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65-706: Fighting centred on the fortress of Casale Monferrato , which the Spanish besieged twice, from March 1628 to April 1629 and from September 1629 to October 1630. French intervention on behalf of Nevers in April 1629 led Emperor Ferdinand II to support Spain by transferring Imperial troops from Northern Germany , who captured Mantua in July 1630. However, French reinforcements enabled Nevers to retain Casale, while Ferdinand withdrew his troops in response to Swedish intervention in

130-423: A coup d'état on the last Bonacolsi ruler, Rinaldo. Ludovico Gonzaga, who had been Podestà of Mantua since 1318, was duly elected Capitano del popolo . The Gonzagas built new walls with five gates and renovated the city in the 14th century; however, the political situation did not settle until the third ruler of Gonzaga, Ludovico III Gonzaga , who eliminated his relatives and centralised power to himself. During

195-537: A combined Savoyard-Spanish force at Avigliana . Both sides were badly affected by an outbreak of bubonic plague , allegedly brought from Germany by French and Imperial soldiers. The "worst mortality crisis to affect Italy during the early modern period ", approximately 35% of the population of Northern Italy died between 1629 and 1631. The increasing brutality of the war led to a number of massacres, most notably at Ostiglia in April 1630, when local bandits, or "Formigotti", cut off an Imperial foraging party and assaulted

260-548: A compromise suggested by his wife Empress Eleonora , sister of the recently deceased duke Vincenzo II. This solution appeared acceptable, especially as French chief minister Cardinal Richelieu viewed Nevers as a Habsburg client and was fully occupied with the Siege of La Rochelle . However, it was undermined by the combined ambition of Córdoba and Charles Emmanuel, who from 1613 to 1617 had fought for possession of Montferrat. Shortly before Vincenzo's death, they agreed to partition

325-441: A defensive water ring around the city, dried up at the end of the 18th century. The area and its environs are important not only in naturalistic terms, but also anthropologically and historically; research has highlighted a number of human settlements scattered between Barche di Solferino and Bande di Cavriana , Castellaro and Isolone del Mincio. These dated, without interruption, from Neolithic times (5th–4th millennium BC) to

390-598: A population of only 300,000. In addition to support from Empress Eleonora, Venice and the Pope, Nevers was also backed by Ferdinand's military commander Wallenstein, who wanted his army to focus on capturing Stralsund in Northern Germany. These factors ultimately delayed any Imperial intervention until September 1629. Led by Charles Emmanuel, Savoyard forces captured Trino in April, then Nizza Monferrato in June, but

455-546: Is a comune (municipality) in the Italian region of Lombardy , and capital of the province of the same name . In 2016, Mantua was designated as the "Italian Capital of Culture". In 2017, it was named as the "European Capital of Gastronomy", included in the Eastern Lombardy District (together with the cities of Bergamo , Brescia , and Cremona ). In 2008, Mantua's centro storico (old town) and

520-593: Is nonetheless outstanding, with many of Mantua's patrician and ecclesiastical buildings being uniquely important examples of Italian architecture. By car, Mantova can be reached on the A4 (Milan-Venice) Highway up to Verona, then the A22 ( Brennero - Modena ) Highway. Alternatively, the city can be reached from Milan on the State Road 415 (Milan-Cremona) to Cremona and from there State Road 10 (Cremona-Mantova), or from Verona on

585-465: Is noted for its significant role in the history of opera ; the city is also known for its architectural treasures and artifacts, elegant palaces, and the medieval and Renaissance cityscape. It is the city where the composer Monteverdi premiered his 1607 opera L'Orfeo and to where Romeo was banished in Shakespeare 's 1597 play Romeo and Juliet . It is the nearest town to the birthplace of

650-550: Is south of Verona , east of Cremona , north-east of Parma , northwest of Ferrara , and west-southwest of Padua . Mantua was an island settlement which was first established about the year 2000 BC on the banks of River Mincio , which flows from Lake Garda to the Adriatic Sea . In the 6th century BC, Mantua was an Etruscan village which, in the Etruscan tradition, was re-founded by Ocnus . The name may derive from

715-577: The Bronze Age (2nd–1st millennium BC) and the Gallic phases (2nd–1st centuries BC), and ended with Roman residential settlements, which can be traced to the 3rd century AD. In 2017, Legambiente ranked Mantua as the best Italian city for quality of life and environment. Mantua lies in the east of the region of Lombardy , halfway between Milan and Venice , on the River Mincio . It

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780-708: The Frankish Empire . Partitions of the empire (due to the Franks' use of partible inheritance ) in the Treaties of Verdun and Prüm led to Mantua passing to Middle Francia in 843, then the Kingdom of Italy in 855. In 962 Italy was invaded by King Otto I of Germany , and Mantua thus became a vassal of the newly formed Holy Roman Empire . In the 11th century, Mantua became a possession of Boniface of Canossa , marquis of Tuscany . The last ruler of that family

845-711: The Ghibellines , Pinamonte Bonacolsi took advantage of the chaotic situation to seize power of the podesteria in 1273. He was declared the Captain General of the People . The Bonacolsi family ruled Mantua for the next two generations and made it more prosperous and artistically beautiful. On 16 August 1328 Luigi Gonzaga, an official in Bonacolsi's podesteria, and his family staged a public revolt in Mantua and forced

910-585: The Gonzaga-Nevers , a cadet French branch of the family. The War of the Mantuan Succession broke out, and in 1630 an Imperial army of 36,000 mercenaries under Matthias Gallas and Johann von Aldringen besieged and sacked Mantua, bringing the plague with them. Ferdinand Carlo IV , an inept ruler, whose only interest was in holding parties and theatrical shows, allied with France in the War of

975-994: The Holy Roman Emperor a measure of control over the succession. Notwithstanding these issues, the strongest contender was Charles Gonzaga, Duke of Nevers , cousin of Vincenzo II and a French peer. Legalities were less important than the perceived threat to Spanish interests if the Duchies fell under French influence and Córdoba , governor of Spanish Lombardy, began discussions with Madrid on potential military action to prevent this. Alternatives included Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy , whose claim extended primarily to Montferrat, and Ferrante II Gonzaga, Duke of Guastalla , another distant Gonzaga cousin and Imperial General Commissar in Italy. To cement his position, Charles of Nevers arranged for his son Charles II Gonzaga to marry Vincenzo's niece Maria Gonzaga , heiress of Montferrat;

1040-500: The Papal States . In February 1627, Vincenzo II , last Gonzaga male in the direct line, became Duke of Mantua and Montferrat, and conscious of his poor health, tried to resolve the succession internally. The legal position was complicated since Montferrat allowed female inheritance while Mantua did not; in addition, while the duchies had effectively been ruled as independent states, technically their status as Imperial fiefs gave

1105-985: The Treaty of Bärwalde , allowing the Swedes to establish themselves in the Empire, where they would remain until 1648. It was followed in May by the Treaty of Fontainebleau , an eight-year pact of mutual assistance between France and Maximilian of Bavaria. The need to transfer Imperial troops from Italy to face the Swedish threat forced Ferdinand to sign the Treaty of Cherasco with France on 19 June 1631, which confirmed Nevers as Duke of Mantua and Montferrat, in return for minor concessions to Savoy. Although both sides agreed to withdraw their armies, Nevers and Victor Amadeus allowed French garrisons to remain in Casale and Pinerolo, which meant despite

1170-559: The Turks . Under Ludovico and his heirs, the famous Renaissance painter Andrea Mantegna worked in Mantua as court painter, producing some of his most outstanding works. The first Duke of Mantua was Federico II Gonzaga , who acquired the title from the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V in 1530. Federico commissioned Giulio Romano to build the famous Palazzo Te , on the periphery of the city, and profoundly improved

1235-647: The Austrian Duchy of Mantua briefly united with the Duchy of Milan until 1791. On 4 June 1796 during the War of the First Coalition , Mantua was besieged by Napoleon Bonaparte 's French army. The first Austrian attempt to break the siege was successful and the siege was abandoned on 1 August. The Austrian army was defeated at the Battle of Castiglione on 5 August and left the area. The French resumed

1300-492: The Empire, ending French backing for both the Swedes and the Dutch. The offer coincided with Louis falling seriously ill and a concerted attack on Richelieu by his internal enemies, effectively paralysing the government. Unable to get a response to requests for further instructions, on 13 October Father Joseph reluctantly signed the Treaty of Ratisbonne. Such an agreement compromised the entire basis of French foreign policy, which

1365-530: The Etruscan god Mantus . After being conquered by the Cenomani , a Gallic tribe, Mantua was subsequently fought between the first and second Punic wars against the Romans , who attributed its name to Manto , a daughter of Tiresias . This territory was later populated by veteran soldiers of Augustus . Mantua's most famous ancient citizen is the poet Virgil , or Publius Vergilius Maro ( Mantua me genuit ), who

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1430-647: The Habsburgs; lacking his own army, Ferdinand relied on support from his often reluctant German allies , or expensive mercenar ies like Albrecht von Wallenstein . While the huge resources of the Spanish Empire meant they were better able to replace their losses, funding an offensive in Italy required suspending operations in Flanders. By forcing the Habsburgs onto the defensive in Germany, the conflict over

1495-681: The Italian Renaissance, the Gonzaga family softened their despotic rule and further raised the level of culture and refinement in Mantua. Mantua became a significant center of Renaissance art and humanism. Marquis Gianfrancesco Gonzaga had brought Vittorino da Feltre to Mantua in 1423 to open his famous humanist school, the Casa Giocosa. Isabella d'Este , Marchioness of Mantua, married Francesco II Gonzaga, Marquess of Mantua in 1490. When she moved to Mantua from Ferrara (she

1560-814: The Kingdom of Venetia (including the capital city, Venice ). Mantua reconnected with the region of Lombardy and was incorporated into the Kingdom of Italy . During World War II , in November 1943, Nazi Germany relocated the Stalag 337 prisoner-of-war camp from Leśna in German-occupied Poland to Mantua. The camp was dissolved in February 1944, and in April 1944 the Dulag 339 transit camp for British, Italian, American, French, Greek and Yugoslav POWs

1625-553: The Mantuan exile Ramboldo, Count of Collalto . Hoping to overwhelm Casale and prevent interference by Charles Emmanuel, Spinola sought to expand his existing force of 16,000 with another 12,000 mercenaries and 6,000 reinforcements from Naples. He also invoked treaties with Tuscany and Parma to supply 4,000 and 2,000 men respectively but despite its size, his army contained many poor quality troops. Although Ferdinando II undertook to provide 6,000 men for two years along with use of

1690-582: The Mantuan succession had a disproportionate impact on the Thirty Years' War . In giving their approval, both Olivares and Philip assumed Casale would be quickly taken but Córdoba took several months to mobilise 12,000 troops for operations in Montferrat, along with 8,000 supplied by Savoy. They joined 11,000 troops already assembled in the Duchy of Milan, while another 6,000 soldiers were used to screen

1755-557: The Mantuan territories', Spain now recognised Guastalla as Duke of Mantua. Nevers raised another 6,600 men by mortgaging his French estates, most of whom were ambushed and destroyed by Charles Emmanuel while crossing the Alps . The surrender of La Rochelle in October 1628 allowed France to intervene directly and in March 1629, an army led by Louis XIII of France stormed barricades blocking

1820-701: The Pas de Suse. By the end of the month, they had lifted the siege of Casale and taken the strategic Savoyard fortress of Pinerolo . In April, France, England and Savoy signed the Treaty of Susa , facilitated by Cardinal Mazarin , the papal Nuncio . It consisted of two separate agreements, the first ending the Anglo-French War (1627–1629) , the second making peace between France and Savoy. In return for Trino, Charles Emmanuel allowed French troops to garrison Casale and Pinerolo, as well as providing free passage across his territory to reinforce Mantua. Louis XIII and

1885-700: The Roman classical poet Virgil , who is commemorated by a statue at the lakeside park "Piazza Virgiliana". Mantua is surrounded on three sides by artificial lakes , created during the 12th century as the city's defence system. These lakes receive water from the River Mincio , a tributary of the River Po , which descends from Lake Garda . The three lakes are called Lago Superiore , Lago di Mezzo , and Lago Inferiore ("Upper", "Middle", and "Lower" Lakes, respectively). A fourth lake, Lake Pajolo, which once served as

1950-928: The Spanish Succession . After the French defeat, he took refuge in Venice and carried with him a thousand pictures. At his death in 1708, the Duke of Mantua was declared deposed and his family of Gonzaga lost Mantua forever in favour of the Habsburgs of Austria. Under Austrian rule, Mantua enjoyed a revival and during this period the Royal Academy of Sciences, Letters and Arts, the Scientific Theatre, and numerous palaces were built. In 1786, ten years before Napoleon Bonaparte 's campaign of Europe,

2015-427: The Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs did not necessarily share the same objectives. While Spain was always seeking to strengthen its position in northern Italy, Ferdinand wanted to avoid diverting resources from Germany, as well as to assert Imperial authority by deciding the succession question himself. He agreed to confirm Nevers as duke in return for the newly built fortress of Casale Monferrato , capital of Montferrat,

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2080-598: The Spanish finally withdrew and the two sides agreed a truce, negotiated by the papal representative Mazarin. In June 1630, Richelieu dispatched his close aide Father Joseph and Nicolas Brûlart to open peace talks with Ferdinand at Regensburg , where he was attending a meeting of the Imperial Diet . At the same time, Gustavus Adolphus landed in Pomerania with 18,000 troops, beginning the Swedish intervention in

2145-597: The Spanish were unable to pay or support so many men and large numbers were lost to desertion and disease. Charles Emmanuel switched sides again and in December joined Spinola at Casale with 6,500 men, leaving 12,500 to guard Piedmont and another 6,000 in Savoy, while Tuscany, Parma and other Spanish allies provided additional recruits and money. A French army of 18,000 under Henri II de Montmorency overran Savoy, before invading Piedmont in February 1630; on 10 July, he defeated

2210-707: The Spanish-governed Duchy of Milan . Control of this region allowed the Habsburg rulers of Spain and Austria to threaten France's restive southern provinces of Languedoc and the Dauphiné , as well as protecting the overland supply route known as the Spanish Road . Spanish possessions in Lombardy and the Kingdom of Naples were a key source of recruits and supplies for their military and formed

2275-487: The State Road 62. Mantova railway station , opened in 1873, lies on the train routes of Milan - Codogno - Cremona -Mantua and Verona -Mantua- Modena . The station is a terminus for three regional lines, to Cremona and Milan , to Monselice , and to Verona Porta Nuova and Modena . Trenitalia operates a daily high-speed connection with Rome . The closest airport is Verona-Villafranca Airport. The direct shuttle bus service running to and from Mantova railway station

2340-593: The Swedes to establish themselves within the Holy Roman Empire and was one reason that the Thirty Years' War continued until 1648. Since 1308, the Duchy of Mantua had been ruled by the House of Gonzaga , who also acquired the Duchy of Montferrat in 1574 by marriage. Both territories were part of the Holy Roman Empire and were also of strategic importance to the area known as Lombardy , dominated by

2405-448: The Thirty Years' War , and both sides agreed a truce in October 1630. The June 1631 Treaty of Cherasco confirmed Nevers as Duke of Mantua and Montferrat in return for minor territorial losses. More importantly, the treaty left France in possession of Pinerolo and Casale, key fortresses that controlled access to passes through the Alps and protected its southern borders. The diversion of Imperial and Spanish resources from Germany allowed

2470-563: The Thirty Years' War . Father Joseph also had secret instructions to seek an alliance with Ferdinand's main Catholic supporter, Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria . However, the loss of Mantua on 18 July appeared to jeopardise the French position in Italy, while Maximilian had no interest in an alliance. Seeing an opportunity, Ferdinand offered to confirm Nevers as Duke of Mantua, in return for France agreeing to cede Casale and Pinerolo to Spain, and withdraw support for Ferdinand's opponents within

2535-609: The Tuscan navy, he ultimately avoided doing so. The siege of Casale and its French garrison of 2,500 resumed in June; in late October, Collalto dispersed a Venetian force of 7,000 before moving onto Mantua, held by a garrison of 4,000. Neither siege made much progress; Mantua was protected by two artificial lakes which made it difficult to position siege artillery and Collalto withdrew after an unsuccessful assault in late November. As Collalto fell ill, he left command to his deputies Gallas and Aldringen . Casale continued to hold out, while

2600-584: The basis of "Spanish power in Europe throughout the 17th century". In recent decades, their position had been strengthened by the acquisition of Finale , and control over the independent Principalities of Piombino and Monaco , as well as fortresses in Modena and Mirandola . However, this expansion was viewed with increasing concern by their regional rivals, the Republic of Venice and Pope Urban VIII , ruler of

2665-409: The bulk of the French army then returned to Languedoc to suppress the latest in a series of Huguenot rebellions . Philip was determined to reverse the Susa treaty and replaced Córdoba with Spinola , a native of Genoa and former commander in the Spanish Netherlands . Nevers unwisely led 2,500 troops in an attack on Spanish-held Cremona , which his Venetian allies refused to support. Combined with

War of the Mantuan Succession - Misplaced Pages Continue

2730-487: The ceremony was performed on 23 December 1627, three days before Vincenzo died. Nevers arrived in Mantua on 17 January and sent an envoy to Emperor Ferdinand II requesting Imperial recognition. Historian Peter H. Wilson argues "none of the major powers ... was looking for a fight in Italy" and conflict was caused by a combination of events, including miscommunication between Córdoba and Madrid, as well as Nevers' refusal to compromise. Despite their family connections,

2795-406: The city. In the late 16th century, Claudio Monteverdi came to Mantua from his native Cremona. He worked for the court of Vincenzo I Gonzaga , first as a singer and violist, then as music director, marrying the court singer Claudia Cattaneo in 1599. In 1627, the direct line of the Gonzaga family came to an end with the vicious and weak Vincenzo II , and Mantua slowly declined under the new rulers,

2860-413: The course of River Mincio, creating what the Mantuans call "the four lakes" to reinforce the city's natural protection. Three of these lakes still remain today and the fourth one, which ran through the centre of town, was reclaimed during the 18th century. From 1215, the city was ruled under the podesteria of the Guelph poet-statesman Rambertino Buvalelli . During the struggle between the Guelphs and

2925-632: The duchy, most of it going to Savoy while Spain took Casale, a deal approved by Philip IV of Spain and his chief minister Olivares . On 26 January, Ferdinand ordered Córdoba not to send troops into Mantua or Montferrat and on 1 April confiscated both territories pending a final decision on the succession. By then, it was too late to stop the fighting. Since even large states like France struggled to fight simultaneously in multiple theatres, 17th century diplomacy focused on opening new fronts by building alliances against opponents, or freeing resources by ending an existing conflict. The same principle applied to

2990-402: The expenditure of 10 million escudos and thousands of men, Spain gained nothing from the conflict. The war proved a major foreign policy success for Richelieu by strengthening the French position in Northern Italy, disrupting the Spanish Road and permanently souring relationships between Spain and Austria. Of even greater long term significance was the split it created between the Habsburgs and

3055-424: The insurrection in the County of Tyrol against Napoleon. After the brief period of French rule, Mantua returned to Austria in 1814, becoming one of the Quadrilatero fortress cities in northern Italy. Under the Congress of Vienna (1815) , Mantua became a province in the Austrian Empire's Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia . Agitation against Austria, however, culminated in a revolt which lasted from 1851 to 1855, but it

3120-418: The nearby comune of Sabbioneta were declared by UNESCO to be a World Heritage Site . Mantua's historic power and influence under the Gonzaga family between 1328 and 1708 made it one of the main artistic, cultural , and especially musical hubs of Northern Italy and of Italy as a whole. It had one of the most splendid courts of Europe of the fifteenth, sixteenth, and early seventeenth centuries. Mantua

3185-411: The nearby garrison in Ostiglia. After its defeat, Imperial troops retaliated by attacking the civilian population, with contemporary sources estimating the number killed as around 600, including women and children. When the siege of Mantua resumed in May 1630, its defenders had been reduced by disease to under 2,000, while a hastily assembled and poorly equipped relief force of 17,500 Venetian auxiliaries

3250-582: The papacy, making it acceptable for France to employ Protestant allies against fellow Catholics. Casale Monferrato Too Many Requests If you report this error to the Wikimedia System Administrators, please include the details below. Request from 172.68.168.133 via cp1102 cp1102, Varnish XID 545807475 Upstream caches: cp1102 int Error: 429, Too Many Requests at Thu, 28 Nov 2024 05:44:05 GMT Mantua Mantua ( / ˈ m æ n tj u ə / MAN -tew-ə ; Italian : Mantova [ˈmantova] ; Lombard and Latin : Mantua )

3315-410: The siege of Casale dragged on. The diversion of money and men from the war against the Dutch Republic weakened the Spanish position in Flanders and forced them onto the defensive. Philip later admitted attacking Casale was the one political act he regretted, but once committed Spanish prestige made it impossible to withdraw. Although Olivares accepted 'the duke of Nevers is the legitimate heir to all

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3380-428: The siege on August 27 and accepted surrender of the city on 2 February 1797. The city was recaptured by the Austrians in the War of the Second Coalition after a siege lasting from 8 April to 28 July 1799. Later, the city again passed into Napoleon's control and became a part of Napoleon's Kingdom of Italy. In 1810 Andreas Hofer was shot by Porta Giulia, a gate of the town at Borgo di Porto (Cittadella) for leading

3445-402: The strategic town of Cremona and block the Alpine passes. Siege operations only began in March and since Casale was one of the largest and most modern fortifications in Europe, taking it would be a lengthy operation, giving Nevers time to recruit an army. Including militia and French mercenaries, he managed to raise a force of 14,000, including 2,000 cavalry, a significant number for a duchy with

3510-426: The withdrawal of the main French army, this left him vulnerable to a counter-offensive. Richelieu positioned 18,000 troops on the Savoyard frontier to deter Imperial intervention, but Ferdinand viewed opposing the French in Italy as a higher priority than supporting Spain against the Dutch. The June 1629 Treaty of Lübeck that ended his war with Denmark-Norway allowed Ferdinand to send 30,000 troops from Germany under

3575-400: Was a vociferous collector and such was her reputation that Niccolò da Corregio called her 'la prima donna del mondo'. Through a payment of 120,000 golden florins in 1433, Gianfrancesco I was appointed Marquis of Mantua by the Emperor Sigismund , whose niece Barbara of Brandenburg married his son, Ludovico. In 1459, Pope Pius II held the Council of Mantua to proclaim a crusade against

3640-488: Was born in the year 70 BC at a village near the city which is now known as Virgilio. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire at the hands of Odoacer in 476 AD, Mantua was, along with the rest of Italy, conquered by the Ostrogoths . It was retaken by the Eastern Roman Empire in the middle of the 6th century following the Gothic war but was subsequently lost again to the Lombards . They were in turn conquered by Charlemagne in 774, thus incorporating Mantua into

3705-414: Was canceled on 1 January 2015. Public connection is now provided by the airport bus running to and from Verona Porta Nuova railway station, and the Verona-Mantova railway line. Local bus services, urbano (within the city area and suburbs) and interurbano (within the surrounding towns and villages) are provided by APAM. Since local government political reorganization in 1993, Mantua has been governed by

3770-455: Was ceded to France, who transferred Lombardy to Piedmont-Sardinia in return for Nice and Savoy . Mantua, although a constituent province of Lombardy, still remained under the Austrian Empire along with Venetia. In 1866, Prussia-led North German Confederation sided with the newly established, Piedmont-led Kingdom of Italy against the Austrian Empire in the Third Italian War of Independence . The quick defeat of Austria led to its withdrawal of

3835-419: Was established in its place, and remained operational until April 1945. The Gonzagas protected the arts and culture, and were hosts to several important artists such as Leone Battista Alberti , Andrea Mantegna , Giulio Romano , Donatello , Peter Paul Rubens , Pisanello , Domenico Fetti , Luca Fancelli and Nicolò Sebregondi. Though many of the masterworks have been dispersed, the cultural value of Mantua

3900-432: Was finally suppressed by the Austrian army. One of the most famous episodes of the Italian Risorgimento took place in the valley of the Belfiore, where a group of rebels was hanged by the Austrians. At the Battle of Solferino ( Second Italian War of Independence ) in 1859, the House of Savoy 's Piedmont-Sardinia sided with the French Emperor Napoleon III against the Austrian Empire. Following Austria's defeat, Lombardy

3965-487: Was routed by the Imperials at Villabuona . With the mutinous and unpaid garrison down to only 700 effectives, it surrendered to Gallas and Aldringen on 18 July; the sack that followed reportedly produced booty worth over 18 million ducats . Plague and the sack combined to reduce the population of Mantua by over 70% between 1628 and 1631 and it took decades to recover. Despite this, the retention of Casale meant Nevers' cause remained alive; on 26 July, Charles Emmanuel died and

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4030-492: Was succeeded by his son Victor Amadeus , who was married to Christine of France , Louis XIII's younger sister. On 6 August, Montmorency defeated the Savoyards at Carignano ; losses from disease and desertion left him too weak to relieve Casale, but reinforcements under Charles de Schomberg reached the fortress in early October. The siege works were flooded by heavy rain while the besiegers had been reduced by plague to under 4,000, their casualties including Spinola; on 29 October,

4095-460: Was the countess Matilda of Canossa (d. 1115), who, according to legend, ordered the construction of the precious Rotonda di San Lorenzo (or St. Lawrence's Roundchurch) in 1082. The Rotonda still exists today and was renovated in 2013. After the death of Matilda of Canossa, Mantua became a free commune and strenuously defended itself from the influence of the Holy Roman Empire during the 12th and 13th centuries. In 1198, Alberto Pitentino altered

4160-482: Was the daughter of Duke Ercole the ruler of Ferrara ) she created her famous studiolo firstly in Castello di San Giorgio for which she commissioned paintings from Mantegna , Perugino and Lorenzo Costa . She later moved her studiolo to the Corte Vecchia and commissioned two paintings from Correggio to join the five from Castello di San Giorgio. It was unusual for a woman to have a studiolo in 15th century Italy given they were regarded as masculine spaces. Isabella

4225-421: Was to weaken the Habsburgs wherever possible, and threatened their alliance with the Pope, for whom liberating Italy from the "Spanish yoke" was a primary objective. Having recovered from his illness, Louis refused to ratify the treaty, while Richelieu outlasted his opponents and resumed control over French policy, which lasted until his death in 1642. In January 1631 Louis provided Gustavus with financial backing in

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