito features a human with the head of a donkey on a cross with the text "Alexamenos worships [his] god." The only known source of

12544-430: Was started that was called Gallery Anus . So when hip hop came to Europe in the early 1980s, there was already a vibrant graffiti culture. The student protests and general strike of May 1968 saw Paris bedecked in revolutionary, anarchistic, and situationist slogans such as L'ennui est contre-révolutionnaire ("Boredom is counterrevolutionary") and Lisez moins, vivez plus ("Read less, live more"). While not exhaustive,

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