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148-553: The unit name usage by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) includes Marcellus Shale and Marcellus Formation . The term "Marcellus Shale" is the preferred name throughout most of the Appalachian region, although the term "Marcellus Formation" is also acceptable within the State of Pennsylvania. The unit was first described and named as the "Marcellus shales" by J. Hall in 1839. The Marcellus consists predominantly of black shale and

296-479: A Northwest Passage . Though this expedition was unsuccessful, it established the name " New France " for northeastern North America. After a few expeditions, France mostly abandoned North America for 50 years because of its financial crisis; France was involved in the Italian Wars and there were religious wars between Protestants and Catholics . Around 1580 however, the rise of the fur trade (particularly

444-596: A transgressive black shale, because it was deposited in deepening conditions when the basin floor dropped as the mountains rose up. The dark shale facies of the Marcellus were formed from flysch , a fine mud deposited in deep water; the deepening sea that deposited the Marcellus cut off the supply of carbonates that form limestone and the fine-grained flysch sediments buried the Onondaga limestone beds. Organic matter, probably dominated by plankton , also settled to

592-474: A few limestone beds and concentrations of iron pyrite  ( Fe S 2 ) and siderite  (Fe CO 3 ). Like most shales, it tends to split easily along the bedding plane, a property known as fissility . Lighter colored shales in the upper portion of the formation tend to split into small thin-edged fragments after exposure. These fragments may have rust stains from exposure of pyrite to air, and tiny gypsum  ( Ca SO 4 ·2 H 2 O ) crystals from

740-414: A hard, fissile, metamorphic rock known as slate . With continued increase in metamorphic grade the sequence is phyllite , then schist and finally gneiss . Shale is the most common source rock for hydrocarbons ( natural gas and petroleum ). The lack of coarse sediments in most shale beds reflects the absence of strong currents in the waters of the depositional basin. These might have oxygenated

888-545: A high-risk area for radon as an indoor air pollutant . From the surface exposures along the northern and eastern margins, the formation descends to depths of over 2,700 m (8,900 ft) below the surface in southern Pennsylvania. Upturned beds are exposed in sections of the folded Ridge-and-Valley Appalachians , including exposures on the flanks and axis of the Broad Top Synclinorium in south central Pennsylvania. Exposed beds are nearly horizontal on

1036-725: A hotbed for the illegal smuggling of liquor and the biggest supplier into the United States, which was under complete prohibition . Prohibition in Ontario came to an end in 1927 with the establishment of the Liquor Control Board of Ontario under the government of Howard Ferguson . The sale and consumption of liquor, wine, and beer are still controlled by some of the most extreme laws in North America to ensure strict community standards and revenue generation from

1184-447: A land area of 892,411.76 km (344,562.11 sq mi), it had a population density of 15.9/km (41.3/sq mi) in 2021. The largest population centres in Ontario are Toronto , Ottawa , Hamilton , Kitchener , London and Oshawa , which all have more than 300,000 inhabitants. The percentages given below add to more than 100 per cent because of dual responses (e.g., "French and Canadian" response generates an entry both in

1332-584: A lighter shade of gray. Outcrops of the Marcellus can contain very small beds that resemble coal . The New York outcrops, and others further south in Pennsylvania and New Jersey, were extensively excavated in the early 19th century, sometimes at great expense, in the false hope of finding minable coal seams . In Perry County, Pennsylvania along the Juniata River the false coal beds become up to .3 m (1 ft) thick, but they did not produce

1480-470: A relatively deep, sediment- and oxygen-starved ( anoxic ), trough that formed parallel to the mountain chain. These clastic fragments of rock were carried in braided streams to the ancient Catskill Delta , a river delta probably similar to the present day Niger Delta of Africa. Smaller particles remained suspended longer in this epeiric sea , flowing offshore as turbidites in a slow but persistent underwater avalanche. They finally came to rest at

1628-428: A relatively high proportion of carbon which was burned in the furnace, and sulfur , which produced a usable but " red-short " iron. Red-short iron has the undesirable properties of oxidizing more easily, and a tendency to crack, especially when heated to a red-hot state. In some locations in Pennsylvania the quality of the ore was quite good, with relatively deep veins containing 45% iron, and very low sulfur. In Virginia,

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1776-626: A result, for the first time, the English-speaking population of Canada West surpassed the French-speaking population of Canada East , tilting the representative balance of power. In 1849, the districts of southern Ontario were abolished by the Province of Canada , and county governments took over certain municipal responsibilities. The Province of Canada also began creating districts in sparsely populated Northern Ontario with

1924-463: A valuable fuel, despite the considerable effort expended to mine it from the surrounding hills. Seaweed and marine plants probably formed the false coal. True coal is formed from terrestrial plants, which only began to appear in Marcellus and later fossils. Close proximity to the surface of Marcellus bedrock south of the New York outcrops makes an east–west band running through the city of Syracuse

2072-528: Is 240 m (790 ft) thick, thinning to the west, becoming only 15 m (49 ft) thick along the Ohio River , and only a few feet in Licking County, Ohio . The thinning, or stratigraphic convergence, from east to west is caused by decreasing grain size in the clastic deposits, which entered the basin from the east. The beds finally "pinch out" westward because deposition was limited by

2220-538: Is English, although there exists a number of French-speaking communities across Ontario . French-language services are made available for communities with a sizeable French-speaking population; a service that is ensured under the French Language Services Act of 1989. In the 2021 census , Ontario had a population of 14,223,942 living in 5,491,201 of its 5,929,250 total dwellings, a 5.8 percent change from its 2016 population of 13,448,494. With

2368-1201: Is accompanied by telogenesis , the third and final stage of diagenesis. As erosion reduces the depth of burial, renewed exposure to meteoric water produces additional changes to the shale, such as dissolution of some of the cement to produce secondary porosity . Pyrite may be oxidized to produce gypsum . Black shales are dark, as a result of being especially rich in unoxidized carbon . Common in some Paleozoic and Mesozoic strata , black shales were deposited in anoxic , reducing environments, such as in stagnant water columns. Some black shales contain abundant heavy metals such as molybdenum , uranium , vanadium , and zinc . The enriched values are of controversial origin, having been alternatively attributed to input from hydrothermal fluids during or after sedimentation or to slow accumulation from sea water over long periods of sedimentation. Fossils , animal tracks or burrows and even raindrop impressions are sometimes preserved on shale bedding surfaces. Shales may also contain concretions consisting of pyrite, apatite , or various carbonate minerals. Shales that are subject to heat and pressure of metamorphism alter into

2516-625: Is attributed to relatively short-term oscillations in basin depth. Later deep water depositional sequences formed the overlying Brallier Formation and Harrell Formation . The shale contains largely untapped natural gas reserves, and its proximity to the high-demand markets along the East Coast of the United States makes it an attractive target for energy development and export . The Marcellus natural gas trend, which encompasses 104,000 square miles and stretches across Pennsylvania and West Virginia, and into southeast Ohio and upstate New York,

2664-410: Is bordered by the province of Manitoba to the west, Hudson Bay and James Bay to the north, and Quebec to the east and northeast. To the south, it is bordered by the U.S. states of (from west to east) Minnesota , Michigan , Ohio , Pennsylvania , and New York . Almost all of Ontario's 2,700 km (1,700 mi) border with the United States follows rivers and lakes: from the westerly Lake of

2812-420: Is characterized by its tendency to split into thin layers ( laminae ) less than one centimeter in thickness. This property is called fissility . Shale is the most common sedimentary rock. The term shale is sometimes applied more broadly, as essentially a synonym for mudrock , rather than in the narrower sense of clay-rich fissile mudrock. Shale typically exhibits varying degrees of fissility. Because of

2960-429: Is classified as humid continental. Ontario has three main climatic regions: In the northeastern parts of Ontario, extending south as far as Kirkland Lake , the cold waters of Hudson Bay depress summer temperatures, making it cooler than other locations at similar latitudes. The same is true on the northern shore of Lake Superior , which cools hot, humid air from the south, leading to cooler summer temperatures. Along

3108-685: Is classified as the basal unit of the Hamilton Group  (Dh), lying beneath the Mahantango Formation  (Dmh) member of this group in Pennsylvania and Maryland. In New York, the Mahantango, also of Middle Devonian age, is further divided. There the Marcellus is separated from the overlying Skaneateles Formation, a more clastic and fossiliferous dark shale, by the thin Stafford or Mottville Limestone bed. In West Virginia,

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3256-638: Is composed of about 58% clay minerals, 28% quartz, 6% feldspar , 5% carbonate minerals, and 2% iron oxides . Most of the quartz is detrital (part of the original sediments that formed the shale) rather than authigenic (crystallized within the shale after deposition). Shales and other mudrocks contain roughly 95 percent of the organic matter in all sedimentary rocks. However, this amounts to less than one percent by mass in an average shale. Black shales, which form in anoxic conditions, contain reduced free carbon along with ferrous iron (Fe ) and sulfur (S ). Amorphous iron sulfide , along with carbon, produce

3404-430: Is evidence that shale acts as a semipermeable medium, allowing water to pass through while retaining dissolved salts. The fine particles that compose shale can remain suspended in water long after the larger particles of sand have been deposited. As a result, shales are typically deposited in very slow moving water and are often found in lakes and lagoonal deposits, in river deltas , on floodplains and offshore below

3552-455: Is more likely to form nonfissile mudstone than shale. On the other hand, black shales often have very pronounced fissility ( paper shales ) due to binding of hydrocarbon molecules to the faces of the clay particles, which weakens the binding between particles. Lithification follows closely on compaction, as increased temperatures at depth hasten deposition of cement that binds the grains together. Pressure solution contributes to cementing, as

3700-452: Is reduced. In addition to this physical compaction, chemical compaction may take place via pressure solution . Points of contact between grains are under the greatest strain, and the strained mineral is more soluble than the rest of the grain. As a result, the contact points are dissolved away, allowing the grains to come into closer contact. It is during compaction that shale develops its fissility, likely through mechanical compaction of

3848-586: Is the largest source of natural gas in the United States, and production was still growing rapidly in 2013. The Marcellus is an example of shale gas , natural gas trapped in low-permeability shale, and requires the well completion method of hydraulic fracturing to allow the gas to flow to the well bore. The surge in drilling activity in the Marcellus Shale since 2008 has generated both economic benefits and environmental concerns—and thus, considerable controversy. The black shales also contain iron ore that

3996-460: Is the southernmost extent of Canada's mainland. Pelee Island and Middle Island in Lake Erie extend slightly farther. All are south of 42°N  – slightly farther south than the northern border of California . Ontario's climate varies by season and location. Three air sources affect it: cold, dry, arctic air from the north (dominant factor during the winter months, and for a longer part of

4144-461: The 2021 Canadian census , it is home to 38.5 per cent of the country's population, and is the second-largest province by total area (after Quebec ). Ontario is Canada's fourth-largest jurisdiction in total area of all the Canadian provinces and territories. It is home to the nation's capital, Ottawa , and its most populous city, Toronto , which is Ontario's provincial capital. Ontario

4292-752: The American Revolution . The Kingdom of Great Britain granted them 200 acres (81 ha) land and other items with which to rebuild their lives. The British also set up reserves in Ontario for the Mohawks who had fought for the British and had lost their land in New York state. Other Iroquois, also displaced from New York were resettled in 1784 at the Six Nations reserve at the west end of Lake Ontario. The Mississaugas, displaced by European settlements, would later move to Six Nations also. After

4440-786: The Aquashicola Creek and McMichael Creek at the foot of The Poconos , and the long, straight section of the Lost River in West Virginia. Below Port Jervis, New York , the Walpack Ridge deflects the Delaware River into the Minisink Valley, where it follows the southwest strike of the eroded Marcellus beds along the Pennsylvania – New Jersey state line for 40 km (25 mi) to the end of

4588-811: The Canadian Pacific Railway (1875–1885) through Northern Ontario and the Canadian Prairies to British Columbia , Ontario manufacturing and industry flourished. However, population increases slowed after a large recession hit the province in 1893, thus slowing growth drastically but for only a few years. Many newly arrived immigrants and others moved west along the railway to the Prairie Provinces and British Columbia, sparsely settling Northern Ontario. The northern and western boundaries of Ontario were in dispute after Canadian Confederation . Ontario's right to Northwestern Ontario

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4736-596: The Cincinnati Arch , the bulge that formed the west shore of the basin. Where the formation is relatively thick, it is divided into several members, and as the formation continues to thicken to the east, these members are further divided. Some workers chose to classify the Marcellus as a subgroup, and classify some of the members as separate formations. Oatka Creek shale Cardiff dark gray shale A local Purcell limestone member, 15 to 30 m (49 to 98 ft) of inter-bedded calcitic shale and limestone, divides

4884-571: The French Canadians . Accordingly, the two colonies were merged into the Province of Canada by the Act of Union 1840 , with the capital initially at Kingston , and Upper Canada becoming known as Canada West . Responsible government was achieved in 1848. There were heavy waves of immigration in the 1840s, and the population of Canada West more than doubled by 1851 over the previous decade. As

5032-501: The Great Lakes . Hunting and gathering remained predominant throughout the early Woodland period , and social structures and trade continued to develop. Around 500 AD , corn cultivation began, later expanding to include beans and squash around 1100 AD. Increased agriculture enabled more permanent, fortified, and significantly larger settlements. In southern Ontario during the 1400s, the population of some villages numbered in

5180-699: The Hudson River , along the route of the Delaware and Hudson Canal . Stratigraphically , the Marcellus is the lowest unit of the Devonian age Hamilton Group, and is divided into several sub-units. In the first Pennsylvania Geological Survey , begun in 1836, Henry Darwin Rogers classified the Marcellus as the "Cadent Lower Black Slate" which he numbered "No. VIII b." In the first New York State Geological Survey , also begun that year, James Hall established

5328-532: The Iroquoian languages . Ontario has about 250,000 freshwater lakes. The first mention of the name Ontario was in 1641, when "Ontario" was used to describe the land on the north shore of the easternmost part of the Great Lakes. It was adopted as the official name of the new province at Confederation in 1867. The thinly populated Canadian Shield , which dominates the northwestern and central portions of

5476-607: The Jésuites and Supliciens , began to establish posts along the Great Lakes. The French allied with most Indigenous groups of Ontario, all for the fur trade and for defence against Iroquois attacks (which would later be called the Iroquois Wars ). The French would declare their Indigenous allies to be subjects of the King of France and would often act as mediators between different groups. The Iroquois later allied themselves with

5624-621: The Madawaska River in Renfrew County . The Carolinian forest zone covers most of the southwestern region of the province. The temperate and fertile Great Lakes-Saint Lawrence Valley in the south is part of the Eastern Great Lakes lowland forests ecoregion where the forest has now been largely replaced by agriculture, industrial and urban development. A well-known geographic feature is Niagara Falls , part of

5772-614: The Niagara Escarpment . The Saint Lawrence Seaway allows navigation to and from the Atlantic Ocean as far inland as Thunder Bay in Northwestern Ontario. Northern Ontario covers approximately 87% of the province's surface area; conversely, Southern Ontario contains 94% of the population. Point Pelee is a peninsula of Lake Erie in southwestern Ontario (near Windsor and Detroit, Michigan ) that

5920-399: The U.S. Gulf Coast . As sediments continue to accumulate, the older, more deeply buried sediments begin to undergo diagenesis . This mostly consists of compaction and lithification of the clay and silt particles. Early stages of diagenesis, described as eogenesis , take place at shallow depths (a few tens of meters) and are characterized by bioturbation and mineralogical changes in

6068-701: The War of 1812 invaded Upper Canada across the Niagara River and the Detroit River , but were defeated and pushed back by the British, Canadian fencibles and militias, and First Nations warriors. However, the Americans eventually gained control of Lake Erie and Lake Ontario. The 1813 Battle of York saw American troops defeat the garrison at the Upper Canada capital of York . The Americans looted

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6216-466: The benthic zone at the bottom of marginal marine to open marine environments that existed west of the ancient Catskill Delta . The fossil record in this member shows the base was dominated by deposit feeders , while the upper layers were dominated by filter feeders . This can be correlated to the lithology: the finer sediments of the shales at the base of this member would contain abundant adherent organic matter for deposit feeders, but would tend to foul

6364-651: The geological timescale , the Marcellus occurs in the Middle Devonian epoch, of the Devonian period , in the Paleozoic era , of the Phanerozoic eon . Radiometric dating of a Marcellus sample from Pennsylvania placed its age at 384 million years old, and a sample from the bentonite at the top of the Onondaga at 390 ± 0.5 million years old. Relative age dating of the Marcellus places its formation in

6512-606: The wave base . Thick deposits of shale are found near ancient continental margins and foreland basins . Some of the most widespread shale formations were deposited by epicontinental seas . Black shales are common in Cretaceous strata on the margins of the Atlantic Ocean , where they were deposited in fault -bounded silled basins associated with the opening of the Atlantic during the breakup of Pangaea . These basins were anoxic, in part because of restricted circulation in

6660-551: The "Prussians of Ontario". The regulation was eventually repealed in 1927. Influenced by events in the United States, the government of William Hearst introduced prohibition of alcoholic drinks in 1916 with the passing of the Ontario Temperance Act . However, residents could distil and retain their own personal supply, and liquor producers could continue distillation and export for sale, allowing this already sizeable industry to strengthen further. Ontario became

6808-711: The 1795 Jay Treaty . In 1788, while part of the province of Quebec, southern Ontario was divided into four districts : Hesse , Lunenburg , Mecklenburg , and Nassau . In 1792, the four districts were renamed: Hesse became the Western District, Lunenburg became the Eastern District, Mecklenburg became the Midland District, and Nassau became the Home District. Counties were created within the districts. The population of Canada west of

6956-469: The 1850s, between finely balanced political groups: conservative and reform groups from Canada West and Canada East aligned against reform and liberal groups from Canada East each group having some support from French-Canadian and English-Canadian legislators. There was also a fear of aggression from the United States during and immediately after the American Civil War . These factors led to

7104-688: The Allegheny Plateau, but upturned to form slightly overturned beds found along the Allegheny Front . From Wind Gap, Pennsylvania heading south, the dip of the beds steepens, becoming vertical at Bowmanstown on the Lehigh River . Nearby, in the Lehigh Gap area of Pennsylvania, the Marcellus is extensively faulted , and the beds are steeply overturned, with a reverse dip angle of up to 40° south. The Marcellus Shale and

7252-497: The American War of Independence, the first reserves for First Nations were established. These are situated at Six Nations (1784), Tyendinaga (1793) and Akwesasne (1795). Six Nations and Tyendinaga were established by the British for those Indigenous groups who had fought on the side of the British, and were expelled from the new United States. Akwesasne was a pre-existing Mohawk community and its borders were formalized under

7400-608: The Bell Shale, Rockport Quarry Limestone, and Arkona Shale of Ontario. The Union Springs is an organic-rich, pyritiferous, thinly bedded, blackish gray to black shale with mudstone concretionary layers, and thin silt bands at the bottom. To the east, it becomes the Bakoven Member, a darker, less organic shale with fewer limestone layers. To the west the Union Springs beds thin, with its upper limestones merging with

7548-681: The British. From 1634 to 1640, the Huron were devastated by European infectious diseases, such as measles and smallpox , to which they had no immunity. By 1700, the Iroquois had been driven out or left the area that would become Ontario and the Mississaugas of the Ojibwa had settled the north shore of Lake Ontario. The remaining Huron settled north of Quebec. During the French and Indian War ,

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7696-680: The Canadian Shield which traverses the province from northwest to southeast and also above the Niagara Escarpment which crosses the south. The highest point is Ishpatina Ridge at 693 metres (2,274 ft) above sea level in Temagami , Northeastern Ontario. In the south, elevations of over 500 m (1,640 ft) are surpassed near Collingwood, above the Blue Mountains in the Dundalk Highlands and in hilltops near

7844-740: The Cazenovia subdivision of the Givetian faunal stage , or 391.9 to 383.7 million years ago ( Ma ). The Union Springs member, at the base of the Marcellus in New York, has been dated to the end of the Eifelian , the stage which immediately preceded the Givetian. Anoxic dark shales in the formation mark the Kačák Event , a late- Eifelian - stage marine anoxic event also associated with an extinction event . In 2012, Read and Erikson also depicted

7992-725: The Cherry Valley Member, which is also known for its rich nautiloid and goniatite cephalopod fauna. Originally named the Goniatite Limestone , it produces their fossilized remains with shells that can be larger than .3 m (1 ft) across. It also contains the "Cephalopod Graveyard" in the Schoharie Valley of eastern New York, an unusual accumulation of abundant coiled and straight shells of several types of large adult cephalopods. This bed lacks juvenile fossils, indicating that if their behavior

8140-447: The Hamilton Group grades laterally into the Millboro Shale formation in southern West Virginia and Virginia, which grades into the lower part of the Chattanooga Shale of Tennessee . The Milboro is gradational with the underlying Needmore Formation shale. South of the Mason-Dixon line , due to the difficulty in differentiating the Millboro and Needmore shales with the limited exposures available, and initial uncertainty in correlation with

8288-405: The Lake Superior-Hudson Bay watershed, known as the District of Keewatin ) would become part of Ontario, a victory embodied in the Canada (Ontario Boundary) Act, 1889 . He also presided over the emergence of the province into the economic powerhouse of Canada. Mowat was the creator of what is often called Empire Ontario . Beginning with Macdonald's National Policy (1879) and the construction of

8436-461: The Mahantango Formation, or included in the Montebello Formation (Dmot), and only the Shamokin correlates with the Marcellus on adjacent map sheets. In extreme eastern Pennsylvania, the Broadhead Creek member, a dark gray silty shale with dark gray shaly limestone concretions, appears above the Stony Hollow and Union Springs, in a layer up to 275 m (902 ft) thick. There are relatively sparse inclusions of fossilized marine fauna found in

8584-479: The Marcellus and the overlying Hamilton shales are deep, free of stones, and well suited for agriculture . Sampling of soil formed on the Marcellus bedrock showed the dominant mineralogy consisted of quartz , illite , montmorillonite , muscovite , and biotite , with phases of todorokite and trona appearing at depths closer to the bedrock. Upturned beds of the soft shale also capture streams and rivers with relatively straight segments in strike valleys such as

8732-579: The Marcellus in eastern Pennsylvania. The Purcell is stratigraphically equivalent to the Cherry Valley Limestone member in New York, a bioclastic packstone , consisting of skeletal limestones, with shaly intervals between its lower massive limestone layer, thick nodular limestone/ marlstone , and upper limestone layer. Other named members include the Bakoven Shale, Cardiff Shale, Chittenango shale, Solsville sandstone, Union Springs shale and limestone, and Stony Hollow shale and limestone. The Union Springs, Cherry Valley, and Oatka Creek merge beneath Lake Erie, into

8880-415: The Marcellus is mapped with three members, from top to base: The Mahanoy Member (Dmm), a dark gray to grayish black silty shale and siltstone; the Turkey Ridge Member (Dmt), an olive to dark-gray fine to medium grained sandstone; and the Shamokin Member (Dms), a dark gray to grayish black fissile carbonaceous shale that is calcareous in places near the base. The Turkey Ridge is commonly mapped in

9028-418: The Marcellus may be separated from the brown shales of the Mahantango by occasional sandstone beds and concretions , or it may lie directly below the younger Late Devonian Harrel Formation (or its lateral equivalents) because of a disconformity , which represents a gap in the geological record due to a period of erosion or non-deposition. In eastern Ohio the Hamilton Group also lies disconformably beneath

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9176-418: The Marcellus ore occasionally contained zinc , which produced a characteristic green flame in the furnace as it was consumed, but deposited a hard mass of impure zinc oxide known as cadmia , which built up over time near the top of the flue, and had to be removed periodically to keep it unobstructed. Drainage that reacted with the pyrite inclusions also deposited a form of bog iron near several outcrops of

9324-435: The Marcellus overlies the Dundee Formation, a lateral equivalent of the Onondaga. In Pennsylvania, the Marcellus forms a sharp conformable contact with the Onondaga's Selinsgrove Limestone member. A thin pyrite-carbonate bed is also found at the base of the Marcellus black shale in the exposures of south central Pennsylvania, above a thin calcerous green shale bed, which lies upon the Onondaga limestone. In eastern New York,

9472-417: The Marcellus varied in thickness, becoming unworkably thin, and even disappearing altogether in places between the workable beds. The quality of the ore also varied, and it was not always profitable to smelt , as several furnaces built near iron ore mines in the Marcellus were abandoned before the ore and timber resources used to fuel them became scarce. Ore found interbedded in the black slaty shale contained

9620-412: The Marcellus, but these fossils are still important to paleontology. For example, the Marcellus contains the oldest known diverse collection of thin-shelled mollusks still having well preserved shell microstructure. It is also where goniatites , an extinct shelled swimmer similar to a squid, make their first appearance in the fossil record. Life on land also enters the fossil record in the Marcellus, with

9768-413: The Marcellus. In the 19th century, iron ore from these deposits was used as a mineral paint pigment. After being heated in a kiln and finely ground, it was mixed with linseed oil , and used to paint exterior wood on barns, covered bridges, and railroad cars. In addition to the bog iron, at several sloped locations in eastern Pennsylvania brown hematite was found lying on the Marcellus bedrock buried beneath

9916-696: The New York survey, they were mapped as the Romney Formation, a unit containing all the Middle Devonian strata, named for an exposure at Romney, West Virginia . The correlations were established by 1916 through tracing the New York exposures across Pennsylvania and Maryland into West Virginia, so under the principle of scientific priority , the Romney classification is now obsolete; but its Marcellus and underlying Needmore shale members are still found grouped in an undifferentiated map unit (Dmn). Tioga metabentonite or K- bentonite –stratigraphic unit about .6 m (2 ft) thick that consists of several discrete, relatively thin volcanic ash falls–is also included at

10064-415: The North American theatre of the Seven Years' War of 1754 to 1763, the British defeated the armies of New France and its Indigenous allies. In the Treaty of Paris 1763 France ceded most of its possessions in North America to Britain. Using the Quebec Act , Britain re-organised the territory into the Province of Quebec . In 1782–1784, 5,000 United Empire Loyalists entered what is now Ontario following

10212-414: The Onondaga suggests that its upper contact with the Marcellus can be erosional. In Erie County in western New York, both the upper and lower contact of the Marcellus are eroded away. In eastern West Virginia the Marcellus overlies the Onesquethaw Group, consisting of the dark gray or green, calcitic, mostly nonfissil Needmore Shale, which grades westward into the Huntersville Chert. To the south and west,

10360-573: The Pays-d'en-Haut was quite large and would today include the province of Ontario, as well as, in whole or in part, the American states of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania and New York. Indigenous peoples were the vast majority of the Pays d'en Haut population. As for Northern Ontario, the English explorer Henry Hudson sailed into Hudson Bay in 1611 and claimed its drainage basin for England. The area would become known as Rupert's Land . Samuel de Champlain reached Lake Huron in 1615, and French missionaries, such as

10508-438: The Rhinestreet Shale Member of the West Falls Formation , another transgressive black shale tongue with similar characteristics to the Marcellus. The Marcellus Shale is typically found deposited on the limestone of the Onondaga Formation  (Don), which extends down to the end of the Early Devonian period. The contact between them may be sharp, gradational, or erosional. In southwestern Ontario, Canada, north of Lake Erie ,

10656-646: The St. Lawrence-Ottawa River confluence substantially increased during this period, a fact recognized by the Constitutional Act of 1791 , which split Quebec into the Canadas : Upper Canada southwest of the St. Lawrence-Ottawa River confluence, and Lower Canada east of it. John Graves Simcoe was appointed Upper Canada's first Lieutenant governor in 1793. A second wave of Americans, not all of them necessarily loyalists moved to Upper Canada after 1790 until

10804-723: The Tioga middle coarse zone. Its basal beds are found within the uppermost beds of the Onondaga Limestone or Needmore Shale, and the uppermost ash bed within the lowermost part of the Marcellus or Millboro Shale. In western New York state, the Tioga Ash Bed B marks the boundary between the Moorehouse and Seneca Members of the Onondaga Formation, but in the central part of the state, and the southern part of

10952-594: The Woods , eastward along the major rivers and lakes of the Great Lakes / Saint Lawrence River drainage system. There is only about 1 km ( 5 ⁄ 8  mi) of actual land border, made up of portages including Height of Land Portage on the Minnesota border. The great majority of Ontario's population and arable land is in Southern Ontario , and while agriculture remains a significant industry,

11100-555: The alcohol retail monopoly are upheld. The post- World War II period was one of exceptional prosperity and growth. Ontario has been the recipients of most immigration to Canada, largely immigrants from war-torn Europe in the 1950s and 1960s and following changes in federal immigration law , a massive influx of non-Europeans since the 1970s. From a largely ethnically British province, Ontario has rapidly become culturally very diverse. The nationalist movement in Quebec, particularly after

11248-530: The ash into the atmosphere. It was dispersed across the Appalachian , Michigan , and Illinois Basins by the southern trade winds , because this area was in the southern hemisphere during the Devonian period. The volcanic origin of the ash is evidenced by its distinctive mineralogy –the ash was deposited directly upon the water, so its angular quartz grains differ from the clastic sediments rounded through

11396-505: The base of the Marcellus in eastern Pennsylvania. In 1843 it was described without being named by Hall, and more than 100 years passed before it was eventually named for the natural gas field in Tioga County, Pennsylvania , where it was encountered when drilling gas wells . It is a regional stratigraphic marker, used by geologists to identify the Marcellus, and correlate laterally equivalent strata. Difficulty in correctly identifying

11544-543: The basin, the ash beds are actually in the Marcellus. This indicates that deposition of the Marcellus there began earlier, since the ash beds represent a single epoch in geologic time. Maximum thickness of the Marcellus ranges from 270 m (890 ft) in New Jersey, to 12 m (40 ft) in Canada. In West Virginia, the Marcellus Shale is as much as 60 m (200 ft) thick. In extreme eastern Pennsylvania, it

11692-421: The black coloration. Because amorphous iron sulfide gradually converts to pyrite , which is not an important pigment, young shales may be quite dark from their iron sulfide content, in spite of a modest carbon content (less than 1%), while a black color in an ancient shale indicates a high carbon content. Most shales are marine in origin, and the groundwater in shale formations is often highly saline . There

11840-544: The bottom of the Acadian foredeep in the Appalachian Basin , hundreds of meters from shore, at depths that may have been 150 m (490 ft) or more beneath the surface. Alternatively, the basin may have been as shallow as 50 m (160 ft) or less, if the warm water was sufficiently stratified so that oxygen rich surface water did not mix with the anoxic bottom water. The Marcellus deposition produced

11988-493: The bottom, but the normal aerobic decay process was inhibited in the anaerobic environment thereby preserving the organic carbon. Uranium was also incorporated in these organic muds syndepositionally, meaning it was deposited at the same time, rather than being introduced to the formation later. The organic matter scavenged trace elements from the seawater, including the redox -sensitive elements uranium, rhenium , molybdenum , osmium , chromium , and selenium . The Marcellus

12136-474: The category " French Canadian " and in the category "Canadian"). The majority of Ontarians are of English or other European descent including large Scottish, Irish and Italian communities. Slightly less than 5 per cent of the population of Ontario is Franco-Ontarian , that is those whose native tongue is French, although those with French ancestry account for 11 per cent of the population. Compared to natural increase or interprovincial migration , immigration

12284-506: The clumps of clay particles produced by flocculation vary in size from a few tens of microns to over 700 microns in diameter. The floccules start out water-rich, but much of the water is expelled from the floccules as the clay minerals bind more tightly together over time (a process called syneresis ). Clay pelletization by organisms that filter feed is important where flocculation is inhibited. Filter feeders produce an estimated 12 metric tons of clay pellets per square kilometer per year along

12432-408: The color of the rock. Red, brown and green colors are indicative of ferric oxide ( hematite – reds), iron hydroxide ( goethite – browns and limonite – yellow), or micaceous minerals ( chlorite , biotite and illite – greens). The color shifts from reddish to greenish as iron in the oxidized ( ferric ) state is converted to iron in the reduced ( ferrous ) state. Black shale results from

12580-456: The contact between the Marcellus and Onondaga (where present) is gradational. In western New York, the Union Springs member of the Marcellus conformably overlies the Seneca member of the Onondaga Limestone, or the stratigraphically higher Cherry Valley Limestone member may rest directly and unconformably upon the Onondaga in the absence of the Union Springs shale. The local disappearance of units of

12728-467: The context of underground coal mining , shale was frequently referred to as slate well into the 20th century. Black shale associated with coal seams is called black metal. [REDACTED] Media related to Shale at Wikimedia Commons Ontario Ontario is the southernmost province of Canada . Located in Central Canada , Ontario is the country's most populous province . As of

12876-605: The demand for beaver pelts), reignited French interest. In 1608, Samuel de Champlain established France's first colonial settlement in New France, the Habitation de Québec (now Quebec City ), in the colony of Canada (now southern Quebec). Afterwards, French explorers continued to travel west, establishing new villages along the coasts of the Saint Lawrence River. French explorers, the first of which

13024-449: The east at a shallower angle also form the steep slopes on the east side of Warm Springs Ridge . The Marcellus is easily eroded , and is also found underlying low areas between some Appalachian ridges, forming linear valleys of moderate relief. These bedrock surfaces are typically covered with colluvium from erosion of stratigraphically higher and more erosion-resistant strata that form the surrounding higher ground. The soils formed from

13172-485: The eastern shores of Lake Superior and Lake Huron winter temperatures are slightly moderated but come with frequent heavy lake-effect snow squalls that increase seasonal snowfall totals to upwards of 3 m (10 ft) in some places. These regions have higher annual precipitation, in some places over 100 cm (39 in). Severe thunderstorms peak in summer. Windsor , in Southern (Southwestern) Ontario, has

13320-571: The election of the Parti Québécois in 1976, contributed to driving many businesses and English-speaking people out of Quebec to Ontario, and as a result, Toronto surpassed Montreal as the largest city and economic centre of Canada. Depressed economic conditions in the Maritime Provinces have also resulted in de-population of those provinces in the 20th century, with heavy migration into Ontario. Ontario's official language

13468-553: The erosion process that carries them to the sea. As the volcanic ash settled to the bottom, it was admixed with these terrigenous components, producing a distinctive lithology in the sedimentary rock. The Tioga may appear in the formation as a gray, brown, black, or olive bed, or parting, consisting of coarse crystal tuff or tuffaceous shale, thinly laminated, with sand-sized mica flakes. The Tioga ash bed zone consists of eight ash beds labeled according to their stratigraphic order from A (oldest) to H (youngest), and another bed known as

13616-505: The establishment of Algoma District and Nipissing District in 1858. An economic boom in the 1850s coincided with railway expansion across the province, further increasing the economic strength of Central Canada. With the repeal of the Corn Laws and a reciprocity agreement in place with the United States, various industries such as timber, mining, farming and alcohol distilling benefited tremendously. A political stalemate developed in

13764-465: The extreme north and northeast are mainly swampy and sparsely forested. Southern Ontario , which is further sub-divided into four sub-regions: Central Ontario (although not actually the province's geographic centre), Eastern Ontario , Golden Horseshoe and Southwestern Ontario (parts of which were formerly referred to as Western Ontario). Despite the rarity of mountainous terrain in the province, there are large areas of uplands, particularly within

13912-613: The fine-grained shales near the middle of the Mahantango Formation are classified by geologists as slope-formers . Marcellus and Mahantango shale beds dipping at 60° to 75° to the west form the west facing slopes of Tonoloway Ridge on the west flank of the Cacapon Mountain anticline in the Eastern Panhandle of West Virginia . On the eastern limb of this anticline, beds of these shales dipping to

14060-585: The first people to settle on the lands of Ontario, about 11,000 years ago, after crossing the Bering land bridge from Asia to North America between 25,000 to 50,000 years ago. During the Archaic period , which lasted from 8000-1000 BC , the population slowly increased, with a generally egalitarian hunter-gatherer society and a warmer climate. Trading routes also began emerging along the St. Lawrence River and around

14208-409: The formation as Eifelian. Although black shale is the dominant lithology , it also contains lighter shales and interbedded limestone layers due to sea level variation during its deposition almost 400  million years ago . The black shale was deposited in relatively deep water devoid of oxygen , and is only sparsely fossiliferous . Most fossils are contained in the limestone members, and

14356-533: The formation of the Great Coalition in the elected Legislative Assembly, which initiated a series of conferences in the 1860s to effect a broader federal union of all British North American colonies. The British North America Act took effect on July 1, 1867, establishing the Dominion of Canada, initially with the four provinces of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Quebec, and Ontario. The Province of Canada

14504-584: The fossil record in these layers provides important paleontological insights on faunal turnovers . Early in the Acadian orogeny , as the Acadian Mountains were rising up, the black and gray shales of the Hamilton Group began accumulating as erosion of the mountains deposited terrigenous sediments from the land into the sea. The Marcellus Shale was formed from the very first deposits in

14652-513: The gills of filter feeders when suspended; the coarser sediments of the sandstones at the top would have contained less organic matter to support deposit feeders. Below the Solsville, at the base of the Otsego in eastern New York, a coral bed is found; another coral bed can be seen at the top of the Marcellus near Berne, New York . A diverse, eel-like conodont fauna occurs in the limestone of

14800-793: The gray shale at the top of the Oatka Creek thickens gradually to the west, as well as the east, where it divides into the Cardiff member lying above the Chittenango member in central New York. Organic-rich, fissile, sooty black shales make up the Chittenango Member. At the base of the Chittenango, above the Bierne Member shale, lies the Halihan Hill Bed, a highly bioturbated bioclastic limestone. Further east,

14948-475: The harsh climate difficult, and some of those with the means eventually returned home or went south. However, population growth far exceeded emigration in the following decades. It was a mostly agrarian-based society, but canal projects and a new network of plank roads spurred greater trade within the colony and with the United States, thereby improving previously damaged relations over time. Meanwhile, Ontario's numerous waterways aided travel and transportation into

15096-554: The homogeneous Cardiff divides into the Bridgewater, Solsville, and Pecksport shale members, from base to top. The Bridgewater is a fissile dark silty shale with relatively rare fossils. A thin concretionary zone lies above, then the Solsville grades from a gray calcareous shale, to sandy siltstones and fine sandstones at the top, with the gray shale of the Pecksport shale and siltstone overlying it. In south central Pennsylvania,

15244-451: The interior and supplied water power for development. As the population increased, so did the industries and transportation networks, which in turn led to further development. By the end of the century, Ontario vied with Quebec as the nation's leader in terms of growth in population, industry, arts and communications. Unrest in the colony began to chafe against the aristocratic Family Compact who governed while benefiting economically from

15392-580: The lands of Ontario: the Algonquins , Mississaugas , Ojibway , Cree , Odawa , Pottowatomi , and Iroquois . In the 15th century, the Byzantine Empire fell , prompting Western Europeans to search for new sea routes to the Far East . Around 1522–1523, Giovanni da Verrazzano persuaded King Francis I of France to commission an expedition to find a western route to Cathay (China) via

15540-427: The late 19th century, leading to the rise of important mining centres in the northeast, such as Sudbury , Cobalt and Timmins . The province harnessed its water power to generate hydro-electric power and created the state-controlled Hydro-Electric Power Commission of Ontario, later Ontario Hydro . The availability of cheap electric power further facilitated the development of industry. The Ford Motor Company of Canada

15688-554: The location-based name for this, and many of the other group names he published based on exposures in New York, were adopted in the second Pennsylvania survey, and are now widely accepted. In the first New York survey, the Marcellus Shale was placed below the Hamilton Group at the base of the Erie division of the New York system, but this taxonomy is obsolete. In current practice, the Marcellus Shale ;(abbr. Dm or Dms)

15836-592: The mineral dissolved from strained contact points is redeposited in the unstrained pore spaces. The clay minerals may be altered as well. For example, smectite is altered to illite at temperatures of about 55 to 200 °C (130 to 390 °F), releasing water in the process. Other alteration reactions include the alteration of smectite to chlorite and of kaolinite to illite at temperatures between 120 and 150 °C (250 and 300 °F). Because of these reactions, illite composes 80% of Precambrian shales, versus about 25% of young shales. Unroofing of buried shale

15984-449: The more than 80 different ash falls during the Devonian period, collected in 15 or more beds, has also led to many miscorrelations. From Virginia to New York the Tioga is widely distributed, running across the central and northern parts of the Appalachian basin, an areal extent exceeding 265,000 km (102,000 sq mi). Explosive eruptions associated with the Acadian orogeny originating near present-day central Virginia released

16132-525: The most lightning strikes per year in Canada, averaging 33 days of thunderstorm activity per year. In a typical year, Ontario averages 11 confirmed tornado touchdowns. Ontario had a record 29 tornadoes in both 2006 and 2009. Tropical depression remnants occasionally bring heavy rains and winds in the south, but are rarely deadly. A notable exception was Hurricane Hazel which struck Southern Ontario centred on Toronto, in October 1954. Paleo-Indians were

16280-433: The narrow Atlantic, and in part because the very warm Cretaceous seas lacked the circulation of cold bottom water that oxygenates the deep oceans today. Most clay must be deposited as aggregates and floccules, since the settling rate of individual clay particles is extremely slow. Flocculation is very rapid once the clay encounters highly saline sea water. Whereas individual clay particles are less than 4 microns in size,

16428-512: The new areas in which it was interested were rapidly growing. After the federal government asked Ontario to pay for construction in the new disputed area, the province asked for an elaboration on its limits, and its boundary was moved north to the 51st parallel north . Once constituted as a province, Ontario proceeded to assert its economic and legislative power. In 1872, the lawyer Oliver Mowat became Premier of Ontario and remained as premier until 1896. He fought for provincial rights, weakening

16576-470: The northern margin of the formation in central New York. There, the two joint planes in the Marcellus are nearly at right angles, each making cracks in the formation that run perpendicular to the bedding plane, which lies almost level. These joints form smooth nearly vertical cliffs , and the intersecting joint planes form projecting corners in the rock faces. Once exposed, the weathered faces lose most of their organic carbon, turning from black or dark gray to

16724-806: The organic-rich deposits. The Marcellus also contains uranium , and the radioactive decay of the uranium-238  (U) makes it a source rock for radioactive radon gas (Rn). Measured total organic content of the Marcellus ranges from less than 1% in eastern New York, to over 11% in the central part of the state, and the shale may contain enough carbon to support combustion . The more organic-rich black shales can be bituminous , but are too old to contain bituminous coal formed from land plants. In petroleum geology , these black shales are an important source rock that filled conventional petroleum reservoirs in overlying formations, are an unconventional shale gas reservoir, and are an impermeable seal that traps underlying conventional natural gas reservoirs. To

16872-415: The original open framework of clay particles. The particles become strongly oriented into parallel layers that give the shale its distinctive fabric. Fissility likely develops early in the compaction process, at relatively shallow depth, since fissility does not seem to vary with depth in thick formations. Kaolinite flakes have less tendency to align in parallel layers than other clays, so kaolinite-rich clay

17020-409: The overlying calcareous Cherry Valley Member. A regional unconformity appears in western New York, as the Union Springs lenses in and out, and then reappears in northwest Pennsylvania and northeast Ohio between the Onondaga and Cherry Valley. In Western and central New York, the uppermost member is the dark grey to black organic-rich Oatka Creek shale. Unlike the other Devonian shales in this region,

17168-631: The parallel orientation of clay mineral flakes in shale, it breaks into thin layers, often splintery and usually parallel to the otherwise indistinguishable bedding planes . Non-fissile rocks of similar composition and particle size (less than 0.0625 mm) are described as mudstones (1/3 to 2/3 silt particles) or claystones (less than 1/3 silt). Rocks with similar particle sizes but with less clay (greater than 2/3 silt) and therefore grittier are siltstones . Shales are typically gray in color and are composed of clay minerals and quartz grains. The addition of variable amounts of minor constituents alters

17316-649: The period between the American Revolution and the American Civil War . These blast furnaces were important to the economy of the region at the time, but the cold blast stone furnaces typically employed were inefficient, and consumed significant amounts of timber from the nearby hardwood forests, which ultimately led to their demise. A typical furnace used 2,400 kg (5,300 lb) of hematite ore and 7.3 m (200 imp bu) of charcoal to produce 910 kg (2,010 lb) of pig iron, and could produce several thousand pounds per day, which required logging more than 4,000 m (1 acre) of forest daily. The ore from

17464-743: The power of the federal government in provincial matters, usually through well-argued appeals to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. His battles with the federal government greatly decentralized Canada, giving the provinces far more power than John A. Macdonald had intended. He consolidated and expanded Ontario's educational and provincial institutions, created districts in Northern Ontario, and fought to ensure that those parts of Northwestern Ontario not historically part of Upper Canada (the vast areas north and west of

17612-609: The pre-war of 1812, many seeking available cheap land, and at the time, lower taxation. By 1798, there were eight districts: Eastern, Home, Johnstown , London , Midland, Newcastle , Niagara , and Western. By 1826, there were eleven districts: Bathurst , Eastern, Gore , Home, Johnstown, London, Midland, Newcastle, Niagara, Ottawa , and Western. By 1838, there were twenty districts: Bathurst, Brock, Colbourne, Dalhousie , Eastern, Gore, Home, Huron, Johnstown, London, Midland, Newcastle, Niagara, Ottawa, Prince Edward, Simcoe , Talbot, Victoria, Wellington , and Western. American troops in

17760-817: The presence of greater than one percent carbonaceous material and indicates a reducing environment. Pale blue to blue-green shales typically are rich in carbonate minerals . Clays are the major constituent of shales and other mudrocks. The clay minerals represented are largely kaolinite , montmorillonite and illite. Clay minerals of Late Tertiary mudstones are expandable smectites , whereas in older rocks (especially in mid-to early Paleozoic shales) illites predominate. The transformation of smectite to illite produces silica , sodium , calcium , magnesium , iron and water. These released elements form authigenic quartz , chert , calcite , dolomite , ankerite , hematite and albite , all trace to minor (except quartz) minerals found in shales and other mudrocks. A typical shale

17908-463: The province, comprises over half the land area of Ontario. Although this area mostly does not support agriculture, it is rich in minerals , partly covered by the Central and Midwestern Canadian Shield forests , and studded with lakes and rivers. Northern Ontario is subdivided into two sub-regions: Northwestern Ontario and Northeastern Ontario . The virtually unpopulated Hudson Bay Lowlands in

18056-482: The pyrite-carbonate was converted to a usable brown hematite iron ore along the outcrops and near the bedrock surface. The Marcellus iron ore was actively mined in south Central Pennsylvania from its discovery in the late 18th century, until it was supplanted by the rich ore beds of the Iron Range of Minnesota in the early 20th century. The ore was easily located and worked from shallow pits and shafts, but once

18204-451: The reaction between pyrite and limestone particles. Fresh exposures of the pyriteiferous shale may develop the secondary mineralization of orange limonite  (Fe O ( OH )·nH 2 O), and the pale yellow efflorescence or bloom of sulfur , associated with acid rock drainage . Pyrite is especially abundant near the base, and the upper contacts of limestones, but framboidal microcrystals and euhedral crystals of pyrite occur throughout

18352-541: The rebellion was quickly a failure. William Lyon Mackenzie escaped to the United States , where he declared the Republic of Canada on Navy Island on the Niagara River . Although both rebellions were put down in short order, the British government sent Lord Durham to investigate the causes. He recommended responsible government be granted, and Lower and Upper Canada be re-joined in an attempt to assimilate

18500-444: The region's economy depends highly on manufacturing . In contrast, Northern Ontario is sparsely populated with cold winters and heavy forestation, with mining and forestry making up the region's major industries. Ontario is a term thought to be derived from Indigenous origins, either Ontarí:io , a Huron ( Wyandot ) word meaning "great lake", or possibly skanadario , which means "beautiful water" or "sparkling water" in

18648-560: The region's resources, and who did not allow elected bodies power. This resentment spurred republican ideals and sowed the seeds for early Canadian nationalism . Accordingly, rebellion in favour of responsible government rose in both regions; Louis-Joseph Papineau led the Lower Canada Rebellion and William Lyon Mackenzie , first Toronto mayor , led the Upper Canada Rebellion . In Upper Canada ,

18796-444: The richest source rocks may contain as much as 40% organic matter. The organic matter in shale is converted over time from the original proteins, polysaccharides , lipids , and other organic molecules to kerogen , which at the higher temperatures found at greater depths of burial is further converted to graphite and petroleum. Before the mid-19th century, the terms slate , shale and schist were not sharply distinguished. In

18944-562: The ridge at Walpack Bend in the Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area . The Minisink is a buried valley where the Delaware flows in a bed of glacial till that buried the eroded Marcellus bedrock during the last glacial period . This buried valley continues along the strike of the Marcellus southwest from the bend through Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania , and northeast from Port Jervis toward

19092-433: The sediments, with only slight compaction. Pyrite may be formed in anoxic mud at this stage of diagenesis. Deeper burial is accompanied by mesogenesis , during which most of the compaction and lithification takes place. As the sediments come under increasing pressure from overlying sediments, sediment grains move into more compact arrangements, ductile grains (such as clay mineral grains) are deformed, and pore space

19240-556: The shale. Small conical tentaculitids are commonly found in the Chittenango Member. The Halihan Hill bed contains styliolinids and macrofauna including brachiopods, coral-like bryozoans , small bivalves and gastropods (snails), incorporated after the faunal turnover when Emsian and Eifelian Schoharie/Onondaga fauna were replaced by the Givetian Hamilton fauna. The Solsville member contains well preserved bivalves, gastropods, and brachiopods. These shellfish lived in

19388-571: The soil. These deposits were also excavated and used for mineral paint during that time. A bed of hematite paint ore is also found almost directly below the Marcellus, but it is actually part of the underlying Oriskany Formation. Black shale Shale is a fine-grained, clastic sedimentary rock formed from mud that is a mix of flakes of clay minerals (hydrous aluminium phyllosilicates, e.g., kaolin , Al 2 Si 2 O 5 ( OH ) 4 ) and tiny fragments ( silt -sized particles) of other minerals, especially quartz and calcite . Shale

19536-458: The state line into extreme western Virginia . The Marcellus bedrock in eastern Pennsylvania extends across the Delaware River into extreme western New Jersey . It also exists in the subsurface of a small portion of Kentucky and Tennessee . Below Lake Erie , it can be found crossing the border into Canada , where it stretches between Port Stanley and Long Point to St. Thomas in southern Ontario . The Marcellus appears in outcrops along

19684-498: The term "Marcellus Shale" in his 1839 report titled " Marcellus Shales in Seneca County. " Professor Hall also argued in 1839 against formulating geological names based on observed characteristics that may vary from place to place or need revision in the future, and in favor of location-based nomenclature where "the rock or group will receive its name from the place where it is best developed." His arguments proved persuasive, and

19832-546: The thousands, with longhouses that could house over a hundred people. Around this time, large-scale warfare began in southern Ontario, leading to the emergence of Iroquoian groups, including the Neutral Confederacy , Erie and Wendat (Huron). Groups in northern Ontario were primarily Algonquian and included the Ojibwe , who traded with the Iroquois. Many ethnocultural groups emerged and came to exist on

19980-731: The town and burned the Upper Canada Parliament Buildings during their brief occupation. The British would burn the American capital of Washington, D.C. in 1814. After the War of 1812, relative stability allowed for increasing numbers of immigrants to arrive from Europe rather than from the United States. As was the case in the previous decades, this immigration shift was encouraged by the colonial leaders. Despite affordable and often free land, many arriving newcomers, mostly from Britain and Ireland, found frontier life with

20128-423: The trunks of branchless conifer trees that floated out to sea to be preserved in the black shale. Marcellus fossils include specimens of the large clam-like brachiopod Spinocyrtia. External molds of crinoids , plant-like animals related to starfish also known as "sea lilies," are found in the formation, with the molds partially filled with limonite ; brachiopod and bivalve (clam) molds have also been found in

20276-450: The usable upper deposits were removed, or if a mine shaft entered the bed too far below the surface, only unusable unconverted pyritic deposits were found. Hematite ore was converted to pig iron in charcoal -fired stone blast furnaces that were constructed throughout the Juniata River region near the workable ore deposits from the Marcellus and other formations. Iron products from this area, known as "Juniata Iron," were produced during

20424-414: The waters and destroyed organic matter before it could accumulate. The absence of carbonate rock in shale beds reflects the absence of organisms that might have secreted carbonate skeletons, also likely due to an anoxic environment. As a result, about 95% of organic matter in sedimentary rocks is found in shales and other mudrocks. Individual shale beds typically have an organic matter content of about 1%, but

20572-665: The west the formation may produce liquid petroleum ; further north heating during deeper burial more than 240 million years ago cracked this oil into gas. The Marcellus is found throughout the Allegheny Plateau region of the northern Appalachian Basin of North America. In the United States, the Marcellus Shale runs across the Southern Tier and Finger Lakes regions of New York , in northern and western Pennsylvania , eastern Ohio , through western Maryland , and throughout most of West Virginia extending across

20720-516: The year in far northern Ontario); Pacific polar air crossing in from the western Canadian Prairies/US Northern Plains ; and warm, moist air from the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean. The effects of these major air masses on temperature and precipitation depend mainly on latitude, proximity to major bodies of water and to a small extent, terrain relief. In general, most of Ontario's climate

20868-582: Was Étienne Brûlé who explored the Georgian Bay area in 1610–1612, mapped Southern Ontario and called the region the Pays d'en Haut ("Upper Country"), in reference to the region being upstream of the Saint Lawrence River. The colony of the Pays d'en Haut was formally established in 1610 as an administrative dependency of Canada, and was for defence and business rather than a settlement colony. The territory of

21016-437: Was deposited during the development of land plants , when atmospheric oxygen was increasing, resulting in a reduction of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, and the seawater where it was deposited. Named members of the Marcellus reflect two composite depositional sequences, with a general coarsening upward cycle that continues into the base of the overlying Mahantango Formation. The interbedding of lighter shale and limestone members

21164-693: Was determined by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in 1884 and confirmed by the Canada (Ontario Boundary) Act, 1889 of the Parliament of the United Kingdom . By 1899, there were seven northern districts: Algoma, Manitoulin, Muskoka, Nipissing, Parry Sound, Rainy River, and Thunder Bay. Four more northern districts were created between 1907 and 1912: Cochrane, Kenora, Sudbury and Timiskaming. Mineral exploitation accelerated in

21312-616: Was divided into Ontario and Quebec so that each linguistic group would have its own province. Both Quebec and Ontario were required by section 93 of the British North America Act to safeguard existing educational rights and privileges of the Protestant and Catholic minorities. Thus, separate Catholic schools and school boards were permitted in Ontario. However, neither province had a constitutional requirement to protect its French- or English-speaking minority. Toronto

21460-647: Was established in 1904 and the McLaughlin Motor Car Company (later General Motors Canada ) was founded in 1907. The motor vehicle industry became the most lucrative industry for the Ontario economy during the 20th century. In July 1912, the Conservative government of James Whitney issued Regulation 17 which severely limited the availability of French-language schooling to the province's French-speaking minority. French Canadians reacted with outrage, journalist Henri Bourassa denouncing

21608-512: Was formally established as Ontario's provincial capital. The borders of Ontario, its new name in 1867, were provisionally expanded north and west. When the Province of Canada was formed, its borders were not entirely clear, and Ontario claimed eventually to reach all the way to the Rocky Mountains and Arctic Ocean . With Canada's acquisition of Rupert's Land, Ontario was interested in clearly defining its borders, especially since some of

21756-592: Was similar to modern squid, this may have been an area where these Devonian cephalopods reproduced and died. This stratigraphic interval also provides an excellent example of incursion epiboles , which are sudden appearances and disappearances of fossil taxa in relatively thin sections of the rock unit. In the Cherry Valley, the taxa do not reoccur; instead each thin concretionary limestone bed contains different species of goniatites. The Cherry Valley and Union Springs also contain well-preserved anarcestida . On

21904-410: Was used in the early economic development of the region, and uranium and pyrite which are environmental hazards. At the base of the Marcellus, in the pyrite - carbonate bed between the carbonaceous black shale and a green calcareous shale bed, pyrite, carbonate, and groundwater reacted to form gossan iron oxide and gypsum . As far as the ground water necessary for the conversion could penetrate,

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