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128-725: [REDACTED] Manuel San Martin Manuel San Martin (1881 in Distrito Federal, Mexico – March 25, 1965, in Distrito Federal, Mexico). A Captain in the Mexican Army and notable figure of the Mexican Revolution . He opposed corruption within the high ranks of his command in order to save the lives of prisoners wrongfully set for execution. He saved
256-421: A subtropical highland climate ( Köppen climate classification Cwb ), due to its tropical location but high elevation. The lower region of the valley receives less rainfall than the upper regions of the south; the lower boroughs of Iztapalapa , Iztacalco , Venustiano Carranza and the east portion of Gustavo A. Madero are usually drier and warmer than the upper southern boroughs of Tlalpan and Milpa Alta ,
384-737: A charge. The many Tlaxcalan allies of the Spanish are mentioned as playing an important role in the battle, armed with Spanish swords and shields. The Spanish suffered some losses, but were victorious over the Aztecs, who then retreated and were pursued by cavalry. When Cortés finally reached Tlaxcala five days after fleeing Tenochtitlan, he had lost over 860 Spanish soldiers, over a thousand Tlaxcalans, as well as Spanish women who had accompanied Narváez's troops. Cortés claimed only 15 Spaniards were lost along with 2,000 native allies. Cano, another primary source, gives 1,150 Spaniards dead, though this figure
512-498: A different leader in mind, Velázquez revoked Cortés's mandate to lead the expedition before the man left Cuba. Thus Cortés had to struggle to persist as expedition leader while still in Cuba; twice messengers from Velázquez arrived to depose him, and twice they were dissuaded from executing their mission. After Cortés sailed, Velázquez sent an army led by Pánfilo de Narváez to take him into custody. But after reaching Mexico, Cortés used
640-486: A high-quality harbour on Mexico's east coast, with 508 soldiers, 100 sailors, and 14 small cannons. (Survivors of the previous two expeditions directed him to this harbour.) Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar , the Governor of Cuba, called for Cortés to lead an expedition into Mexico after favourable reports from two previous expeditions to Yucatán caught the interest of the Spanish in Cuba. Under pressure by his relatives, who had
768-720: A major success that ended the war. The American invasion into the Federal District was first resisted during the Battle of Churubusco on 8 August, where the Saint Patrick's Battalion , which was composed primarily of Catholic Irish and German immigrants but also Canadians, English, French, Italians, Poles, Scots, Spaniards, Swiss, and Mexicans, fought for the Mexican cause, repelling the American attacks. After defeating
896-609: A member of the Party of the Democratic Revolution . Discontent over the election eventually led Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas to become the first elected mayor of Mexico City in 1997. Cárdenas promised a more democratic government , and his party claimed some victories against crime, pollution, and other major problems. He resigned in 1999 to run for the presidency. Mexico City is located in the Valley of Mexico, sometimes called
1024-598: A messenger, a few days before Cortes, that at least eight hundred more Spaniards in thirteen great ships had arrived on the coast. Cortés had been communicating to the Crown that he already had control of the territory and was practically running the city of Tenochtitlan. He was at risk of having his commission revoked, because the vast new Spanish forces were sent by his enemy Diego Velázquez. If they competed for power, they could have ended his campaign in Mexico and might have doomed
1152-469: A mountainous region of pine and oak trees known as the range of Ajusco . The average annual temperature varies from 12 to 16 °C (54 to 61 °F), depending on the altitude of the borough. The temperature is rarely below 3 °C (37 °F) or above 30 °C (86 °F). At the Tacubaya observatory, the lowest temperature ever registered was −4.4 °C (24 °F) on 13 February 1960, and
1280-626: A new king, Cuitláhuac , but he soon died; the next king was Cuauhtémoc . Cortés began a siege of Tenochtitlan in May 1521. For three months, the city suffered from the lack of food and water as well as the spread of smallpox brought by the Europeans. Cortés and his allies landed their forces in the south of the island and slowly fought their way through the city. Cuauhtémoc surrendered in August 1521. The Spaniards practically razed Tenochtitlan during
1408-440: A path directly east would have been most favorable. But this would have required hundreds of canoes to move all of Cortés's people and supplies. He was unable to procure the required canoes in his position. Cortés therefore had to choose among three land routes: north to Tlatelolco, which was the least dangerous path but required the longest trip through the city; south to Coyohuacan and Iztapalapa, two towns that would not welcome
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#17327757133501536-543: A third of those in 1992. The levels of signature pollutants in Mexico City are similar to those of Los Angeles . Despite the cleanup, the metropolitan area is still the most ozone -polluted part of the country, with ozone levels 2.5 times beyond WHO -defined safe limits. To clean up pollution, the federal and local governments implemented numerous plans including the constant monitoring and reporting of environmental conditions, such as ozone and nitrogen oxides . When
1664-488: A way not seen in other parts of the Americas. Spaniards encountered a society in which the concept of nobility mirrored that of their own. Spaniards respected the indigenous order of nobility and added to it. In the ensuing centuries, possession of a noble title in Mexico did not mean one exercised great political power, for one's power was limited even if the accumulation of wealth was not. The concept of nobility in Mexico
1792-537: A woman fetching water saw them and alerted the city, another says it was a sentry. Some Aztecs set out in canoes, others by road to Nonchualco then Tlacopan to cut off the Spaniards. Aztecs in canoes attacked the fleeing Spanish on the Tlacopan causeway, shooting arrows at them. The Spanish fired their crossbows and arquebuses back, but were unable to see their attackers or get into formation. Many Spaniards leaped into
1920-472: A year by American troops in the framework of the Mexican–American War (1847–1848). The Battle for Mexico City was the series of engagements from 8 to 15 September 1847, in the general vicinity of Mexico City during the U.S. Mexican War . Included are major actions at the battles of Molino del Rey and Chapultepec , culminating with the fall of Mexico City. The U.S. Army under Winfield Scott scored
2048-486: Is colloquially known as Chilangolandia after the locals' nickname chilangos . Chilango is used pejoratively by people living outside Mexico City to "connote a loud, arrogant, ill-mannered, loutish person". For their part those living in Mexico City designate insultingly those who live elsewhere as living in la provincia ('the provinces', 'the periphery') and many proudly embrace the term chilango. Residents of Mexico City are more recently called defeños (deriving from
2176-467: Is now believed to have been a myth of the conquerors, and perhaps of natives who wished to rationalize the actions of the Aztec tlatoani , Moctezuma II . Most scholars agree that the Aztecs, especially the inner circle around Moctezuma, did not believe that Cortés was a god in any shape or form. Messages between Cortés and Moctezuma, however, frequently allude to the legend, which was widely known across
2304-499: Is still remembered as "La Noche Triste," The Night of Sorrows. Popular tales say Cortés wept under a tree the night of the massacre of his troops at the hands of the Aztecs. Though a flight from the city would make Cortés appear weak before his indigenous allies, it was this or death for the Spanish forces. Cortés and his men, in the center of the city of Tenochtitlan, would most likely have to fight their way out, no matter what direction they took. Cortés wanted to flee to Tlaxcala, so
2432-586: Is the capital and largest city of Mexico , and the most populous city in North America . It is one of the most important cultural and financial centers in the world. Mexico City is located in the Valley of Mexico within the high Mexican central plateau , at an altitude of 2,240 meters (7,350 ft). The city has 16 boroughs or demarcaciones territoriales , which are in turn divided into neighborhoods or colonias . The 2020 population for
2560-594: Is the oldest capital city in the Americas and one of two founded by Indigenous people . The city was originally built on a group of islands in Lake Texcoco by the Mexica around 1325, under the name Tenochtitlan . It was almost completely destroyed in the 1521 siege of Tenochtitlan and subsequently redesigned and rebuilt in accordance with the Spanish urban standards . In 1524, the municipality of Mexico City
2688-676: The Alameda Central , it is recognized as the oldest public park in the Americas . Parque México and Parque España in the hip Condesa district; Parque Hundido and Parque de los Venados in Colonia del Valle , and Parque Lincoln in Polanco . There are many smaller parks throughout the city. Most are small "squares" occupying two or three square blocks amid residential or commercial districts. Several other larger parks such as
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#17327757133502816-542: The Bosque de Tlalpan [ es ; no ] and Viveros de Coyoacán , and in the east Alameda Oriente [ es ] , offer many recreational activities. Northwest of the city is a large ecological reserve, the Bosque de Aragón [ ceb ; es ; no ] . In the southeast is the Xochimilco Ecological Park and Plant Market , a World Heritage Site . West of Santa Fe district are
2944-612: The Ecobici bike-sharing were among efforts to encourage alternate, greener forms of transportation. Chapultepec , the city's most iconic public park, has history back to the Aztec emperors who used the area as a retreat. It is south of Polanco district, and houses the Chapultepec Zoo the main city's zoo, several ponds and seven museums, including the National Museum of Anthropology . Other iconic city parks include
3072-597: The Federal District (Spanish: Distrito Federal or D.F. ) and is now officially known as Ciudad de México (or CDMX ), with a greater degree of autonomy. A clause in the Constitution of Mexico , however, prevents it from becoming a state within the Mexican federation, as long it remains the capital of the country. Mexico City was traditionally known as La Ciudad de los Palacios ("the City of
3200-561: The Saint Patrick's Battalion , the Mexican–American War came to a close after the United States deployed combat units deep into Mexico resulting in the capture of Mexico City and Veracruz by the U.S. Army's 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th Divisions . The invasion culminated with the storming of Chapultepec Castle in the city itself. During this battle, on 13 September, the 4th Division, under John A. Quitman , spearheaded
3328-509: The Toltec , and Mexica (Aztecs) cultures. The latter arrived around the 14th century to settle first on the shores of the lake. The city of Mexico-Tenochtitlan was founded by the Mexica people in 1325 or 1327. The old Mexica city that is now referred to as Tenochtitlan was built on an island in the center of the inland lake system of the Valley of Mexico , which is shared with a smaller city-state called Tlatelolco . According to legend,
3456-706: The Twelve Apostles of Mexico who arrived in New Spain in 1524, described the rebuilding of the city as one of the afflictions or plagues of the early period: The seventh plague was the construction of the great City of Mexico, which, during the early years used more people than in the construction of Jerusalem. The crowds of laborers were so numerous that one could hardly move in the streets and causeways, although they are very wide. Many died from being crushed by beams, or falling from high places, or in tearing down old buildings for new ones. Preconquest Tenochtitlan
3584-486: The city proper was 9,209,944, with a land area of 1,495 square kilometers (577 sq mi). According to the most recent definition agreed upon by the federal and state governments, the population of Greater Mexico City is 21,804,515, which makes it the sixth-largest metropolitan area in the world, the second-largest urban agglomeration in the Western Hemisphere (behind São Paulo , Brazil ), and
3712-566: The massacre of an unknown number of protesting students in Tlatelolco . Three years later, a demonstration in the Maestros avenue, organized by former members of the 1968 student movement, was violently repressed by a paramilitary group called " Los Halcones ", composed of gang members and teenagers from many sports clubs who received training in the US. On 19 September 1985, at 7:19am CST ,
3840-647: The Aztec Empire and the Spanish-led coalition, which was composed mainly of Tlaxcaltec men, it was the siege of Tenochtitlan that directly led to the fall of the Aztec civilization and the ensuing sacking and violence against the survivors. The indigenous population at the time was devastated due to a smallpox epidemic, which killed much of its leadership. Because smallpox had been endemic in Spain for centuries,
3968-481: The Aztec dominions to both Aztecs and their subjects. It strongly influenced them, as Bernal Díaz del Castillo repeatedly attests. Moctezuma sent a group of noblemen and other emissaries to meet Cortés at Quauhtechcac. These emissaries brought golden jewellery as a gift, which greatly pleased the Spaniards. According to the Florentine Codex , Lib. 12, f.6r., Moctezuma also ordered his messengers to carry
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4096-402: The Aztecs made their own errors of judgement by underestimating the shock value of the Spanish caballeros because all they had seen was the horses traveling gingerly on the wet paved streets of Tenochtitlan. They had never seen them used in open battle on the plains. By marshalling on an open plain, they also allowed experienced Spanish commanders to bring to bear their own tactics, weaponry, and
4224-515: The Aztecs refused. The Spanish asserted that Moctezuma was stoned to death by his own people as he attempted to speak with them. Three stones hit him, one of them on the head, so cerebral hematoma is possible. Moctezuma refused all medical help as well as food, and died soon after the attack. The Aztecs later claimed that Moctezuma had been murdered by the Spanish. Two other local rulers were found strangled as well. Moctezuma's younger brother Cuitláhuac , who had been ruler of Ixtlapalapan until then,
4352-598: The Aztecs through Moctezuma. However, Cortés had little knowledge of the ruling system of the Aztecs; Moctezuma was not all-powerful as Cortés imagined. Being appointed to and maintaining the position of tlatoani was based on the ability to rule decisively; he could be replaced by another noble if he failed to do so. At any sign of weakness, Aztec nobles within Tenochtitlan and in other Aztec tributaries were liable to rebel. As Moctezuma complied with orders issued by Cortés, such as commanding tribute to be gathered and given to
4480-513: The Aztecs was based either on their own interests or fear of punishment. It was necessary for Cortés to rebuild his alliances after his escape from Tenochtitlan before he could try again to take the city. He started with the Tlaxcalans. Tlaxcala was an autonomous state, and a fierce enemy of the Aztecs. Another strong motivation to join forces with the Spanish was that Tlaxcala was encircled by Aztec tributaries. The Tlaxcalans could have crushed
4608-550: The Aztecs were planning a revolt. Unable to assert control over events, he sequestered Moctezuma and increased the guards around the tlatoani. By the day of the festival, twenty days after Cortés' departure, the Aztecs had gathered on the Patio of Dances. Alvarado had sixty of his men as well as many of his Tlaxcalan allies into positions around the patio. The Aztecs initiated the Serpent Dance. The euphoric dancing as well as
4736-659: The Aztecs were the greatest warriors they had ever seen and could not be withstood within their city. 2. Overrating his forces. Since Cortés won all his battles in Mexico before this while at the head of much inferior forces, being in charge of a nearly full Spanish tercio must have made him feel invincible. In fact, the only serviceable portion of his army were his old followers with great experience of Aztec warfare, who were by this time severely whittled down by wounds and disease. The newly arrived Narvaéz's men did not have experience in local fighting and were worth much less in combat - and eventually perished in much greater numbers than
4864-538: The Basin of Mexico. This valley is located in the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt in the high plateaus of south-central Mexico. It has a minimum altitude of 2,200 meters (7,200 feet) above sea level and is surrounded by mountains and volcanoes that reach elevations of over 5,000 meters (16,000 feet). This valley has no natural drainage outlet for the waters that flow from the mountainsides, making
4992-572: The City of Lakes . If approved by the government the project will contribute to the supply of water from natural sources to the Valley of Mexico , the creation of new natural spaces, a great improvement in air quality, and greater population establishment planning. By the 1990s Mexico City had become infamous as one of the world's most polluted cities; however, the city has since become a model for drastically lowering pollution levels. By 2014 carbon monoxide pollution had dropped drastically, while sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide were at levels about
5120-576: The Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean. After landing in Veracruz , Spanish explorer Hernán Cortés advanced upon Tenochtitlan with the aid of many of the other native peoples, arriving there on 8 November 1519. Cortés and his men marched along the causeway leading into the city from Iztapalapa (Ixtapalapa), and the city's ruler, Moctezuma II , greeted the Spaniards; they exchanged gifts, but
5248-614: The Mexica (Aztecs) began to prepare for the annual festival of Toxcatl in early May, in honor of Tezcatlipoca , otherwise known as the Smoking Mirror or the Omnipotent Power. They honored this god during the onset of the dry season so that the god would fill dry streambeds and cause rain to fall on crops. Moctezuma secured the consent of Cortés to hold the festival, and again confirmed permission with Alvarado. Alvarado
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5376-576: The Mexican wolf. Other guests are the golden eagle, pronghorn, bighorn sheep, caracara, zebras, African elephant, macaw, hippo, among others. Zoo Los Coyotes is a 27.68-acre (11.2 ha) zoo located south of Mexico City in the Coyoacan. It was inaugurated on 2 February 1999. It has more than 301 specimens of 51 species of wild native or endemic fauna from the area, featuring eagles, ajolotes, coyotes, macaws, bobcats, Mexican wolves, raccoons, mountain lions, teporingos, foxes, white-tailed deer. Mexico City has
5504-559: The Mexicas' principal god, Huitzilopochtli , indicated the site where they were to build their home by presenting a golden eagle perched on a prickly pear devouring a rattlesnake . Between 1325 and 1521, Tenochtitlan grew in size and strength, eventually dominating the other city-states around Lake Texcoco and in the Valley of Mexico. When the Spaniards arrived, the Aztec Empire had reached much of Mesoamerica , touching both
5632-578: The Miguel Hidalgo. It was opened in 1924. Visitors can see about 243 specimens of different species including kangaroos, giant panda, gorillas, caracal, hyena, hippos, jaguar, giraffe, lemur, lion, among others. Zoo San Juan de Aragon is near the San Juan de Aragon Park in the Gustavo A. Madero. In this zoo, opened in 1964, there are species that are in danger of extinction such as the jaguar and
5760-520: The Palaces"), a nickname attributed to Baron Alexander von Humboldt when visiting the city in the 19th century, who, sending a letter back to Germany, said Mexico City could rival any major city in Europe. But it was English politician Charles Latrobe who really penned the following: "... look at their works: the moles, aqueducts, churches, roads—and the luxurious City of Palaces which has risen from
5888-469: The Spaniards, his authority was slipping, and quickly his people began to turn against him. Cortés and his army were permitted to stay in the Palace of Axayacatl, and tensions continued to grow. While the Spaniards were in Tenochtitlan, Velázquez assembled a force of nineteen ships, more than 1400 soldiers with twenty cannons, eighty horsemen, one-hundred and twenty crossbowmen, and eighty arquebusiers under
6016-489: The Spaniards, or to wait for the end of the agricultural season and strike at the beginning of the war season. However, he did not carry out either of these actions even though high-ranking military leaders such as his brother Cuitlahuac and nephew Cacamatzin urged him to do so. With Moctezuma as his captive, Cortés did not need to worry about being cut off from supplies or being attacked, although some of his captains had such concerns. He also assumed that he could control
6144-408: The Spanish had developed an acquired immunity and were affected relatively little in the epidemic. The conquest of the Aztec Empire was a critical stage in the Spanish colonization of the Americas . In April 1519, Hernán Cortés , a nobleman recently landed in present-day Cuba and the leader of the third Spanish expedition to the coast of what is known as Mexico, landed at San Juan de Ulúa ,
6272-481: The Spanish preserved Tenochtitlan's basic layout, they built Catholic churches over the old Aztec temples and claimed the imperial palaces for themselves. Tenochtitlan was renamed "Mexico" because the Spanish found the word easier to pronounce. The city had been the capital of the Aztec Empire and in the colonial era, Mexico City became the capital of New Spain . The viceroy of Mexico or vice-king lived in
6400-409: The Spanish. The military gains of the attack therefore had a serious political cost for Cortés. His new followers were greatly disturbed at the power of the Aztecs, and held Cortés to be a liar since nobody revered them and brought them food and gifts as Cortés had promised. Cortés attempted to parlay with the Aztecs, and after this failed he sent Moctezuma to tell his people to stop fighting. However,
6528-412: The Spanish; or west to Tlacopan, which required the shortest trip through Tenochtitlan, though they would not be welcome there either. Cortés decided on the west causeway to Tlacopan, needing the quickest route out of Tenochtitlan with all his provisions and people. Heavy rains and a moonless night provided some cover for the escaping Spanish. On that "Sad Night," July 1, 1520, the Spanish forces exited
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#17327757133506656-477: The Teocalhueyacans. The morning after, the Aztecs returned to recover the spoils from the canals. To reach Tlaxcala, Cortés had to bring his troops around Lake Texcoco. The Spanish were under attack the entire trip. Because Cortés took his troops through the northern towns, they were at an advantage. The northern valley was less populous, travel was difficult, and it was still the agricultural season, so
6784-529: The Tlaxcalan began to consider his ceaseless offers of peace. Notably Xicotencatl the Elder wanted to form an alliance with the Spaniards against the Aztecs, which was the goal of Cortés as well. It once was widely believed that the Aztecs first thought Cortés was Quetzalcoatl , a mythical god prophesied to return to Mexico—coincidentally in the same year Cortés landed and from the same direction he came. This
6912-409: The accompanying flute and drum playing disturbed Alvarado about the potential for revolt. He ordered the gates closed and initiated the killing of many thousands of Aztec nobles, warriors and priests. Alvarado, the conquistadors and the Tlaxcalans retreated to their base in the Palace of Axayacatl and secured the entrances. Alvarado ordered his men to shoot their cannons, crossbows, and arquebuses into
7040-515: The air is relatively drier, the driest month being December. This season is subdivided into a cold winter period and a warm spring period. The cold period spans from November to February, when polar air masses push down from the north and keep the air fairly dry. The warm period extends from March to May when subtropical winds again dominate but do not yet carry enough moisture for rain to form. Fall of Tenochtitlan Spanish and Tlaxcallan victory Triple Alliance The fall of Tenochtitlan ,
7168-479: The area closest to the main square in what was known as the traza , in orderly, well laid-out streets. Indigenous residences were outside that exclusive zone and houses were haphazardly located. Spaniards sought to keep indigenous people separate but since the Zócalo was a center of commerce for Amerindians, they were a constant presence in the central area, so strict segregation was never enforced. At intervals Zócalo
7296-446: The area was struck by the 1985 Mexico City earthquake . The earthquake proved to be a disaster politically for the one-party state government. The Mexican government was paralyzed by its own bureaucracy and corruption, forcing ordinary citizens to create and direct their own rescue efforts and to reconstruct much of the housing that was lost as well. However, the last straw may have been the controversial elections of 1988. That year,
7424-451: The armies of Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata , but the city did not experience violence. Huerta had abandoned the capital and the conquering armies marched in. Venustiano Carranza 's Constitutionalist faction ultimately prevailed in the revolutionary civil war and Carranza took up residence in the presidential palace. In the 20th century the phenomenal growth of the city and its environmental and political consequences dominate. In 1900,
7552-568: The army stronghold of the ciudadela or citadel, with significant civilian casualties and the undermining of confidence in the Madero government. Victoriano Huerta , chief general of the Federal Army , saw a chance to take power, forcing Madero and Pino Suarez to sign resignations. The two were murdered later while on their way to Lecumberri prison . Huerta's ouster in July 1914 saw the entry of
7680-485: The attack against Chapultepec and carried the castle. Future Confederate generals George E. Pickett and James Longstreet participated in the attack. Serving in the Mexican defense were the cadets later immortalized as Los Niños Héroes (the "Boy Heroes"). The Mexican forces fell back from Chapultepec and retreated within the city. Attacks on the Belén and San Cosme Gates came afterwards. The treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
7808-447: The attacks on Cortés's forces were not very heavy. When Cortés and his soldiers arrived at more densely inhabited areas east of the lake, the attacks became more forceful. Before reaching Tlaxcala, the scanty Spanish forces arrived at the plain of Otumba Valley (Otompan) , where they were met by a vast Aztec army intent on their destruction. The Aztecs intended to cut short the Spanish retreat from Tenochtitlan and annihilate them. Here,
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#17327757133507936-448: The camaraderie did not last long. Cortés put Moctezuma under house arrest , hoping to rule through him. Tensions increased until, on the night of 30 June 1520 – during a struggle known as " La Noche Triste " – the Aztecs rose up against the Spanish intrusion and managed to capture or drive out the Europeans and their Tlaxcalan allies. Cortés regrouped at Tlaxcala. The Aztecs thought the Spaniards were permanently gone, and they elected
8064-523: The cannons on wooden carts. Cortés's army entered the city on the flower-covered causeway from Iztapalapa , associated with the god Quetzalcoatl. Cortés was amicably received by Moctezuma. The captive woman Malinalli Tenépal, also known as Doña Marina , translated from Nahuatl to Chontal Maya ; the Spaniard Gerónimo de Aguilar translated from Chontal Maya to Spanish. There were numerous instances of miscommunication, specifically regarding
8192-405: The capital of the Aztec Empire , was an important event in the Spanish conquest of the empire . It occurred in 1521 following extensive negotiations between local factions and Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés . He was aided by La Malinche , his interpreter and companion, and by thousands of indigenous allies , especially Tlaxcaltec warriors. Although numerous battles were fought between
8320-501: The capital. The 16th century saw a proliferation of churches, many of which can still be seen today in the historic center . Economically, Mexico City prospered as a result of trade. Unlike Brazil or Peru , Mexico had easy contact with both the Atlantic and Pacific worlds. Although the Spanish crown tried to completely regulate all commerce in the city, it had only partial success. The concept of nobility flourished in New Spain in
8448-458: The chief temple of the city, the Cue of Huichilopotzli. In spite of determined opposition, the Spanish push got them to the top of the temple's 114 steps, but at a great loss. Cortés aimed at routing the Aztecs and by holding both Moctezuma and the great temple - being able to offer peace once again. However, the Spanish attack encountered such fierce resistance and numerous fatalities among his men, that
8576-413: The city vulnerable to flooding. Drainage was engineered through the use of canals and tunnels starting in the 17th century. Mexico City primarily rests on what was Lake Texcoco . Seismic activity is frequent there. Lake Texcoco was drained starting from the 17th century. Although none of the lake waters remain, the city rests on the lake bed's heavily saturated clay. This soft base is collapsing due to
8704-478: The clay-built ruins of Tenochtitlan...", on page 84 of the Letter V of The Rambler in Mexico . During the colonial period, the city's motto was "Muy Noble e Insigne, Muy Leal e Imperial" (Very Noble and Distinguished, Very Loyal and Imperial). During Andrés Manuel López Obrador 's administration a political slogan was introduced: la Ciudad de la Esperanza ( lit. ' The City of Hope ' ). This motto
8832-438: The colonial period to work on infrastructure to prevent flooding. Floods were not only an inconvenience but also a health hazard, since during flood periods human waste polluted the city's streets. By draining the area, the mosquito population dropped as did the frequency of the diseases they spread. However, draining the wetlands also changed the habitat for fish and birds and the areas accessible for indigenous cultivation close to
8960-710: The command of Pánfilo de Narváez to capture Cortés and return him to Cuba. Velázquez felt that Cortés had exceeded his authority, and had been aware of Cortés's misconduct for nearly a year. He had to wait for favorable winds, though, and was unable to send any forces until spring. Narváez's troops landed at San Juan de Ulúa on the Gulf of Mexico coast around April 20, 1520. After Cortés became aware of their arrival, he left Pedro de Alvarado in charge in Tenochtitlan with 80 soldiers, and brought all his forces (about two hundred and forty men) by quick marches to Narváez's camp in Cempohuallan on May 27. Several negotiations between
9088-506: The construction of large sporting facilities. In 1969, the Mexico City Metro was inaugurated. Explosive growth in the population of the city started in the 1960s, with the population overflowing the boundaries of the Federal District into the neighboring State of Mexico, especially to the north, northwest, and northeast. Between 1960 and 1980 the city's population more than doubled to nearly 9 million. In 1980, half of all
9216-429: The draining of Lake Texcoco and global warming have greatly reduced snowfalls after the snow flurries of 12 February 1907. Since 1908, snow has only fallen three times, snow on 14 February 1920; snow flurries on 14 March 1940; and on 12 January 1967, when 8 centimeters (3 in) of snow fell on the city, the most on record. The 1967 snowstorm coincided with the operation of Deep Drainage System that resulted in
9344-423: The east coast of the area. An inquiry into Cortés' action was conducted in Spain in 1529 and no action was taken against him. Cortés happened to land at the borders of Cempoala , a vassal state to the Aztecs that had many grievances against them. As he encountered several polities who resented Aztec rule, Cortés told them he had arrived on orders of his Emperor to improve conditions, abolish human sacrifices, teach
9472-410: The emperor's favorite and reportedly most beautiful daughter Tecuichpotzin (later Doña Isabel Moctezuma ). A third daughter died, leaving behind her infant by Cortés, the mysterious second "María" named in his will. Cuitláhuac had been elected as the emperor immediately following Moctezuma's death. It was necessary for him to prove his power and authority to keep the tributaries from revolting. Usually,
9600-586: The events, and Cortés hurried back to Tenochtitlan on June 24 with 1,300 soldiers, 96 horses, 80 crossbowmen, and 80 arquebusiers . Cortés also came with 2,000 Tlaxcalan warriors on the journey. Cortés entered the palace unscathed, as the hostilities had not started yet, although the Aztecs had probably planned to ambush him. The Aztecs had already stopped sending food and supplies to the Spaniards. They became suspicious and watched for people trying to sneak supplies to them; many innocent people were slaughtered because they were suspected of helping them. A few days after
9728-498: The final siege of the conquest. Cortés first settled in Coyoacán , but decided to rebuild the Aztec site to erase all traces of the old order. He did not establish a territory under his own personal rule , but remained loyal to the Spanish crown. The first Spanish viceroy arrived in Mexico City fourteen years later. By that time, the city had again become a city-state , having power that extended far beyond its borders. Although
9856-444: The first interaction between Cortes and Moctezuma. There were also variations in the different accounts of this first contact specifically between the accounts of Cortes and Bernal Díaz. As there was a difference in the accounts regarding whether or not Cortes was able to touch Moctezuma when they first met. Doña Marina also was not always accurate in her translation, as her primary objectives were to avoid war, and also obtain gold, which
9984-487: The gathering crowd. The result either preempted or triggered the Aztec revolt, which was, however, inevitable from the moment of Moctezuma's capture and was accelerated by the split of the Spanish forces. Alvarado forced Moctezuma to appeal to the crowd outside the Palace and this appeal temporarily calmed them. The massacre had the result of resolutely turning all the Aztecs against the Spanish and completely undermining Moctezuma's authority. Alvarado sent word to Cortés of
10112-404: The great forces of Cortés got into Tenochtitlan, the roads were shut and the causeway bridges were raised. The Aztecs halted any Spanish attacks or attempts to leave the palace. Every Spanish soldier that was not killed was wounded. Cortés failed to grasp the full extent of the situation, as the attack on the festival was the last straw for the Aztecs, who now were completely against Moctezuma and
10240-581: The highest temperature on record was 34.7 °C (94.5 °F) on 25 May 2024. Overall precipitation is heavily concentrated in the summer months, and includes dense hail . Snow falls in the city scarcely, although somewhat more often on nearby mountaintops. Throughout its history, the Central Valley of Mexico was accustomed to having several snowfalls per decade (including a period between 1878 and 1895 in which every single year—except 1880—recorded snowfalls ), mostly lake-effect snow . The effects of
10368-996: The highly symbolic penacho (headdress) of Quetzalcoatl de Tula to Cortés and place it on him. As news about the strangers reached the capital city, Moctezuma became increasingly fearful and considered fleeing the city. He reportedly resigned himself to what he considered to be the fate of his people. Cortés continued on his march toward Tenochtitlan. Before entering the city, on November 8, 1519, Cortés and his troops prepared for battle by armoring themselves and their horses, and arranging into military rank with four leading horsemen followed by five contingents of foot soldiers. The contingents had iron swords and wooden or leather shields; horsemen in cuirasses, armed with iron lances, swords, and wooden shields; crossbowmen; more horsemen; soldiers armed with arquebus guns; and lastly, indigenous soldiers from Tlaxcalan, Tliliuhquitepec, and Huexotzinco armed with cotton armor and shields and crossbows, many of whom carried provisions in baskets or bundles or escorted
10496-610: The industrial jobs in Mexico were located in Mexico City. Under relentless growth, the Mexico City government could barely keep up with services. Villagers from the countryside who continued to pour into the city to escape poverty only compounded the city's problems. With no housing available, they took over lands surrounding the city, creating huge shanty towns . The inhabitants of Mexico City faced serious air pollution and water pollution problems, as well as groundwater-related subsidence . Air and water pollution has been contained and improved in several areas due to government programs,
10624-655: The insurgency, occurred four days later. After a decade of war, Mexico's independence from Spain was effectively declared in the Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire on 27 September 1821. Agustín de Iturbide is proclaimed Emperor of the First Mexican Empire by Congress, crowned in the Cathedral of Mexico . The Mexican Federal District was established by the new government and by
10752-445: The know-how of European warfare. Despite the overwhelming numbers of Aztecs and the generally poor condition of the Spanish survivors, Cortés snatched victory from the jaws of defeat. He spotted the Aztec commander in his ornate and colourful feather tlahuiztli and immediately charged him with several horsemen, killing the Aztec commander and most other leaders as they were clearly marked by their golden plumage and an easy target for
10880-517: The largest Spanish-speaking city (city proper) in the world. Greater Mexico City has a GDP of $ 411 billion in 2011, which makes it one of the most productive urban areas in the world . The city was responsible for generating 15.8% of Mexico's GDP, and the metropolitan area accounted for about 22% of the country's GDP. If it were an independent country in 2013, Mexico City would be the fifth-largest economy in Latin America . Mexico City
11008-465: The last half of the 18th century. Many of these palaces can still be seen today, leading to Mexico City's nickname of "The city of palaces" given by Alexander Von Humboldt . The Grito de Dolores ("Cry of Dolores"), also known as El Grito de la Independencia ("Cry of Independence"), marked the beginning of the Mexican War of Independence . The Battle of Guanajuato, the first major engagement of
11136-452: The levels of these two pollutants reached critical levels, contingency actions were implemented which included closing factories, changing school hours, and extending the A day without a car program to two days of the week. The government also instituted industrial technology improvements, a strict biannual vehicle emission inspection and the reformulation of gasoline and diesel fuels . The introduction of Metrobús bus rapid transit and
11264-646: The lives of countless victims of the Mexican Revolution, where more than two (2) million people lost their lives. He married Concepcion Espinosa and they had ten children together. [REDACTED] [REDACTED] References [ edit ] https://archive.org/details/memoriadelasecr03marigoog Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manuel_San_Martin&oldid=1202040453 " Categories : Mexican military officers 20th-century Mexican military personnel Distrito Federal, Mexico Mexico City
11392-496: The locals the true faith, and "stop them from robbing each other". He was successful in enforcing excellent behaviour by his army when among potential allies. Cortés clashed with some of these polities, among them the Totonac and Tlaxcalan . The latter gave him two good day battles and one night battle, and kept up a strong defence, holding off his army on a hilltop for two weeks. His numerically inferior force finally triumphed when
11520-564: The lower Cenolithic period (9500–7000 BC). However, a 2003 study placed the age of the Peñon woman at 12,700 years old (calendar age), one of the oldest human remains discovered in the Americas. Studies of her mitochondrial DNA suggest she was either of Asian or European or Aboriginal Australian origin. The area was the destination of the migrations of the Teochichimecas during the 8th and 13th centuries, people that would give rise to
11648-489: The main campus of the National Autonomous University of Mexico . Designed by the most prestigious architects of the era, including Mario Pani , Eugenio Peschard , and Enrique del Moral , the buildings feature murals by artists Diego Rivera , David Alfaro Siqueiros , and José Chávez Morado . It has since been recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site . The 1968 Olympic Games brought about
11776-424: The metropolitan area. The area receives about 820 millimeters (32 in) of annual rainfall, which is concentrated from May through October with little or no precipitation for the remainder of the year. The area has two main seasons. The wet humid summer runs from May to October when winds bring in tropical moisture from the sea, the wettest month being July. The cool sunny winter runs from November to April, when
11904-407: The new king would take his army on a campaign before coronation; this demonstration would solidify necessary ties. However, Cuitláhuac was not in a position to do this, as it was not yet war season; therefore, allegiance to the Spanish seemed to be an option for many tributaries. The Aztec Empire was very susceptible to division: most of the tributary states were divided internally, and their loyalty to
12032-455: The old Aztec ceremonial center. The existing central plaza of the Aztecs was effectively and permanently transformed to the ceremonial center and seat of power during the colonial period, and remains to this day in modern Mexico, the central plaza of the nation. The rebuilding of the city after the siege of Tenochtitlan was accomplished by the abundant indigenous labor in the surrounding area. Franciscan friar Toribio de Benavente Motolinia , one of
12160-419: The over-extraction of groundwater, called groundwater-related subsidence . Since the beginning of the 20th century the city has sunk as much as nine meters (30 feet) in some areas. On average Mexico City sinks 20 inches (1 foot and 8 inches) or 50 centimetres (1/2 meters ) every year. This sinking is causing problems with runoff and wastewater management, leading to flooding problems, especially during
12288-478: The palace first with their indigenous allies close behind, bringing as much treasure as possible. Cortés had hoped to go undetected by muffling the horses' hooves and carrying wooden boards to cross the canals. The Spanish forces successfully crossed the first three canals, the Tecpantzinco, Tzapotlan, and Atenchicalco. However, they were discovered at the fourth canal at Mixcoatechialtitlan. One account says
12416-650: The pine forests of the Desierto de los Leones National Park . Amusement parks include Six Flags México , in Ajusco neighborhood which is the largest in Latin America. There are numerous seasonal fairs present in the city. Mexico City has three zoos. Chapultepec Zoo , the San Juan de Aragon Zoo [ es ; no ] and Los Coyotes Zoo . Chapultepec Zoo is located in the first section of Chapultepec Park in
12544-477: The plan fell apart. The retreat to Spanish quarters was as hard as the attack, and part of their quarters were plundered in the meantime. The direct loss of nearly a hundred men dead and the fierce spirit of the Aztecs who refused to be cowed by his ascent of the temple convinced Cortés that a night escape was now his only option for survival. The flight of the Spanish from Tenochtitlan was a crushing setback for Cortés, and his army came just short of annihilation. It
12672-516: The political disputes of the country. It was the imperial capital on two occasions (1821–1823 and 1864–1867), and of two federalist states and two centralist states that followed innumerable coups d'états in the space of half a century before the triumph of the Liberals after the Reform War . It was also the objective of one of the two French invasions to Mexico ( 1861–1867 ), and occupied for
12800-568: The population of Mexico City was about 500,000. The city began to grow rapidly westward in the early part of the 20th century and then began to grow upwards in the 1950s, with the Torre Latinoamericana becoming the city's first skyscraper. The rapid development of Mexico City as a center for modernist architecture was most fully manifested in the mid-1950s construction of the Ciudad Universitaria, Mexico City ,
12928-636: The postal abbreviation of the Federal District in Spanish: D.F., which is read "De-Efe"). They are formally called capitalinos (in reference to the city being the capital of the country), but "[p]erhaps because capitalino is the more polite, specific, and correct word, it is almost never utilized". The oldest signs of human occupation in the area of Mexico City are those of the " Peñón woman " and others found in San Bartolo Atepehuacan ( Gustavo A. Madero ). They were believed to correspond to
13056-432: The presidency was set between the P.R.I. 's candidate, Carlos Salinas de Gortari, and a coalition of left-wing parties led by Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas , son of the former president Lázaro Cárdenas . The counting system "fell" because coincidentally the power went out and suddenly, when it returned, the winning candidate was Salinas, even though Cárdenas had the upper hand. As a result of the fraudulent election, Cárdenas became
13184-472: The renovation of vehicles and the modernization of public transportation. The autocratic government that ruled Mexico City since the Revolution was tolerated, mostly because of the continued economic expansion since World War II. This was the case even though this government could not handle the population and pollution problems adequately. Nevertheless, discontent and protests began in the 1960s leading to
13312-593: The right to elect both a head of government and the representatives of the unicameral Legislative Assembly by election in 1997. Ever since, left-wing parties (first the Party of the Democratic Revolution and later the National Regeneration Movement ) have controlled both of them. The city has several progressive policies, such as elective abortions , a limited form of euthanasia , no-fault divorce , same-sex marriage , and legal gender change . On 29 January 2016, it ceased to be
13440-464: The same legal tactic as had been used by Governor Velázquez when he invaded Cuba years before: he created a local government and had himself elected as the magistrate. He was thus theoretically responsible only to the King of Spain. Cortés followed this tactic when he and his men established the city of Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz , also known as Veracruz , seven miles from the harbour of San Juan de Ulúa on
13568-417: The siege of Tenochtitlan, and during colonial times the Spanish regularly drained the lake to prevent floods. Only a small section of the original lake remains, located outside Mexico City, in the municipality of Atenco , State of Mexico . Architects Teodoro González de León and Alberto Kalach along with a group of Mexican urbanists, engineers and biologists have developed the project plan for Recovering
13696-595: The signing of their new constitution, where the concept of a federal district was adapted from the United States Constitution . Before this designation, Mexico City had served as the seat of government for both the State of Mexico and the nation as a whole. Texcoco de Mora and then Toluca became the capital of the State of Mexico. During the 19th century, Mexico City was the center stage of all
13824-462: The summer. The entire lake bed is now paved over and most of the city's remaining forested areas lie in the southern boroughs of Milpa Alta , Tlalpan and Xochimilco . Originally much of the valley lay beneath the waters of Lake Texcoco , a system of interconnected salt and freshwater lakes. The Aztecs built dikes to separate the fresh water used to raise crops in chinampas and to prevent recurrent floods. These dikes were destroyed during
13952-417: The total draining of what was left of Lake Texcoco. After the disappearance of Lake Texcoco, snow has never fallen again over Mexico City. The region of the Valley of Mexico receives anti-cyclonic systems. The weak winds of these systems do not allow for the dispersion, outside the basin, of the air pollutants which are produced by the 50,000 industries and 4 million vehicles operating in and around
14080-471: The try for a lightning conquest. Cortés attempted to take Moctezuma hostage in an effort to ensure his cooperation. According to all eyewitness accounts, Moctezuma initially refused to leave his palace but after a series of threats from and debates with the Spanish captains, and assurances from Doña Marina, he agreed to move with his retinue to the Axayáctal palace. The first captain assigned to guard him
14208-497: The two Spaniards took place on the way, in which Cortés was able to persuade many persons of weight in Narváez's camp to incline to his side. Cortés attacked Narváez's camp late at night; his men, much superior in experience and organization, wounded Narváez in the eye and took him as a hostage quickly; also taken were his principal adherents, de Salvatierra and Diego Velasquez (the nephew of the Governor of Cuba). Evidence suggests that
14336-518: The two were in the midst of negotiations at the time, and Narváez was not expecting an attack. Cortés then completed winning over Narváez's captains with promises of the vast wealth in Tenochtitlan, inducing them to follow him back to the Aztec capital. Narváez was imprisoned in Vera Cruz, and his army was integrated into Cortés's forces. During Cortés's absence, Pedro de Alvarado was left in command in Tenochtitlan with 80 soldiers. At this time,
14464-457: The veterans. 3. Unprepared for enemy tactics. The Aztecs had fought for the lake cities many times before and their tactics were excellent - the use of canoes, the use of flat roofs with prepared missiles, dropping down into the lake when cornered, and destroying bridges. Cavalry could not operate in these conditions and control of the water was crucial, which Cortés did not realize at first. With this mindset, Cortés launched an attack directly at
14592-488: The viceregal palace on the main square or Zócalo . The Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral , the seat of the Archbishopric of New Spain, was constructed on another side of the Zócalo, as was the archbishop's palace, and across from it the building housing the city council or ayuntamiento of the city. A late seventeenth-century painting of the Zócalo by Cristóbal de Villalpando depicts the main square, which had been
14720-461: The water and drowned, weighed down by armor and booty. When faced with a gap in the causeway, Alvarado made the famous "leap of Alvarado" using a spear to get to the other side. Approximately a third of the Spaniards succeeded in reaching the mainland, while the others died in battle or were captured and later sacrificed on Aztec altars - these were reported to be mostly the followers of Narváez, less experienced and more weighted down with gold, which
14848-430: Was Pedro de Alvarado . Other Aztec lords were also detained by the Spanish, when they started questioning the authority of their captive tlatoani . The palace was surrounded by over 100 Spanish soldiers in order to prevent any attempt at rescue. It is uncertain why Moctezuma cooperated with the Spaniards. It is possible he feared losing his life or political power; however, one of the effective threats wielded by Cortés
14976-423: Was built in the center of the inland lake system, with the city reachable by canoe and by wide causeways to the mainland. The causeways were rebuilt under Spanish rule with indigenous labor. Colonial Spanish cities were constructed on a grid pattern, if no geographical obstacle prevented it. In Mexico City, the Zócalo (main square) was the central place from which the grid was then built outward. The Spanish lived in
15104-660: Was chosen as the Tlatoani. Initially, Cortés resolved to fight the Aztec troops opposed to him and win the city in direct conflict. This stemmed from three errors of judgment: 1. Underestimation of the Aztecs. Cortés fought the Tabascans, the Cempoalans, the Tlaxcalans and found them strong opponents, but always prevailed. He had never fought an Aztec army before and did not expect such resolve and martial skill as he encountered – although all his previous foes warned that
15232-505: Was commissioned by Cortés to take over his post and to foresee everything related to interactions among Spaniards and the Mexica, right at the time when the Toxcatl festival was to occur. Cortés expressly instructed Alvarado to not perform any military action, during his absence. Alvarado however had an unstable temperament and engaged in inquiring where the gold of the nobility was stored. He tortured priests and nobles and discovered that
15360-424: Was established, known as México Tenochtitlán , and as of 1585, it was officially known as Ciudad de México (Mexico City). Mexico City played a major role in the Spanish colonial empire as a political, administrative, and financial center. Following independence from Spain , the federal district was established in 1824. After years of demanding greater political autonomy , residents were finally given
15488-622: Was handed out freely before the escape. After the surviving Spanish crossed over the bridge, the Aztecs attacked them and chased them towards Tlacopan. Many Spaniards were killed, as well as most of the indigenous warriors, and some of the horses before the army could get to their goal, Tlacopan; all of the cannons and most of the crossbows and other weapons were lost. In all battles with main Aztec forces after that, Spaniards noted their lost arms being used against them. The Spanish finally found refuge in Otancalpolco, where they got aid from
15616-519: Was likely too high and might encompass the total loss from entering Mexico to arriving into Tlaxcala. Cortés' chaplain back in Spain, Francisco López de Gómara , estimated that 450 Spaniards and 4,000 allies had died. Other sources estimate that nearly half of the Spanish and almost all of the natives were killed or wounded. The women survivors included Cortés's translator and lover La Malinche , María Estrada , Beatriz de Palacios , and two of Moctezuma's daughters who had been given to Cortés, including
15744-418: Was not political but rather a very conservative Spanish social one, based on proving the worthiness of the family. Most of these families proved their worth by making fortunes in New Spain outside of the city itself, then spending the revenues in the capital, building churches, supporting charities and building extravagant palatial homes. The craze to build the most opulent residence possible reached its height in
15872-418: Was promised to her by Cortes. This led to Marina and Jeronimo De Aguilar having numerous instances of miscommunication, which led to numerous different accounts of the interaction between the Spaniards and the Aztecs in Tenochtitlan. The Spanish soon took Moctezuma hostage on November 14, 1519, as a safety measure because they were so outnumbered by the Aztec. Secondly they learned that Moctezuma had heard from
16000-554: Was quickly adopted as a city nickname but has faded since the new motto, Capital en Movimiento ("Capital in Movement"), was adopted by the administration headed by Marcelo Ebrard , though the latter is not treated as often as a nickname in media. Up until 2013, it was common to refer to the city by the initialism "DF" from "Distrito Federal de México". Since 2013, the abbreviation "CDMX" (Ciudad de México) has been more common, particularly in relation to government campaigns. The city
16128-498: Was signed in what is now the far north of the city. The capital escaped the worst of the violence of the ten-year conflict of the Mexican Revolution . The most significant episode of this period for the city was the Decena Trágica ("Ten Tragic Days") of February 1913, when forces counter to the elected government of Francisco I. Madero staged a successful coup. The center of the city was subjected to artillery attacks from
16256-438: Was the destruction of the city in the case of fighting between Spaniards and Aztecs (which ultimately came to pass). This Moctezuma at all costs wanted to avoid, vacillating and deferring the rupture until this policy claimed his life. From the perspective of the tlatoani, the Spaniards might have been assigned some decisive role by fate. It could also have been a tactical move: Moctezuma may have wanted to gather more information on
16384-403: Was where major celebrations took place as well as executions. It was also the site of two major riots in the seventeenth century, one in 1624, the other in 1692. The city grew as the population did, coming up against the lake's waters. As the depth of the lake water fluctuated, Mexico City was subject to periodic flooding. A major labor draft, the desagüe , compelled thousands of indigenous over
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