Misplaced Pages

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187-693: In Manchuria, the division of rights in mainland China manifested itself in the form of competition in railway construction. As a result, following the end of the Russo-Japanese War , railway rights in Manchuria were split between Russia , which operated the Chinese Eastern Railway , and Japan , which operated the South Manchuria Railway ( Mantetsu ). Meanwhile, in the western part of Manchuria there operated

374-790: A casus belli ." By 1898 they had acquired mining and forestry concessions near the Yalu and Tumen rivers, causing the Japanese much anxiety. Japan decided to attack before the Russians completed the Trans-Siberian Railway. The Russians and the Japanese both contributed troops to the Eight-Nation Alliance sent in 1900 to quell the Boxer Rebellion and to relieve the international legations besieged in

561-844: A Chinese -owned railway on the Beijing – Shanhaiguan – Fengtian route, the Jingfeng Railway , which had been built with a loan given by the British Hongkong Shanghai Bank . In 1913 and 1918, China and Japan concluded two railway agreements which strengthened Japanese rights in Manchuria, further increasing the dominance of the great powers in China. After the 1922 establishment of the Republic of China , political and military activities were undertaken to reclaim Chinese rights. In Manchuria this movement also reached

748-638: A monsoon -influenced humid continental climate ( Köppen Dwa ) characterised by hot, humid summers due to the monsoon, and dry, cold winters due to the Siberian anticyclone . The four seasons here are distinctive. Nearly half of the annual rainfall occurs in July and August. Monthly mean temperatures range from −11.4 °C (11.5 °F) in January to 24.9 °C (76.8 °F) in July, for an annual average of 8.6 °C (47.5 °F). The frost-free period

935-652: A sphere of influence in Korea and Manchuria. Seeing Russia as a rival, Japan offered to recognize Russian dominance in Manchuria in exchange for recognition of the Korean Empire as being within the Japanese sphere of influence. Russia refused and demanded the establishment of a neutral buffer zone between Russia and Japan in Korea, north of the 39th parallel . The Imperial Japanese Government perceived this as obstructing their plans for expansion into mainland Asia and chose to go to war. After negotiations broke down in 1904,

1122-566: A Japanese soldier detonated a small quantity of dynamite near a Mantetsu line on 18 September 1931; although no damage was inflicted, it was blamed on Chinese terrorists, and was used as a pretext for the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. The Fengtian clique, which effectively had been the government of Manchuria until that time, collapsed in October. As the Northeastern Transportation Committee was dissolved with

1309-627: A Russian–German alliance emerged, France would be compelled to join it. He also hoped that having Russia pursue an expansionist policy in Asia would distract and keep Russia out of the Balkans, thus removing the main source of tension between Russia and Germany's ally Austria-Hungary . During the war, Nicholas, who took at face value Wilhelm's "Yellow Peril" speeches, placed much hope in German intervention on his side. More than once Nicholas chose to continue

1496-503: A White Tsar!" Nevertheless, Tokyo believed that Russia was not serious about seeking a peaceful solution to the dispute. On 13 January 1904, Japan proposed a formula by which Manchuria would remain outside Japan's sphere of influence and, reciprocally, Korea outside Russia's. On 21 December 1903, the Katsura cabinet voted to go to war against Russia. By 4 February 1904, no formal reply had been received from Saint Petersburg. On 6 February

1683-600: A bigger policy in the Far East that might lead to military complications (with the aim of relieving our eastern border from the fearful pressure and threat of the massive Russian army!). Whereupon, Russia took Port Arthur and trusting us , took her fleet out of the Baltic , thereby making herself vulnerable to us by sea. In Danzig 01 and Reval 02, the same assurance was given again, with result that entire Russian divisions from Poland and European Russia were and are being sent to

1870-575: A cause that resulted in humiliating defeat contributed to growing domestic unrest, which culminated in the 1905 Russian Revolution , and severely damaged the prestige of the Russian autocracy. After the Meiji Restoration in 1868, the Meiji government endeavoured to assimilate Western ideas, technological advances and ways of warfare. By the late 19th century, Japan had transformed itself into

2057-634: A coup in the Kingdom of Korea by a pro-Japanese reformist faction, which led to the conservative government calling upon China for help, leading to a clash between Chinese and Japanese soldiers in Seoul. At the time, Tokyo did not feel ready to risk a war with China, and the crisis was ended by the Convention of Tientsin , which left Korea more strongly in the Chinese sphere of influence, though it did give

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2244-723: A cowardly and shameful way over the Panama Canal question, so as to be left in 'peace' by the Yankees. Will the 'Tsar' likewise betray the interests of the White Race to the Yellow as to be 'left in peace' and not embarrass the Hague tribunal too much?. When Nicholas replied that he still wanted peace, Wilhelm wrote back in a telegram "You innocent angel!", telling his advisors "This is the language of an innocent angel. But not that of

2431-654: A deadly blow to British diplomacy, and that the two emperors, the self-proclaimed "Admiral of the Atlantic" and the "Admiral of the Pacific", would rule Eurasia together, making them able to challenge British sea power as the resources of Eurasia would make their empires immune to a British blockade, and thus allowing Germany and Russia to "divide up the best" of the British colonies in Asia between them. Nicholas had been prepared to compromise with Japan, but after receiving

2618-490: A different system than on Mantetsu; initially, there was no surcharge for limited express tickets. When the surcharge was introduced, there were no express trains that travelled directly between national and company lines, so the surcharge applied only to the National Railway. Surcharges were also converted to the currency used at the point of sale. As sleeping car fares were determined not by fare-kilometer but on

2805-459: A half dozen Japanese divisions, led by competent, intrepid Japanese officers, full of hatred for Christianity – that is a vision of the future that cannot be contemplated without concern, and it is not impossible. On the contrary, it is the realisation of the yellow peril, which I described a few years ago and I was ridiculed by the majority of people for my graphic depiction of it ... Your devoted friend and cousin, Willy, Admiral of

2992-408: A letter from Wilhelm attacking him as a coward for his willingness to compromise with the Japanese (who, Wilhelm never ceasing reminding Nicholas, represented the "Yellow Peril") for the sake of peace, became more obstinate. Wilhelm had written to Nicholas stating that the question of Russian interests in Manchuria and Korea was beside the point, saying instead it was a matter of Russia: ...undertaking

3179-630: A letter to the British diplomat Cecil Spring Rice , Roosevelt wrote that Wilhelm bore partial responsibility for the war as "he has done all he could to bring it about", charging that Wilhelm's constant warnings about the "Yellow Peril" had made the Russians uninterested in compromise as Nicholas believed that Germany would intervene if Japan attacked. The implicit promise of German support suggested by Wilhelm's "Yellow Peril" speeches and letters to Nicholas led many decision-makers in Saint Petersburg to believe that Russia's military weaknesses in

3366-580: A modernized industrial state. The Japanese wanted to be recognized as equal with the Western powers. The Meiji Restoration had been intended to make Japan a modernized state, not a Westernized one, and Japan was an imperialist power, looking towards overseas expansionism. In the years 1869–1873, the Seikanron ("Conquer Korea Argument") had bitterly divided the Japanese elite: one faction wanted to conquer Korea immediately, another wanted to wait until Japan

3553-460: A number of occasions according to the needs of the time. Immediately after the creation of the National Railway, in cases where connection was being made between the two railways, an "interchange ticket" was issued and the fare was collected. This was carried over from the time before the establishment of Manchukuo, when such interchange agreements had been made with the privately owned railways that were later nationalised. Mantetsu's official currency

3740-402: A number of riverine ports related to its water transport operations, as well as sea ports at Huludao and Hebei . Russo-Japanese War 1,365,000 (total) 1,200,000 (total) Total: 43,300–71,453 dead Material losses: Total: 80,378–86,100 dead Material losses: Naval battles Land battles Taishō period Shōwa period The Russo-Japanese War

3927-575: A per-night basis, even in the case of a direct train between the two railways, the specified fare was simply collected in Korean yen at Mantetsu stations, and in Manchukuo yuan at National Railway stations. However, if a sleeper ticket was bought at a station of the railway other than the one from which the sleeping car was to depart from, the sleeper fare had to be paid in the currency used at the departure station. The General Railway Administration, later

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4114-568: A population of 645,399 (2014). Heping District has all manner of commercial businesses that are brightly neon -lit at night, centered around Taiyuan Street ( 太原街 ; Taìyuán Jīe ), one of the most famous shopping district in the Northeast. The Project 985 university, Northestern University , is also located in Heping District. The district, better known as the downtown, sprung up around Shenyang Railway Station (known locally as

4301-611: A population of 764,419. In May 2002, the Shenyang city government annexed a large area of suburban land from the neighbouring Yuhong District to establish a new state-level development zone—the Shenyang Economic and Technological Development Zone ( 沈阳经济技术开发区 ), and transferred its administration to Tiexi District to form the Tiexi New District ( 铁西新区 ), thus giving Tiexi District the current "necked" shape on

4488-596: A pretext to formally invade and occupy most of Manchuria, and Mukden became a Russian stronghold in the Far East with the building of what would become the South Manchurian Railway - from Harbin via Mukden to Dalny . During the Russo-Japanese War (1904—1905), Mukden became the site of the Battle of Mukden from February 19 to March 10, 1905. Involving more than 600,000 combat participants, it

4675-567: A result of this, lines owned by Mantetsu were called "Company Lines" (社線, Ch. shèxiàn , Ja. shasen ), while those of the National Railway were called "National Lines" (國線, Ch. guóxiàn , Ja. kokusen ). Although the General Railway Administration was officially a department of Mantetsu, in reality the Kwantung Army, which was secretly the power behind the Manchukuo government and wanting to take advantage of

4862-567: A secret treaty with Russian foreign minister Aleksey Lobanov-Rostovsky , allowing the Russian Empire to build a Russian-gauge railway through Manchuria, which opened the door towards further Russian expansionism in the form of another lease convention in 1898 , effectively allowing Russia to annex Port Arthur in all but name. However, after the Boxer Rebellion in 1900, Russian forces used that anti-foreigner insurgency as

5049-516: A stage where the final issue can with certainty be predicted. In these circumstances the Japanese government cannot but regard with grave concern the situation for which the delays in negotiations are largely responsible. Some scholars have suggested that Nicholas II dragged Japan into war intentionally, in hopes of reviving Russian nationalism. This notion conflicts with a comment made by Nicholas to Kaiser Wilhelm of Germany, saying there would be no war because he "did not wish it". This does not reject

5236-415: A ticket was bought for a trip from Dalian to Jilin, the price was payable in Korean yen, as Dalian was on Mantetsu; if the ticket was for a trip from Jilin to Dalian, it was payable in taels, as Jilin was on the National Railway. The interchange agreement also limited where such interchange tickets could be bought, and so they were available for purchase only at major stations. This system was continued after

5423-496: A very few examples, or even only a single example. As a result, these miscellaneous types ended up being assigned class designations with "9" (e.g. Ha9, ハ9), or were classified with the old railway company's name plus the type designation, e.g. 瀋海ロネ1, Shenhai RoNe1; gradually, these types were scrapped. With the acquisition of the North Manchuria Railway in 1935, equipment differences became much more marked. This

5610-466: Is 183 days, which is long considering the severity of the winters. The city receives 2,421 hours of bright sunshine annually; monthly percent of possible ranges from 42 percent in July to 64 percent in February. Extreme temperatures range from −33.1 °C (−28 °F) to 39.3 °C (103 °F). See or edit raw graph data . Shenyang's metropolitan area traditionally consisted of

5797-645: Is a part of the downtown and was also the most developed district in Shenyang. Until 2015, it held the seat of the City Government. The old city wall is entirely located in Shenhe District. It has an area of 60 km (23 sq mi) and a registered population of 716,417 (as per 2014). There is the Central Temple ( 中心庙 ; Zhōngxīn Mìao ), built during the Ming dynasty , showing

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5984-652: Is also a major city for scientific research and education in Northeast China. As of 2023 , it was listed among the top 125 cities by scientific output in the world, as tracked by the Nature Index . The city is home to several major universities , notably Northeastern University and Liaoning University , listed as prestigious universities in the Double First-Class Construction . Shenyang literally means "the yang side of

6171-494: Is an important industrial center in China, and serves as the transportation and commercial hub of China's northeast—particularly involved in links with Japan, Russia, and Korea. A center of heavy industry in China since the 1930s, and the spearhead of the Chinese central government's Northeast Area Revitalization Plan , the city has been diversifying its industry, including expanding into the service sector . Growing industries include software, automotive and electronics. Shenyang

6358-560: Is located in the central part of Liaoning province. The western parts of the city's administrative area are located on the alluvial plain of the Liao River system, while the eastern part consists of the hinterlands of the Changbai Mountains , and is covered with forests. The highest point in Shenyang is 414 m (1,358 ft) above sea level and the lowest point only 7 m (23 ft). The average elevation of

6545-401: Is one of the major megalopolises in China , with a population of over 23 million. The city's administrative region includes the ten metropolitan districts of Shenyang, the county-level city of Xinmin , and the counties of Kangping and Faku . Shenyang has been controlled by numerous different states and peoples during its history. In the 14th century, the city came under the control of

6732-521: Is seen by Russian reference to Japan's choosing war as a big mistake. Mukden Shenyang is the capital of Liaoning , China. It is the provincial capital of Liaoning and the province's most populous city with a population of 9,070,093 as of the 2020 census , also making it the largest city in Northeast China by urban population , and the second-largest by metropolitan population behind Harbin . The Shenyang metropolitan area

6919-473: Is significant that ever since the Meiji period demands for a tough foreign policy have come from the common people, that is, from those who are at the receiving end of oppression at home. Tsarist Russia, as a major imperial power, had ambitions in the East. By the 1890s it had extended its realm across Central Asia to Afghanistan , absorbing local states in the process. The Russian Empire stretched from Poland in

7106-487: Is the first Marriott Hotel directly named "Marriott" in mainland China , but due to finance conflicts is not administered by Marriott International ). The major thoroughfare of Youths Avenue ( 青年大街 ; Qīngnián Dà Jiē ), the city's primary north–south arterial road that traverses past the City Government Square ( 市府广场 ; Shìfǔ Guǎngchǎng ) at the modern center of the city linking Beiling Park to

7293-535: Is the largest stretch of vegetated urban open space in Shenyang, contributing significantly to the city's 40-percent " greening ratio", and was instrumental in the city being awarded the "national forest city" title in 2005. According to the Shenyang Environmental Protection Bureau, winter usage of coal by boiler stations for hydronic district heating is the source of 30 percent of the air pollution in Shenyang. Half of

7480-505: Is the most populous district and makes up the western part of the inner city, west of the South Manchurian Railway (hence the district's name) and south of the Jingshen Railway , and is famous for its heavy industry . This mixed-use district also contains large blocks of residential complexes, so as well as strips of small to medium-sized shopping districts. It previously had only an area of 39 km (15 sq mi) and

7667-562: Is the site of the Mukden Palace , just south of the Central Temple. It is also the site of Zhang Zuolin 's former home and headquarters, Shengjing Ancient Cultural Street. In the western Shenhe District there is a Muslim town, and the South Pagoda ( 南塔 ; Nán tǎ ) is located in southern Shenhe District. There are a lot of high-end hotels located in Shenhe District, such as Sheraton , Kempinski , Lexington, Marriott (which

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7854-965: The 12th National Games in 2013 . Around 2.5 km (1.6 mi) outside Shenyang's former outer wall, there were four pagodas each located within an associated Tibetan Buddhist temple, namely the East Pagoda in Yongguang Temple ( 永光寺 ), the South Pagoda in Guangci Temple ( 廣慈寺 ), the West Pagoda in Yanshou Temple ( 延壽寺 ) and the North Pagoda in Falun Temple ( 法輪寺 ). They were built in 1643 and completed in 1645. The four pagodas are identical white Buddha- stupas as tall as 26 m (85 ft). Nowadays only

8041-743: The Chinese Communist Party controlled the surrounding countryside. By February 1948 the city was suffering from drastic shortages, and by the summer 140,000 refugees per month were fleeing. It was captured by the People's Liberation Army on October 30, 1948, following a series of offensives led by Lin Biao known as the Liaoshen Campaign . Over the past 200 years or so, Shenyang managed to grow and increase its industrial might during consecutive wars with Russia and Japan in

8228-550: The Imperial Japanese Navy opened hostilities in a surprise attack on the Russian Eastern Fleet at Port Arthur, China, on 9 February [ O.S. 27 January] 1904. The Russian Empire responded by declaring war on Japan. Although Russia suffered a number of defeats, Emperor Nicholas II remained convinced that Russia could still win if it fought on; he chose to remain engaged in

8415-674: The Imperial Palace was constructed in 1626, symbolizing the city's emerging status as the Jurchen political center. The palace featured more than 300 ostentatiously decorated rooms and 20 gardens as a symbol of power and grandeur. After the fall of the Ming dynasty in 1644 and the routing of the Shun army in the Battle of Shanhai Pass just a day later, the Manchus successfully entered

8602-472: The Japanese yen , and from 5 October the Manchukuo yuan was treated as equivalent to the Korean yen for the purchase of tickets. As a result, one Manchukuo yuan at a National Railway station became equivalent to one Korean yen at a Mantetsu station, so tickets had the same face value regardless of which railway issued the ticket. Fares continued to be calculated separately according to the distance-based fare of

8789-628: The Jin dynasty (266–420) . The region was in disarray during the fourth century until the Goguryeo occupied both commanderies in 404. Under Goguryeo, the city was called Gaemo. They established the cities of Xuantucheng and Gaimoucheng in the region. The Sui dynasty recaptured the area and established a new Liaodong Commandery in what is now modern Shenyang. In 645, the Tang dynasty invaded Goguryeo and captured Xuantucheng and Gaimoucheng. Soon after, Liaodong

8976-416: The Liaodong Peninsula and nearly destroying the Chinese Beiyang Fleet in the Battle of the Yalu River . Japan and China signed the Treaty of Shimonoseki , which ceded the Liaodong Peninsula and the island of Taiwan to Japan. After the peace treaty, Russia, Germany, and France forced Japan to withdraw from the Liaodong Peninsula . The leaders of Japan did not feel that they possessed the strength to resist

9163-435: The Little Shen River ( 小瀋水 ) or Wuli River ( 五里河 ; 'five- li river'), which was a principal water source for the old city. These are reinforced on the peripheries by smaller rivers such as Xi River ( 细河 ), Puhe River ( 蒲河 ) and Mantang River ( 满堂河 ), and drains into the Hun River at three different locations on the southeast, due south and southwest side of the city. There was also previously another canal on

9350-417: The Ming dynasty (1368–1644), for whom it served as an important military stronghold. The 1621 Battle of Shen-Liao resulted in Shenyang briefly serving as the capital of the Jurchen Later Jin dynasty, the direct predecessor of the Qing dynasty (1644–1912). The 1905 Battle of Mukden took place south of Shenyang as part of the Russo-Japanese War . The subsequent Japanese victory allowed its annexation of

9537-411: The North Canal ) from the north and northeast, and the Weigong River ( 卫工河 , formerly the Weigong Nullah ) from the west, all interconnected by channels as a continuous waterway . The South Canal in particular, famous for the series of linear parks and gardens along it, was canalized from the old course of the Wanquan River ( 萬泉河 ; 'ten thousand springs river'), historically also called

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9724-464: The Russian Pacific Fleet in the port. Russia's acquisition of Port Arthur was primarily an anti-British move to counter the British occupation of Wei-hai-Wei , but in Japan this was perceived as an anti-Japanese move. Germany occupied Jiaozhou Bay , built the Tsingtao fortress , and based the German East Asia Squadron in this port. Between 1897 and 1903, the Russians built the Chinese Eastern Railway (CER) in Manchuria. The Chinese Eastern Railroad

9911-701: The Shanhai Pass to establish the Qing dynasty in China proper . The capital was subsequently relocated from Shenyang to Beijing . However, Shenyang retained considerable importance as the secondary capital and spiritual home of the Qing dynasty through the centuries. Treasures of the royal house were kept at its palaces, and the tombs of the early Qing rulers were once among the most famous monuments in China. In 1657, Fengtian Prefecture ( 奉天府 ; Fèngtiān Fǔ ; Manchu : ᠠᠪᡴᠠᡳ ᡳᠮᡳᠶᠠᠩᡤᠠ ᡶᡠ ,  Möllendorff : abkai imiyangga fu ,  Abkai : abkai imiyangga fu or Manchu : ᡶᡠᠩ ᡨᡳᠶᠠᠨ ,  Möllendorff : fung tiyian ,  Abkai : fung tiyian )

10098-404: The Taoxian Airport , separates the southern portion of Shenhe District from the neighbouring southern Heping District. The iconic 305.5 m (1,002 ft) Liaoning Broadcast and TV Tower is situated alongside this avenue. Shenhe District is also home to Northeast China's main railway hub , the Shenyang North Railway Station (locally known as the "North Station"). The railways leading to

10285-460: The Treaty of Portsmouth (5 September [ O.S. 23 August] 1905), mediated by US President Theodore Roosevelt . The complete victory of the Japanese military surprised international observers and transformed the balance of power in both East Asia and Europe, resulting in Japan's emergence as a great power and a decline in the Russian Empire's prestige and influence in Europe. Russia's incurrence of substantial casualties and losses for

10472-504: The UNESCO World Heritage Site -listed tombs dedicated to Nurhachi , the founder of Later Jin , and his empress Monggo-Jerjer . The large suburban district is located on the east and southeast side of urban Shenyang, with most of its territory south of the Hun River, hence its current name. It has an area of 734 km (283 sq mi) and a population of 324,074 (2014). The Shenyang municipal government moved to Hunnan District on 13 October 2015. The Shenyang Botanical Garden and

10659-405: The Xinle culture , a late Neolithic period society over 6800–7200 years old, are located in a museum in the north part of Huanggu District . It is complemented by a recreated village on site. The city now known as Shenyang was first established c.  300 BCE during the Warring States period by Yan general Qin Kai , who conquered the Liaodong region from Gojoseon . It

10846-604: The balance of power in Europe , as Wilhelm believed that any Russian entanglement with Japan would break up the Franco-Russian alliance and lead to Nicholas signing an alliance with Germany. This was especially the case as Germany had embarked upon the " Tirpitz Plan " and a policy of Weltpolitik (from 1897) meant to challenge Britain's position as the world's leading power. Since Britain was allied to Japan, if Germany could manipulate Russia and Japan into going to war with each other, this in turn would allegedly lead to Russia turning towards Germany. Furthermore, Wilhelm believed if

11033-433: The consulates-general of the United States, Japan. South Korea, North Korea and other countries. Northeast Electricity, China Post , railways, other such industrial hubs and many media outlets such as Liaoning Radio and Television , Shenyang Radio and Television and Shenyang Daily newspaper are also located in this district. The Dadong District ( 大东区 ; 'great east district') is an industrial zone and used to be

11220-402: The " Yellow Peril " propaganda by the German government, and the German Emperor Wilhelm II ( r.  1888–1918 ) often wrote letters to his cousin Emperor Nicholas II of Russia, praising him as the "saviour of the white race" and urging Russia forward in Asia. From November 1894 onward, Wilhelm had been writing letters praising Nicholas as Europe's defender from the "Yellow Peril", assuring

11407-459: The " survival of the fittest " were common from the 1880s onward and many ordinary Japanese resented the heavy taxes imposed by the government to modernize Japan, demanding something tangible like an overseas colony as a reward for their sacrifices. Furthermore, the educational system of Meiji Japan was meant to train the schoolboys to be soldiers when they grew up, and as such, Japanese schools indoctrinated their students into Bushidō ("way of

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11594-488: The "Great Qing Empire" – started to resemble more and more a Russian province. In December 1897, a Russian fleet appeared off Port Arthur. After three months, in 1898, China and Russia negotiated a convention by which China leased (to Russia) Port Arthur, Talienwan and the surrounding waters. The two parties further agreed that the convention could be extended by mutual agreement. The Russians clearly expected such an extension, for they lost no time in occupying

11781-426: The "National Lines", freely operated over Mantetsu lines (called "Company Lines"), and vice versa, without distinguishing it by who owned the line. Most passenger services were completely integrated with Mantetsu. However, in certain aspects there was a strict distinction. The same types of rolling stock were used by both the National Railway and Mantetsu. However, the MNR also had equipment that had been inherited from

11968-426: The "South Station" in contrast to the "North Station" in Shenhe District), the former hub of the South Manchurian Railway . At the center of the district is Zhongshan Square ( 中山广场 ; Zhōngshān Guǎngchǎng ), which features one of China's largest statues of Chairman Mao —a record of the era of the Cultural Revolution . Northwest of Zhongshan Square lies the West Pagoda Korean Neighborhood or Koreatown . Many of

12155-494: The "backwardness" of China and Korea was proof of the inferiority of those nations, thus giving the Japanese the "right" to conquer them. Count Inoue Kaoru , the foreign minister, gave a speech in 1887 saying "What we must do is to transform our empire and our people, make the empire like the countries of Europe and our people like the peoples of Europe," going on to say that the Chinese and Koreans had essentially forfeited their right to be independent by not modernizing. Much of

12342-419: The "group naming" of railway lines ceased and lines received new names, but the stations remained as they had previously been. On 1 April 1934, the railway stations in Mukden, Xinjing , Harbin and Taonan were consolidated. The biggest single event of the Railway General Administration period was the acquisition of the North Manchuria Railway - the former Chinese Eastern Railway . Although the Chinese share of

12529-434: The "peripheral gates" ( 邊門 ; Biān Mén ). The corresponding inner and outer gates were linked by roads that intersected within the inner city in a "#" pattern around the Mukden Palace . Nearly all of these city walls and gates were demolished after 1949. Two gates and one corner tower of the inner wall were rebuilt during the 1990s. There had, however, been proposals to rebuild the other gates and towers in preparation to

12716-421: The 16 million metric tons of coal consumed by the city during the winter of 2013–2014 were used for heating. Other major factors include dust from construction sites (20 percent), vehicle exhaust (20 percent), industrial emissions (10 percent) and extraterritorial dust (20 percent, mostly yellow dust from Gobi Desert ). However, air quality was described by the Bureau as "slowly improving". Shenyang has

12903-469: The 2001-4000 range. When powered railcars were introduced, a new classification system was introduced, with National Railway railcar classes - otherwise identical to the Mantetsu classes - having the class designation preceded by "國" ( koku , "country"). Diesel railcars of the National Railway were numbered in the 2000 series. The April 1938 system changed this, introducing a new, unified classification system, and numbering petrol and diesel railcars belonging to

13090-402: The 3 Provinces Transportation Committee into the "Northeastern Transportation Committee" ( 東北交通委員會 ), and undertook a strategy intended to surround and attack Mantetsu. The first step was the construction of a branch from the midpoint of the Jingfeng Railway to Huludao , where he built a new port. From then on, the Jingfeng Railway's network was planned with the goal of encircling and undermining

13277-498: The 5 small inner urban districts, surrounded by 4 larger outer suburban districts, and accompanied by 4 rural counties on the north and west sides. In general, agriculture , animal husbandry and agricultural product processing dominate northeastern Shenyang; eastern Shenyang is an automotive parts hub; southern Shenyang is a high-tech industrial base; and western Shenyang is home to heavy machinery manufacturing. The city center specialises in retail and financial services. Out of

13464-552: The 5000 or 6000 series or higher, to distinguish them from those belonging to Mantetsu. Locomotives that were transferred from Mantetsu to the National Railway were reclassified and renumbered. However, as the number of locomotives increased, and the North China Transportation Company was established as a subsidiary, this method became too complex, so in April 1938 the classification and numbering system

13651-537: The Atlantic. Wilhelm aggressively encouraged Russia's ambitions in Asia because France, Russia's closest ally since 1894, was less than supportive of Russian expansionism in Asia, and it was believed in Berlin that German support of Russia might break up the Franco-Russian alliance and lead to a new German–Russian alliance. The French had made it clear that they disapproved of Nicholas's forward policy in Asia;

13838-405: The British meant, in part, that if any nation allied itself with Russia during any war against Japan, then Britain would enter the war on Japan's side. Russia could no longer count on receiving help from either Germany or France without the danger of British involvement in the war. With such an alliance, Japan felt free to commence hostilities if necessary. The 1890s and 1900s marked the height of

14025-572: The Bus Department became an independent entity. As national road construction progressed, a nationwide network of intercity bus services was planned, which was to include the Kwantung Leased Territory . However, expansion proved difficult. The first problem was that of poor roads. Although they were called "national highways", many of these roads were unpaved, becoming muddy and unpassable in times of heavy rain and during

14212-573: The CER was nationalised when the National Railway was formed, the Russian share remained in Russian hands. However, due to the construction of new lines by the National Railway, the importance of the CER line was significantly reduced. Consequently, the Soviet government, which had become the owner after the establishment of the RSFSR and had found ownership of the railway an unnecessary burden, decided to accept

14399-538: The Chinese capital, Beijing. Russia had already sent 177,000 soldiers to Manchuria, nominally to protect its railways under construction. Though the Qing imperial army and the Boxer rebels united to fight against the invasion, they were quickly overrun and ejected from Manchuria. After the Boxer Rebellion, 100,000 Russian soldiers were stationed in Manchuria. The Russian troops settled in and despite assurances they would vacate

14586-504: The DekaA (デカA) class and six of the DabuA (ダブA) class were converted to standard gauge, becoming National Railway classes Dekani (デカニ) and Daburo (ダブロ, later Satai (サタイ)) respectively. A small number of passenger carriages were also converted and remained in use. However, only converted locomotives lasted until the end of the war; the last of the passenger cars were scrapped by 1943. Not all of

14773-548: The Far East (like the uncompleted Trans-Siberian railroad line) did not matter – they assumed that the Reich would come to Russia's assistance if war should come. In fact, neither Wilhelm nor his Chancellor Prince Bernhard von Bülow (in office: 1900–1909) had much interest in East Asia, and Wilhelm's letters to Nicholas praising him as Europe's saviour against the "Yellow Peril" were really meant to provoke change in

14960-431: The Far East. This would not had happened if our governments had not been in agreement! A recurring theme of Wilhelm's letters to Nicholas was that "Holy Russia" had been "chosen" by God to save the "entire white race" from the "Yellow Peril", and that Russia was "entitled" to annex all of Korea, Manchuria, and northern China up to Beijing. Wilhelm went on to assure Nicholas that once Russia had defeated Japan, this would be

15147-745: The French Premier Maurice Rouvier (in office: May to December 1887) publicly declaring that the Franco-Russian alliance applied only in Europe, not to Asia, and that France would remain neutral if Japan attacked Russia. The American president Theodore Roosevelt (in office 1901–1909), who was attempting to mediate the Russian–Japanese dispute, complained that Wilhelm's "Yellow Peril" propaganda, which strongly implied that Germany might go to war against Japan in support of Russia, encouraged Russian intransigence. On 24 July 1905, in

15334-479: The General Directorate of Railways, had several other transportation-related businesses in addition to the railway. Although Mantetsu undertook non-transport-related infrastructure projects such as electricity and urban planning, as well as management of coal mines, most were transportation-related businesses. When the National Railway was formed, there were no long-distance intercity bus services like

15521-576: The JNR Bus operations in Japan, only local city bus operations. However, both the Manchukuo government and the General Railway Administration felt it undesirable for private business to freely undertake transport services that might compete with the National Railway. As the railway had many economically unsound routes, it was felt that independently managed bus services could undermine the National Railway's promotional power and development capabilities, and this

15708-584: The Japanese government had realised that Russia was not interested in settling the Manchurian or Korean issues. Instead, Russia's goal was buying time – via diplomacy – to further build up militarily. In December 1903, Wilhelm wrote in a marginal note on a diplomatic dispatch about his role in inflaming Russo-Japanese relations: Since 97 – Kiaochow – we have never left Russia in any doubt that we would cover her back in Europe, in case she decided to pursue

15895-511: The Japanese minister in Saint Petersburg, was instructed to present his country's view opposing Russia's consolidation plans in Manchuria. On 3 August 1903 the Japanese minister handed in the following document to serve as the basis for further negotiations: On 3 October 1903 the Russian minister to Japan, Roman Rosen , presented to the Japanese government the Russian counter proposal as the basis of negotiations, as follows: During

16082-417: The Japanese minister to Russia, Kurino Shin'ichirō , was recalled, and Japan severed diplomatic relations with Russia. Potential diplomatic resolution of territorial concerns between Japan and Russia failed; historians have argued that this directly resulted from the actions of Emperor Nicholas II . Crucially, Nicholas mismanaged his government. Although certain scholars contend that the situation arose from

16269-644: The Japanese right to build new lines, but the Fengtian clique continued to build railways as well. The Kwantung Army had for some time wanted to somehow divide the Fengtian warlords, and on 4 June 1928 they assassinated Zhang Zuolin. He was succeeded as leader of the Fengtian clique by his son, Zhang Xueliang , who in December of that year declared his allegiance to the Kuomintang , becoming fervently anti-Japanese. After Zhang Xueliang's succession, he reorganised

16456-536: The Japanese the right to intervene in Korea. All through the 1880s and early 1890s, the government in Tokyo was regularly criticized for not being aggressive enough in Korea, leading Japanese historian Masao Maruyama to write: Just as Japan was subject to pressure from the Great Powers, so she would apply pressure to still weaker countries – a clear case of the transfer psychology. In this regard it

16643-537: The Japanese to produce war goods for the Imperial Army and nationalized after World War II. As late as the early 1980s, the factories here employed about one million workers, but all of them went jobless in the 1990s. The Hunnan District ( 浑南区 ; 'South of Hun River'), was formerly called the Dongling District ( 东陵区 ; ' East Mausoleum district') before June 17, 2014, referring to

16830-657: The Japanese-owned railway. This was a severe blow to Mantetsu. The Jingfeng Railways new lines all ran parallel to the Mantetsu lines, several kilometres away, but shippers who previously had no choice but to use Mantetsu's service moved their business to the Chinese-owned company, even if its line was further away. The Japanese protested strongly on the basis of the Sino-Japanese Treaty concerning

17017-529: The Kwantung Army. In addition, many of the routes the Kwantung Army sought to build were planned with military interests in mind, which, from the point of view of the railway as a business, were regarded as having very little potential profit. Further, the General Administration intervened in route planning on several occasions, changing or rejecting planned lines as "not militarily important". Although Mantetsu were reluctant to accept these, there

17204-724: The Manchu Prince Jian of the First Rank whose tomb was in the area. It has an area of 66 km (25 sq mi) and a population of 817,288 (2014). The district is the site of Beiling park , the large historical mausoleum of Qing dynasty emperor Huang Taiji , as well as the Liaoning Mansion Hotel. It also hosts the seat of the Provincial Government of Liaoning. The Tiexi District ( 铁西区 ; 'railway's west district')

17391-400: The Manchukuo yuan was silver-based, and the Korean yen was gold-based, the ticket fare was converted to the currency used by the railway owning the point of sale, based on conversion rates issued regularly by Mantetsu. Many complaints were received about the complexity and inconvenience of this system. On 3 October 1935, the Manchukuo yuan was taken off the silver standard and was pegged to

17578-478: The National Railway in the 200 series. Freight equipment was distinctively American in appearance. On the passenger system, most regulations were identical to those of Mantetsu, so there was no major difference between Mantetsu and the National Railway. However, due to the use of different currencies, passenger fares and goods rates varied. The method of calculating and collecting fares and goods charges when moving between company and national lines changed on several

17765-439: The National Railway served to frustrate the Kwantung Army, which had wanted free rein over the National Railway. Meanwhile, construction of new lines continued, reaching a total of 10,000 km (6,200 mi) in 1939. Commemorative stamps were issued, and Mantetsu itself held a celebration and made a commemorative film. After reaching that milestone, expansion slowed, with new construction being limited to short branchlines. It

17952-557: The National Railway was water transport consisting of riverine ferries up and down the Songhua , Amur and Ussuri rivers. Trips could last anywhere from 3 to 11 days in duration. Following the Mukden Incident riverine transport was almost completely stopped, but in 1933 the General Railway Administration started a river ferry service between Harbin and Mohe , and others were subsequently added. The National Railway also operated

18139-719: The North and East Pagodas, Bawang Temple and the Wanquan Park. The oldest airfield in Shenyang, the now-defunct East Pagoda Airport, is also located in Dadong District. The Huanggu District ( 皇姑区 ; 'royal aunt district') is named after Huanggutun ("tun" means village), where the Huanggutun Incident took place. The name is actually a mis-transliteration of the pronunciation for Fiyanggū ( Manchu : ᡶᡳᠶᠠᠩᡤᡡ , Chinese: 費揚武 , 1605–1643),

18326-545: The Prime Minister of Japan, Katsura Tarō (in office 1901–1906), decided if war did come, that Japan was more likely to have the support of the United States and Great Britain if the war could be presented as a struggle for free trade against the highly protectionist Russian empire, in which case, Manchuria, which was the larger market than Korea, was more likely to engage Anglo-American sympathies. Throughout

18513-521: The Railway General Administration defined transport regulations on 1 April 1934 there were four districts. A unitary system was introduced on 1 February 1936, with fare rates fixed slightly higher than those of Mantetsu. On 1 December 1940 Mantetsu and National Railway fare rates were equalised. On 1 October 1941 a toll tax was introduced, which was calculated according to the distance to be travelled. Express fares were based on

18700-582: The Russian legation in Seoul, believing that his life was in danger from Japanese agents, and Russian influence in Korea started to predominate. In the aftermath of the flight of the King, a popular uprising overthrew the pro-Japanese government and several cabinet ministers were lynched in the streets. In 1897, Russia occupied the Liaodong Peninsula, built the Port Arthur fortress, and based

18887-439: The Russian–Japanese talks, the Japanese historian Hirono Yoshihiko noted, "once negotiations commenced between Japan and Russia, Russia scaled back its demands and claims regarding Korea bit by bit, making a series of concessions that Japan regarded as serious compromises on Russia's part". The war might not have broken out had not the issues of Korea and Manchuria become linked. The Korean and Manchurian issues had become linked as

19074-573: The Shen River" and refers to the location of the Hun River (formerly called the Shen River, 瀋水 ; Shěn Shuǐ ), on the southern side of the city. According to Chinese naming tradition, a river's north bank and a mountain's south slope are angled more towards direct sunlight and thus are considered the "sunny", or "yang", side. Archaeological findings show that humans resided in present-day Shenyang as early as 8000 years ago. The remains of

19261-605: The Shenyang International Expo Garden (which hosted the 2006 International Horticultural Exposition ) are also located in this district. Hunnan District hosts the city's only operational commercial airport, the Taoxian International Airport , and is rapidly becoming high-end residential areas with luxury apartments, fine neighbourhoods and commercial developments, as Hunnan becomes the new center of Shenyang steadily with

19448-507: The Soviet Far East. In addition to the rolling stock inherited from the nationalised private railways, the National Railway operated locomotives transferred from Mantetsu. A strict distinction was made between rolling stock belonging to the National Railway and that belonging to Mantetsu. National Railway locomotives, even if they were of the same class as Mantetsu locomotives, were given a different class designation and numbered in

19635-872: The Soviet Union Aleksandr Vasilevsky , the Far East Command of the Red Army occupied Manchuria in early August 1945 following the surrender of Japan. On 16 August 1945, Manchurian Emperor Puyi was captured in Shenyang Airport by the Soviets while he was in an airplane fleeing to Japan. On 20 August, Soviet troops captured Shenyang. British and US reports indicate that the Soviet troops that occupied Northeast China and Eastern Inner Mongolia region looted and terrorized

19822-551: The Three Provinces ( 中日會議東三省事宜條約 ), in which it had been agreed that no railways running parallel to Mantetsu lines would be built. The Fengtian clique ignored this, and the conflict between the two railways intensified. In order to break the stalemate in the conflict between Japan and the Fengtian warlords, including the conflict over railways, the Kwantung Army took action, staging the Mukden Incident , in which

20009-524: The Tsar that God Himself had "chosen" Russia to defend Europe from the alleged Asian threat. On 1 November 1902 Wilhelm wrote to Nicholas that "certain symptoms in the East seem to show that Japan is becoming a rather restless customer" and "it is evident to every unbiased mind that Korea must and will be Russian". Wilhelm ended his letter with the warning that Japan and China would soon unite against Europe, writing: Twenty to thirty million Chinese, supported by

20196-654: The acquisition of the North Manchuria Railway, all railways in Manchuria, with the exception of those with very small local-interest routes, were either National Lines or Company Lines. Subsequently, the Railway General Administration, the Railway Construction Bureau and Mantetsu's Railways Department were merged, creating the "General Directorate of Railways" on 1 October 1936, leaving the Manchukuo National Railway even less "National" than before. This move to integrate Mantetsu and

20383-540: The acquisition proposal, and on 23 March 1935 the Railway General Administration formally acquired the North Manchuria Railway and merged it into the Manchukuo National Railway. As the NMR had been built to Russian 5 ft ( 1,524 mm ) gauge, over the next two years the former NMR network was converted to standard gauge. Of particular note is the line between Xinjing and Harbin which a team of 2,500 workers regauged in its entirety in three hours on 31 August 1935. Following

20570-464: The act, then used the false flag explosion as pretext to launch a full attack on Mukden, and captured the city the following morning (September 19). After the Mukden Incident , the Japanese further invaded and occupied the rest of Northeast China, and created the puppet state of Manchukuo with the deposed emperor Aisin Gioro Puyi as the figurehead . During the Manchukuo era (1932–1945),

20757-419: The alphabet instead of numbers (e.g. テホA), and passenger equipment classifications were composed of the standard type designation plus オ ("o"), e.g. ハオ "HaO". Due to the fact that so much of the North Manchuria Railway's equipment was outdated, after the regauging of the NMR lines it was decided not to convert the rolling stock to standard gauge. Exceptions included some of the newest locomotives; 44 locomotives of

20944-405: The area after the crisis, by 1903 the Russians had not established a timetable for withdrawal and had actually strengthened their position in Manchuria. The Japanese statesman Itō Hirobumi started to negotiate with the Russians. He regarded Japan as too weak to evict the Russians militarily, so he proposed giving Russia control over Manchuria in exchange for Japanese control of northern Korea. Of

21131-454: The autocracy. The Japanese understanding of this can be seen in a telegram from Japanese minister of foreign affairs, Komura, to the minister to Russia, in which he stated: ...the Japanese government have at all times during the progress of the negotiations made it a special point to give prompt answers to all propositions of the Russian government. The negotiations have now been pending for no less than four months, and they have not yet reached

21318-561: The boulevards in this area are lined of very large ginkgo trees, which become golden in color and produce their distinctive fruits in autumn. Heping District is also the core area for many political institutions in the Northeast, including CPC Liaoning Provincial Committee, headquarters of the Northern Theater Command (previously the Shenyang Military Region ), General Logistics Department and

21505-461: The center of ancient Shenyang. This temple is located just south of the Middle Street ( 中街 ; Zhōng Jiē ), one of the most famous shopping streets and the first commercial pedestrian zone in China. Shenhe District is also home to the famous Wu'ai Market ( 五爱市场 ; Wǔài Shìchǎng ), the largest light industry wholesale trading center in the entire Bohai Economic Rim . Shenhe District

21692-433: The city changed back to its old name Shenyang, but continued to be known as Mukden (sometimes spelled Moukden) in some English sources and in Japan through much of the first half of the 20th century. The postmark of the Chinese postal administration kept the spelling "MOUKDEN/ 奉天 " for usage on international mails until the late 1920s. After that, a Chinese–Manchurian bilingual type "SHENYANG (MUKDEN)/ 瀋陽 ( 奉天 )" datestamp

21879-561: The city was again called Fengtian (and Mukden in English), and was developed by the Japanese into a center of heavy industry. Japan was able to exploit resources in Manchuria using the extensive network of railroads. For example, vast expanses of Manchurian forest were chopped down. The development of Shenyang was also unbalanced in this period; municipal facilities were mostly located in Japanese residential areas, while Chinese residential areas had poor living conditions. Under Marshal of

22066-452: The city's center in a "+" fashion. This Ming wall was heavily damaged in 1625 when the Manchus laid siege and captured the city, with only the north wall and gate tower (which had undergone reinforcing reconstructions in 1545 under the orders of Jiajing Emperor ) remained intact. The Manchu leader Nurhachi however saw the city's strategic value and decided to formally relocate his Later Jin capital from Liaoyang to Shenyang, and ordered

22253-518: The claim that Russia played an aggressive role in the East, which it did; rather, it means that Russia unwisely calculated and supposed that Japan would not go to war against Russia's far larger and seemingly superior navy and army. Nicholas held the Japanese in contempt as "yellow monkeys", and he took for granted that the Japanese would simply yield in the face of Russia's superior power, which thus explains his unwillingness to compromise. Evidence of Russia's false sense of security and superiority to Japan

22440-408: The collapse of the Fengtian junta, the Kwantung Army established the "New Northeastern Transportation Committee" ( 新東北交通委員會 ) on 23 October, which temporarily took over management of the railways. By February 1932, the Kwantung Army had occupied all of Manchuria. To avoid international criticism, the Kwantung Army established the puppet state of Manchukuo on 1 March 1932. Consequently, the management of

22627-583: The combined might of Russia, Germany and France, and so gave in to the ultimatum. At the same time, the Japanese did not abandon their attempts to force Korea into the Japanese sphere of influence. On 8 October 1895, Queen Min of Korea, the leader of the anti-Japanese and pro-Chinese faction at the Korean court was murdered by Japanese agents within the halls of the Gyeongbokgung palace, an act that backfired badly as it turned Korean public opinion against Japan. In early 1896, King Gojong of Korea fled to

22814-527: The control of the Ming dynasty , and it was designated a guard town named Shenyang Central Guard ( 瀋陽中衛 ; Shěnyáng Zhōngwèi ). During the Ming dynasty, Shenyang became one of the most important Chinese military strongholds beyond the Shanhai Pass . In 1625, the Jurchen leader Nurhaci captured Shenyang from the Ming and decided to relocate his entire administrative infrastructure to the city, which

23001-410: The determination of Nicholas II to use the war against Japan to spark a revival in Russian patriotism, no historical evidence supports this claim. The Tsar's advisors did not support the war, foreseeing problems in transporting troops and supplies from European Russia to the East. The Tsar himself repeatedly delayed negotiations with the Japanese government as he believed that he was protected by God and

23188-817: The east side called Huishan Nullah ( 辉山明渠 ) that drains into Xinkai River's lower section, but is now no longer existent due to land reclamation from urban constructions. Shenyang has many parks , among the most famous are the 14.5 km (9.0 mi) South Canal Linear Parks ( 南运河带状公园 ) situated along the homonymous river traversing the southern parts of Dadong, Shenhe and Heping Districts. It comprises 6 large parks and 18 riverside gardens covering an area of approximately 1,400,000 m (350 acres), with exotic variety of vegetations such as rose , apricot , bladder cherry , honeylocust , natal lily , scarlet sage , morning glory and black-eyed-Susan , and extensive greenspaces of peach , pear , crabapples , ginkgos , weeping willows , pines and black locusts . It

23375-604: The end of the war. On 9 August 1945, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan and invaded Manchukuo . On 15 August, Japan accepted the Potsdam Declaration ; this news reached Manchukuo two days later, on 17 August. As a result, the Emperor of Manchukuo, Puyi , abdicated on the 18th, and Manchukuo ceased to exist. Additionally, the Kwantung Army withdrew entirely, leaving Mantetsu virtually the governing body of

23562-431: The establishment of the General Railway Administration, and for lines with which there had been no interchange agreement, new agreements were concluded. After the establishment of Manchukuo, the National Railway's official currency was changed to the new Manchukuo yuan , and aside from a necessary adjustment to the conversion rate, the system of calculating interchange fares remained unchanged. From 1 April 1934 this system

23749-638: The five Genrō (elder statesmen) who made up the Meiji oligarchy, Itō Hirobumi and Count Inoue Kaoru opposed the idea of war against Russia on financial grounds, while Katsura Tarō , Komura Jutarō and Field Marshal Yamagata Aritomo favored war. Meanwhile, Japan and Britain had signed the Anglo-Japanese Alliance in 1902 – the British seeking to restrict naval competition by keeping the Russian Pacific seaports of Vladivostok and Port Arthur from their full use. Japan's alliance with

23936-466: The formerly private railways, which was different from the standard types. Although some locomotive types differed, in general they were similar, and those built by Mantetsu's factories were the same. As a result, from October 1933 the National Railway's locomotives were classified according to the Mantetsu classification system. Conversely, passenger carriages differed significantly from those of Mantetsu, and there were many designs of which there were only

24123-404: The issue dividing Japan and Russia was Manchuria, and chose to pursue a policy of neutrality as the best way of preserving Korean independence as the crisis mounted. In a series of reports to Beijing, Hu Weide, the Chinese ambassador in Saint Petersburg from July 1902 to September 1907, looked closely at whether a Russian or a Japanese victory would be favourable to China, and argued that the latter

24310-462: The issue of control and influence over Korea under the rule of the Joseon dynasty. From the 1880s onward, there had been vigorous competition for influence in Korea between China and Japan. The Korean court was prone to factionalism, and at the time was badly divided between a reformist camp that was pro-Japanese and a more conservative faction that was pro-Chinese. In 1884, a pro-Japanese coup attempt

24497-468: The largest of the inner city districts. Its name derives from the fact that the district started off as the residential area immediately outside the old inner city wall's Fujin Gate ( 撫近門 ), which is also called Great East Gate ( 大東門 ). It has an area of 100 km (39 sq mi) and a population of 689,576 (2014). The district contains popular tourist landmarks such as the 9.18 Historical Museum,

24684-688: The late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Second World War , and China's Civil War (Shenyang became the main battleground between the Communists and Nationalists ). Directed by state efforts to reduce pollution and close unprofitable industry, the city has undergone deindustrialization , with the shutdown of large plants. Most notably, a large 1930s smelter in the central city was closed in 2000. The redevelopment of former polluted industrial land has resulted in gentrification . The old city of Shenyang resided almost entirely within

24871-561: The map. The new Tiexi District now has a population of 907,091 (2014), a total area of 286 km (110 sq mi), and enjoys the same administrative rank as a municipality (Administrative Committee of Shenyang). The district is featured in a 9-hour epic documentary film West of the Tracks by a young filmmaker Wang Bing. It shows the transition in this rust belt district—a palimpsest of not only Chinese but also world history. The first factories of this place were built in 1934 by

25058-514: The modern day Shenhe District , and used to have two city walls . Situated roughly within the area bounded by the four "Shuncheng" ( 顺城 ; 'along the city') roads/streets in Shenhe District, the (now-demolished) square-shaped inner city wall marked the bounds of ancient Shenyang. The earliest wall was built in 926 during early Liao dynasty to settle Northern Song civilians the Khitans abducted from raids to use as slave labourers , and

25245-489: The national highways. On 1 March of that year the General Railway Administration established its Bus Department, and on 20 March the Fengshan Railway Bureau launched the first National Railway intercity bus service between Beipiao and Chaoyang . The route network was gradually expanded, and by the end of September there were bus services all over Rehe Province . Following this expansion, on 19 September

25432-929: The new government being developed there. The district is traversed by two corridors along two major highways, one leading to the Eastern Mausoleum and the neighbouring city of Fushun , and the other leading to the airport. Launched in 1988 as the Shenyang National New and High-Tech Industrial Development Zone and elevated to a national-level zone in 1991 , the Hunnan New Area ( 浑南新区 ) focuses on electronic and information technology products such as software, computers, network systems, communication equipment and audio/visual equipment; advanced manufacturing technologies, especially for automobiles, medical equipment; advanced materials and biological and pharmaceutical products. Foreign companies such as

25619-491: The newly appointed city commissioner of the Shenyang Central Guard, wrote to Hongwu Emperor immediately upon his tenure requesting permission to upgrade the city wall, and the old wall was made taller and thoroughly reinforced with overlaid bricks. According to History of Ming , the reconstructed Ming-era wall was 2.5 zhàng (8 metres or 26 feet) tall, more than 1 zhàng (3.2 metres or 10.5 feet) wide at

25806-569: The old Ming-era north gate tower was preserved but sealed shut, later known as the "Ninth Gate" ( 九門 ). The outer city wall, called the "peripheral wall" ( 邊牆 ; Biān Qiáng ) or " pass wall" ( 關牆 ; Guān Qiáng ), was actually a rammed earth rampart built in 1680 to expand the urban area outside the inner city. It was almost round in shape, standing at a height of 7.5 chi (around 2.7 metres or 8 feet 10.3 inches) and an overall length of 32 li and 24 bu (about 20.7 kilometres or 12.9 miles), and also had eight towerless gates known as

25993-467: The people of Shenyang, and were not discouraged by Soviet occupation authorities from "three days of rape and pillage". The Soviets were replaced by the Republic of China Army , who were flown in on U.S. transport planes. During the Chinese Civil War , Shenyang remained a Kuomintang stronghold supplied by Claire Lee Chennault 's Civil Air Transport from 1946 to 1948, although

26180-569: The pressure for Japan's wars from 1894 to 1941 came from the ordinary people, who demanded a "tough" foreign policy, and tended to engage in riots and assassination when foreign policy was perceived to be pusillanimous. Though the Meiji oligarchy refused to allow liberal democracy , they did seek to appropriate some of the demands of the "people's rights" movement by allowing an elected Imperial Diet in 1890 (with limited powers and an equally limited franchise) and by pursuing an aggressive foreign policy towards Korea. In 1884, Japan had encouraged

26367-453: The pressure for an aggressive foreign policy in Japan came from below, with the advocates of a "people's rights" movement calling for an elected parliament also favouring an ultra-nationalist line that took it for granted the Japanese had the "right" to annex Korea, as the "people's rights" movement was led by those who favoured invading Korea in the years 1869–1873. As part of the modernization process in Japan, social Darwinist ideas about

26554-613: The protection and defence of the White Race, and with it, Christian civilization, against the Yellow Race. And whatever the Japs are determined to ensure the domination of the Yellow Race in East Asia, to put themselves at its head and organise and lead it into battle against the White Race. That is the kernel of the situation, and therefore there can be very little doubt about where the sympathies of all half-way intelligent Europeans should lie. England betrayed Europe's interests to America in

26741-576: The railway on which a given portion of the trip was to be made, then added up. From 1 January 1938 it was further simplified, with tickets for trips originating at a station of the National Railway being calculated for the entire trip according to the fare-kilometer distance of the National Railway and sold in yuan, and tickets for trips starting at a Mantetsu station being calculated according to Mantetsu fare schedules and sold in Korean yen. The National Railway's fare rates were separate from those of Mantetsu, and initially were divided by railway district. When

26928-486: The railway stations . The Russians also began to make inroads into Korea. A large point of Russia's growing influence in Korea was Gojong's internal exile to the Russian legation . A pro-Russian cabinet emerged in the Korean Empire . In 1901, Tsar Nicholas II told Prince Henry of Prussia , "I do not want to seize Korea but under no circumstances can I allow Japan to become firmly established there. That will be

27115-604: The railways of Manchuria, was deeply involved in its operation. When the General Railway Administration was set up, an "Agreement on the Management of Railways, Ports and Rivers" was signed. This gave the Kwantung Army extensive management rights over Mantetsu, and treated the Administration as if it were a department of the Kwantung Army. However, this discomfited the Mantetsu side deeply, as according to another agreement, much of Mantetsu's profits were to be diverted to

27302-498: The railways was transferred from the Transportation Committee to the new Manchukuo Ministry of Transportation. Each railway company remained independent - no "state-owned" railway company was established at this time. Less than a year later, the "Railway Act" was passed on 9 February 1933, which nationalised all railways, and went into effect on the same day, establishing the Manchukuo National Railway. However, on

27489-510: The railways, in the form of attacks against Mantetsu and Japanese interests. The Fengtian warlords were in effect governing Manchuria at the time, and its leader, Zhang Zuolin , was cooperative with Japan. Nevertheless, he exhibited an independent attitude regarding railways, and in 1924 he established the "3 Eastern Provinces Transportiation Committee" ( 東三省交通委員會 ), and began laying railway with Chinese capital. To counter this, Japanese interests opened five more rail lines. Zhang Zuolin accepted

27676-576: The region west of the old city and the increase of Japanese influence in Shenyang. In 1931, the Mukden incident led to the Japanese invasion and occupation of the rest of Northeast China, and the establishment of the puppet state of Manchukuo . After the Japanese surrender in 1945, Shenyang remained a stronghold of the Kuomintang until its capture by the Communists in 1948 following the Liaoshen campaign . Together with its surrounding cities, Shenyang

27863-464: The region. Because the owner disappeared literally overnight, the National Railway was no longer "national". Its management collapsed entirely, leaving Mantetsu to administer it as its own route. On 20 August, Soviet troops occupied Mantetsu's head office, and on 22 September, with the establishment of the China Changchun Railway (中國長春鐵路), Mantetsu itself, along with the Manchukuo National Railway, ceased to exist. The Manchukuo National Railway, called

28050-413: The rural counties, the Xinmin County was upgraded to a county-level city in 1993, and the Liaozhong County was incorporated into a new suburban district in 2016 as part of the provincial/national development plan . As a result, Shenyang now officially has direct jurisdiction over 10 city districts , 1 satellite city and 2 rural counties : The Shenhe District ( 沈河区 ; 'Shen River district')

28237-599: The spring thaw, while in dry periods they were very dusty and hard on tires. Also, due to the nature of Manchuria, the population was primarily clustered in cities, with the intervening areas being very sparsely populated, which made it difficult to increase earnings. Furthermore, for routes travelling through remote areas, security guards were needed on the busses and at stations, which incurred extra personnel expenses. However, by 1936 most railway stations also served as bus stations, and by 1939 there were over 20,000 km (12,000 mi) of bus routes. An unusual side business of

28424-429: The station forms the border between Shenhe District and the neighbouring eastern portion of Huanggu District. The station building has recently undergone a major overhaul and extension. The Heping District ( 和平区 ; 'peace district') is located in the downtown of Shenyang, bordered Shenhe District. It is currently the most developed district in Shenyang. It has an area of 59 km (23 sq mi) and

28611-442: The summer; Port Arthur , a naval base in Liaodong Province leased to Russia by the Qing dynasty of China from 1897, was operational year round. Russia had pursued an expansionist policy east of the Urals, in Siberia and the Far East , since the reign of Ivan the Terrible in the 16th century. Since the end of the First Sino-Japanese War in 1895, Japan had feared Russian encroachment would interfere with its plans to establish

28798-451: The temple for the North Pagoda is well preserved, the East and South has only the pagodas left, and the temple for the West Pagoda was rebuilt in 1998. Both the Temple of Heaven and Temple of Earth were also to be found in the old city during the Qing dynasty . They were smaller replicas of Beijing's counterparts. Neither exists today. Shenyang ranges in latitude from 41° 11' to 43° 02' N and in longitude from 122° 25' to 123° 48' E, and

28985-402: The territory and in fortifying Port Arthur, their sole warm-water port on the Pacific coast and of great strategic value. A year later, to consolidate their position, the Russians began to build a new railway from Harbin through Mukden to Port Arthur, the South Manchurian Railroad . The development of the railway became a contributory factor to the Boxer Rebellion , when Boxer forces burned

29172-436: The top, and 9 li and 30 bu (about 5.2 kilometres or 3.2 miles) long. It has two layers of moats dug outside, each being 3 zhàng (9.6 metres or 31.5 feet) wide and 8 chi (2.56 metres or 8 feet 4.8 inches) deep, fed with water from the Little Shen River (the present day South Canal). There were four city gates , each at the center of one side, connected by two main roads that intersected at Central Temple of

29359-504: The unmodified locomotives were scrapped; after being withdrawn from service, nearly 100 locomotives were stored at the Harbin railway works; around 70 of these have been identified. Although the reason for storing locomotives that could not be used on Manchuria's standard gauge lines is unknown, Yoshizumi Ishihara speculated in his 1972 book, "南満洲鉄道 鉄道の発展と機関車" (The Development of the South Manchuria Railway and its Locomotives) that they were kept for use on Soviet lines, in case Japan ever invaded

29546-405: The urban area is 45 m (148 ft). The city's main urban area is located to the north of Hun River , formerly the largest tributary of the Liao River proper and often locally referred as the city's "mother river". The central urban area is surrounded by three artificial rivers — respectively the South Canal ( 南运河 ) from the south and southeast, the Xinkai River ( 新开河 , formerly

29733-447: The various railways had been independent, in several cities it was the case that there were several separate railway stations, which left the National Railway with a complicated organisational structure. On 1 March 1933, just under a month after the operation and management of the National Railway was entrusted to Mantetsu, the "General Railway Administration" was established at Mukden and the "Railway Construction Bureau" at Dalian . As

29920-451: The very same day as they were nationalised, all railway companies received a directive from the Ministry of Transportation instructing them to hand over their operations to the South Manchuria Railway. In effect, the Manchukuo Ministry of Transportation never managed "its" railway on its own, instead immediately outsourcing it to the Japanese-owned Mantetsu and removing itself entirely from the sector of business. The Manchukuo National Railway

30107-493: The wall to be rebuilt. According to Annals of Mukden ( 盛京通志 ), the new city wall was a standard black brick wall standing at a height of 3.5 zhàng (about 12.5 metres or 41.0 feet), a width of 1.8 zhàng (about 6.4 metres or 21.0 feet) and a total length of 9 li and 332 bu (about 6.4 kilometres or 4.0 miles), complete with 12 towers (8 gates and 4 corners) and a widened 14.5- zhàng (about 52-metre or 171-foot) moat. The city gates were increased from four to eight, though

30294-416: The war and await the outcomes of key naval battles. As hope of victory dissipated, he continued the war to preserve the dignity of Russia by averting a "humiliating peace". Russia ignored Japan's willingness early on to agree to an armistice and rejected the idea of bringing the dispute to the Permanent Court of Arbitration at the Hague. After the decisive naval battle of Tsushima , the war was concluded with

30481-448: The war out of the belief that the Kaiser would come to his aid. Despite previous assurances that Russia would completely withdraw from Manchuria the forces it had sent to crush the Boxer Rebellion by 8 April 1903, that day passed with no reduction in Russian forces in that region. In Japan, university students demonstrated both against Russia and against their own government for not taking any action. On 28 July 1903 Kurino Shin'ichirō ,

30668-425: The war, Japanese propaganda presented the recurring theme of Japan as a "civilized" power (that supported free trade and would implicitly allow foreign businesses into the resource-rich region of Manchuria) vs. Russia the "uncivilized" power (that was protectionist and wanted to keep the riches of Manchuria all to itself). Emperor Gojong of Korea (King from 1864 to 1897, Emperor from 1897 to 1907) came to believe that

30855-419: The warrior"), the fierce code of the samurai. Having indoctrinated the younger generations into Bushidō , the Meiji elite found themselves faced with a people who clamored for war, and regarded diplomacy as a weakness. The British Japanologist Richard Storry wrote that the biggest misconception about Japan in the West was that the Japanese people were the "docile" instruments of the elite, when in fact much of

31042-441: The west to the Kamchatka Peninsula in the east. With its construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway to the port of Vladivostok, Russia hoped to further consolidate its influence and presence in the region. In the Tsushima incident of 1861 Russia had directly assaulted Japanese territory. The first major war the Empire of Japan fought following the Meiji Restoration was against China , from 1894 to 1895. The war revolved around

31229-538: Was abolished, and a unified system of fare calculation was introduced. Mantetsu continued to calculate fares in Korean yen and sen (1 yen = 100 sen), and the National Railway continued to use Manchukuo yuan/chiao/fen (1 yuan = 10 chiao = 100 fen). The fare for the entire ticket was calculated in the appropriate currency, and the ticket was marked in those units as well. Ticket purchasing was also made more convenient, by allowing sales of interchange tickets at all stations except for halts and certain special stations. However, as

31416-426: Was administratively reorganized and enjoyed nearly 250 years of stability and development. In 916, the Shenyang region was captured by the Liao dynasty and was known as Shen Prefecture ( 瀋州 ; Shěn Zhōu ) until the end of Jin dynasty (who conquered the region in 1116). The area became known as the Shenyang Circuit ( 瀋陽路 ; Shěnyáng Lù ) during the Yuan dynasty . After the fall of the Yuan, Shenyang came under

31603-456: Was at this peak state that the Pacific War began. After the outbreak of war, in order to improve wartime efficiency, organisational reforms were conducted to streamline operations. On 1 May 1943 the headquarters were moved to Xinjing, the General Directorate of Railways was abolished, and operations were entrusted to the headquarters. Through this reform, the National Railway and Mantetsu were completely merged in all but name, and remained so until

31790-463: Was because the NMR was built to Russian broad gauge, and the equipment conformed to that standard; these were referred to as "broad vehicles" (広軌車輛) by the National Railway. This equipment all had old-style couplers and buffers, independent heaters in each passenger car, and were very different and much less modern than Mantetsu equipment. As a result, this equipment could not be used together with other equipment. Locomotives were classified with letters of

31977-545: Was blown up on 4 June 1928 at a Japanese-guarded railway bridge. At the time, several factories were built by Zhang to manufacture ammunition in the northern and eastern suburbs. These factories laid the foundation for Shenyang's industrial development. At around 10:20 pm on 18 September 1931, a small quantity of dynamite was detonated close to a railway line near Mukden owned by the Japanese South Manchuria Railway Company by Kwantung Army Lt. Kawamoto Suemori. The Imperial Japanese Army , accusing Chinese dissidents of

32164-491: Was considered detrimental to the country's interests. Therefore, when the Manchukuo government decided on its national highway plan in 1933, it determined which possible bus routes could potentially compete with the railway. It was decided that those routes, and those important to national security, would be managed by the National Railway, leaving the other, non-threatening, routes available for private undertakings. Consequently, each railway bureau launched intercity bus services on

32351-405: Was created out of nine companies. After the nationalisation and the creation of the Manchukuo National Railway, each former company was reformed as a "Railway Bureau", e.g. the Fengshan Railway became the "Fengshan Railway Bureau" (奉山鉄路局), and each former railway's lines were named as a group, e.g., the entire network of the Fengshan Railway was called the "Fengshan Line" (奉山線). Due to the fact that

32538-451: Was established in the Shenyang area, and Fengtian was sometimes used synonymously with Shenyang/Mukden. After the First Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, Japan coerced the annexation of the Liaodong Peninsula with the Treaty of Shimonoseki in 1895, but had to give it up due to diplomatic pressure from the 1895 Triple Intervention . In the aftermath of the Japanese threat, Qing viceroy Li Hongzhang visited Moscow in 1896 and signed

32725-470: Was fought between the Russian Empire and the Empire of Japan during 1904 and 1905 over rival imperial ambitions in Manchuria and the Korean Empire . The major theatres of military operations were in the Liaodong Peninsula and Mukden in Southern Manchuria, the Yellow Sea and the Sea of Japan . Russia sought a warm-water port on the Pacific Ocean both for its navy and for maritime trade. Vladivostok remained ice-free and operational only during

32912-402: Was further modernized before embarking on a war to conquer Korea; significantly, no one in the Japanese elite ever accepted the idea that the Koreans had the right to be independent, with only the question of timing dividing the two factions. In much the same way that Europeans used the "backwardness" of African and Asian nations as a reason for why they had to conquer them, for the Japanese elite

33099-462: Was little choice but to obey the Kwantung Army's directives. As a result of conflicts such as these, the relationship between Mantetsu and the Kwantung Army, which had initially been positive and cooperative, deteriorated rapidly, and each side grew more distrustful of the other. Meanwhile, the General Administration and the Construction Bureau proceeded with the construction of new lines as planned. As lines were consolidated and redundancies eliminated,

33286-452: Was overhauled. A uniform classification system was introduced for all three railways, with locomotives of the same type receiving the same class designation. Only the numbering indicated ownership, with locomotives of the National Railway being numbered in the 501-1000 range. Passenger carriages, which had not been previously distinguished, were likewise renumbered. In the classification system of April 1938, 3rd class carriages were numbered in

33473-447: Was owned jointly by the Russian and Chinese governments, but the company's management was entirely Russian, the line was built to the Russian gauge and Russian troops were stationed in Manchuria to protect rail traffic on the CER from bandit attacks. The headquarters of the CER company was located in the new Russian-built city of Harbin , the "Moscow of the Orient". From 1897 onwards, Manchuria – while still nominally part of

33660-425: Was preferable, as he maintained a Japanese victory presented the better chance for China to regain sovereignty over Manchuria. In December 1903 China decided to remain neutral if war came, because though Japan was the only power capable of evicting Russia from Manchuria, the extent of Japanese ambitions in Manchuria was not clear to Beijing. Russian–Japanese negotiations then followed, although by early January 1904

33847-518: Was put down by Chinese troops, and a "residency" under General Yuan Shikai was established in Seoul. A peasant rebellion led by the Tonghak religious movement led to a request by the Korean government for the Qing dynasty to send in troops to stabilize the country. The Empire of Japan responded by sending their own force to Korea to crush the Tonghak and installed a puppet government in Seoul . China objected and war ensued. Hostilities proved brief, with Japanese ground troops routing Chinese forces on

34034-411: Was the Korean yen , while the National Railway the used Haikwan tael . After calculating the fares for the sections on the company and national lines separately, they were converted to the currency used by the railway owning the station where the ticket was being bought, based on a standardised conversion rate, and the two fares were then added together to determine the final ticket price. For example, if

34221-505: Was the largest battle since the Battle of Leipzig in 1813, and also the largest modern-era battle ever fought in Asia before World War II . Following this Japanese victory, Mukden became one of the chief bases of Japanese presence and economic expansion into southern Manchuria . It also became the government seat of Fengtian province in 1910. Mukden became one of the main epicenters of the Manchurian plague (1910—1911), which ultimately resulted in approximately 60,000 deaths. In 1914,

34408-531: Was then called Simiyan hoton ( Manchu : ᠰᡳᠮᡳᠶᠠᠨ ᡥᠣᡨᠣᠨ )in the Manchu language , Simiyan itselt being the Manchu's homophonic translation of the Korean's rendering of the name Shenyang (심양). The official name was changed to Mukden ( Manchu : ᠮᡠᡴᡩᡝᠨ ), or Shengjing ( 盛京 ; Shèng Jīng ; 'rising capital') in 1634. The new name derives from the Manchu word, mukdembi ( Manchu : ᠮᡠᡴᡩᡝᠮᠪᡳ ), meaning 'to rise' as reflected also by its Han Chinese name. Under Nurhaci 's orders,

34595-451: Was then made of rammed earth because the city was merely a small settlement at the time (historically the administrative center of the Liaodong region was at Liaoyang ). However, in 1368, Hongwu Emperor of the newly founded Ming dynasty ordered a new regional military command—the Liaodong Regional Military Commission ( 遼東都指揮使司 )—to be established, and Shenyang was made a prominent regional "guard town" ( 衛所 ). In 1388, Min Zhong ( 閔忠 ),

34782-427: Was then named Hou City ( 侯城 ; Hóu Chéng ). Around 350 years later, during the reign of Emperor Guangwu of Han , the city was sacked and burnt by the Donghu nomads and subsequently abandoned. The area of modern Shenyang was divided between two commanderies called Liaodong and Xuantu c.  107 CE . Liaodong was seized by a Han governor in 189. Liaodong and Xuantu were briefly united under Cao Wei and

34969-421: Was used until 1933. In the early 20th century, Shenyang began expanding out of its old city walls. The Shenyang Railway Station on the South Manchurian Railway and the Shenyang North Railway Station on the Jingfeng Railway , both west of the old city, became the new commercial centers of Shenyang. In the 1920s, Mukden was the capital of the warlord Zhang Zuolin , who was later assassinated when his train

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