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42-762: The Maracaibo basin is surrounded by two mountain ranges, the Méridas Andes to the southeast and the Sierra de Perija to the west, with the Gulf of Venezuela to the north. The basin lies within a region of deformation created by the interactions of the Caribbean and South American Plate boundaries. These interactions include the collision of the Caribbean Plate with the South American Plate in

84-414: A common thermoplastic material. Addition reactions apply to alkenes and alkynes. It is because they add reagents that they are called unsaturated. In this reaction a variety of reagents add "across" the pi-bond(s). Chlorine, hydrogen chloride, water , and hydrogen are illustrative reagents. Polymerization is a form of addition. Alkenes and some alkynes also undergo polymerization by opening of

126-426: A double bond between carbon atoms are sometimes referred to as 'olefins'. The predominant use of hydrocarbons is as a combustible fuel source. Methane is the predominant component of natural gas. C through C alkanes, alkenes, cycloalkanes, and aromatic hydrocarbons are the main components of gasoline , naphtha , jet fuel , and specialized industrial solvent mixtures. With the progressive addition of carbon units,

168-760: A hot spot in the Colombian conflict serving as home to parts of two FARC blocs called the Caribbean Bloc of the FARC-EP and the Middle Magdalena Bloc of the FARC-EP . , and an ELN guerrilla column, that have also strayed into Venezuelan territory. Hydrocarbon In organic chemistry , a hydrocarbon is an organic compound consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon . Hydrocarbons are examples of group 14 hydrides . Hydrocarbons are generally colourless and hydrophobic ; their odor

210-613: A normal fault during a Mesozoic rifting phase and was subsequently reactivated as a strike slip fault during the late Paleocene. There is a record of 7.5-18 km of fault offset. The basin records 3 km of Eocene sediment fill in a depocenter located in the northern part of the basin. Extension in the Icotea basin is estimated to be between 0.8-2.25 km. Since the Oligocene, basin extension, strike slip motion and basin fill has ceased and inversion has progressed in consequence to continued uplift of

252-529: A single C–C bond it is alkane metathesis , for a double C–C bond it is alkene metathesis (olefin metathesis), and for a triple C–C bond it is alkyne metathesis . The vast majority of hydrocarbons found on Earth occur in crude oil , petroleum, coal , and natural gas. Since thousands of years they have been exploited and used for a vast range of purposes. Petroleum ( lit.   ' rock oil ' ) and coal are generally thought to be products of decomposition of organic matter. Coal, in contrast to petroleum,

294-468: A two neutral radical atoms ( homolytic fission ). all the way to CCl 4 ( carbon tetrachloride ) all the way to C 2 Cl 6 ( hexachloroethane ) Aromatic compounds, almost uniquely for hydrocarbons, undergo substitution reactions. The chemical process practiced on the largest scale is the reaction of benzene and ethene to give ethylbenzene : The resulting ethylbenzene is dehydrogenated to styrene and then polymerized to manufacture polystyrene ,

336-591: Is Cerro de Las Tetas at 3630 meters, followed by Cerro Irapa at 3540 m., Serranía de Macuira at 864 m., and Cerro Aceite at 853 m. The range is 58% in Venezuela, and 42% in Colombia . Venezuela has set aside a substantial part of the central part of the range as a national park ( Sierra de Perijá National Park ), and Colombia has a smaller one. In the Venezuelan portion there are Amerindian reservations for

378-605: Is a mountain range, an extension of the eastern Andean branch ( Cordillera Oriental ), in northern South America, between Colombia and Venezuela , ending further north in the Guajira Desert , a total distance of about 310 kilometres (190 mi). It separates the Maracaibo Basin from the Cesar-Ranchería Basin . Some of the area has been considered as a Flora and Fauna Sanctuary. Starting at

420-696: Is also potential to harvest hydrocarbons from plants like Euphorbia lathyris and E. tirucalli as an alternative and renewable energy source for vehicles that use diesel. Furthermore, endophytic bacteria from plants that naturally produce hydrocarbons have been used in hydrocarbon degradation in attempts to deplete hydrocarbon concentration in polluted soils. Saturated hydrocarbons are notable for their inertness. Unsaturated hydrocarbons (alkanes, alkenes and aromatic compounds) react more readily, by means of substitution, addition, polymerization. At higher temperatures they undergo dehydrogenation, oxidation and combustion. The cracking of saturated hydrocarbons

462-538: Is an abrupt change in sediment type of the late Cretaceous made evident by the thickly deposited, pelagic shale of the Colon formation. This represents the beginnings of the Caribbean arc collision with the South American plate. As the collision continued, this region shifted from the passive margin stage to the foreland basin stage. These Paleogene sediments are characterized by fluvial and deltaic facies and make up

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504-400: Is called autoxidation , begins with the formation of hydroperoxides (ROOH). Combustion of hydrocarbons is currently the main source of the world's energy for electric power generation , heating (such as home heating), and transportation. Often this energy is used directly as heat such as in home heaters, which use either petroleum or natural gas . The hydrocarbon is burnt and the heat

546-482: Is estimated at more than 58 million metric tons, which will increase to 60 million tons in 2022. Hydrocarbons are also prevalent in nature. Some eusocial arthropods, such as the Brazilian stingless bee, Schwarziana quadripunctata , use unique cuticular hydrocarbon "scents" in order to determine kin from non-kin. This hydrocarbon composition varies between age, sex, nest location, and hierarchal position. There

588-463: Is richer in carbon and poorer in hydrogen. Natural gas is the product of methanogenesis . A seemingly limitless variety of compounds comprise petroleum, hence the necessity of refineries. These hydrocarbons consist of saturated hydrocarbons, aromatic hydrocarbons, or combinations of the two. Missing in petroleum are alkenes and alkynes. Their production requires refineries. Petroleum-derived hydrocarbons are mainly consumed for fuel, but they are also

630-616: Is the main industrial route to alkenes and alkyne . These reactions require heterogeneous catalysts and temperatures >500 °C. Widely practice conversions of hydrocarbons involves their reaction with oxygen. In the presence of excess oxygen, hydrocarbons combust. With, however, careful conditions, which have been optimized for many years, partial oxidation results. Useful compounds can obtained in this way: maleic acid from butane , terephthalic acid from xylenes , acetone together with phenol from cumene (isopropylbenzene), and cyclohexanone from cyclohexane]]. The process, which

672-757: Is the main source of the world's energy. Petroleum is the dominant raw-material source for organic commodity chemicals such as solvents and polymers. Most anthropogenic (human-generated) emissions of greenhouse gases are either carbon dioxide released by the burning of fossil fuels , or methane released from the handling of natural gas or from agriculture. As defined by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry 's nomenclature of organic chemistry , hydrocarbons are classified as follows: The term 'aliphatic' refers to non-aromatic hydrocarbons. Saturated aliphatic hydrocarbons are sometimes referred to as 'paraffins'. Aliphatic hydrocarbons containing

714-398: Is the paucity of enzymes that act on them. Nonetheless, the area has received regular attention. Bacteria in the gabbroic layer of the ocean's crust can degrade hydrocarbons; but the extreme environment makes research difficult. Other bacteria such as Lutibacterium anuloederans can also degrade hydrocarbons. Mycoremediation or breaking down of hydrocarbon by mycelium and mushrooms

756-597: Is used to heat water, which is then circulated. A similar principle is used to create electrical energy in power plants . Both saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons undergo this process. Common properties of hydrocarbons are the facts that they produce steam, carbon dioxide and heat during combustion and that oxygen is required for combustion to take place. The simplest hydrocarbon, methane , burns as follows: In inadequate supply of air, carbon black and water vapour are formed: And finally, for any linear alkane of n carbon atoms, Partial oxidation characterizes

798-563: Is usually faint, and may be similar to that of gasoline or lighter fluid . They occur in a diverse range of molecular structures and phases: they can be gases (such as methane and propane ), liquids (such as hexane and benzene ), low melting solids (such as paraffin wax and naphthalene ) or polymers (such as polyethylene and polystyrene ). In the fossil fuel industries, hydrocarbon refers to naturally occurring petroleum , natural gas and coal , or their hydrocarbon derivatives and purified forms. Combustion of hydrocarbons

840-719: The Cenozoic era , which formed a belt of foreland basins across northern South America. There are three main fault zones associated with the basin: the Santa Marta-Bucaramanga fault zone, the Boconó fault zone, and the Oca fault zone. These strike-slip zones create a v-shape around the basin which form a smaller plate known as the Maracaibo block. Within this v-shaped wedge, multiple smaller fault zones are present including

882-541: The Solar System . Lakes of liquid methane and ethane have been found on Titan , Saturn 's largest moon, as confirmed by the Cassini–Huygens space probe. Hydrocarbons are also abundant in nebulae forming polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon compounds. Burning hydrocarbons as fuel, which produces carbon dioxide and water , is a major contributor to anthropogenic global warming . Hydrocarbons are introduced into

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924-716: The Caribbean plate began its eastward migration from the Pacific region. After rifting, the northern edge of the South American Plate developed into a passive margin with the Proto-Caribbean Seaway. This stable passive margin allowed for thermal subsidence to occur which began to increase due to the building up of the Cordillera Central range of Colombia. This uplift was initiated by the eastward moving Caribbean plate interacting with

966-475: The Icotea strike-slip fault. Thus the Maracaibo basin geometry is dominated by strike-slip tectonics and subordinate folding with a main syncline, the Maracaibo syncline, striking north-south through the center of Lake Maracaibo. The formation of the Maracaibo basin began 160 Ma with the North American, South American, and Caribbean plates playing key roles in the evolution of the basin. It developed into

1008-604: The Maracaibo Basin, the balance of reserves is toward its conventional deposits. As the country continues shifting toward bitumen production due to its increasing profitability and decreases in conventional reserves, the level of Maracaibo Basin oil production will decrease, while that of the Orinoco Belt and its massive bitumen deposits will increase. Sierra de Perija The Serranía del Perijá , Cordillera de Perijá or Sierra de Perijá [pe.ɾi.ˈxa]

1050-530: The Misoa formation, fluvial sandstones that act as hydrocarbon reservoirs. Mountain building begins in the late Paleogene, producing mostly continental sandstone facies. The Icotea pull-apart basin is a unique transtensional feature in the center of the Maracaibo Basin. This basin is fault bounded on all 4 sides and formed due to strike slip involved extension along the north to south striking left lateral Icotea strike slip fault. The Icotea fault originally formed as

1092-454: The Nazca and northwestern South American plate. The Caribbean Plate has been migrating eastward from the Pacific region and eventually collided with the South American Plate in the middle Paleocene. This collision transformed the passive margin of northern South America into an active margin . The Caribbean plate had subducted significant amounts of oceanic Proto-Caribbean crust by this time and

1134-716: The Sierra de Perija and development of the convergent Maracaibo syncline. Oil was discovered in producible quantities in Venezuela in 1914 at the town of Mene Grande in the east central part of the Maracaibo basin near a surface oil seep. In December 1922, Royal Dutch Shell 's George Reynolds (formerly with the Anglo-Persian Oil Company ) discovered the La Rosa Oil Field. The Barroso Well blew out at 100 thousand BOPD . In 1928, Jersey Standard discovered oil deposits under Lake Maracaibo. Today

1176-612: The Yucpa and Barí people, and in Colombia for the Iroko and Sokorpa people. Venezuela has started a colonialization border plan building new communities along the border in the Perijá. The town of Cojoro was the first one completed, followed by communities for the Wayuu and Goajira peoples. The climate is mostly tropical humid forests, with cultivation of coffee and papaver flowers. It is also

1218-536: The basin accounts for approximately 50% of Venezuela's crude export capacity and approximately 15% of proven Venezuelan oil reserves . The region hosts one of the world's largest oil refinery complexes, the Paraguaná Refinery Complex . The nearby islands of Aruba and Curaçao also host large refineries that process oil from the Maracaibo basin. Together these refineries form the 'Venezuelan Circuit' of PDVSA . The Bolivar Coastal Field, BCF, on

1260-678: The eastern shore of Lake Maracaibo produces from Miocene sandstones and Eocene sandstones. West of Maracaibo, the La Paz Field produces from Cretaceous limestones, and oil is found in the stratigraphic traps of Boscan, Los Claros and the Urdaneta fields. Venezuela produces a mix of conventional heavy crude and unconventional crude derived from bitumen. This latter source, previously too expensive to produce in quantity, now makes up an increasing large percent of Venezuela's oil exports – 600,000 of Venezuela's three million barrels per day in 2006. In

1302-524: The environment through their extensive use as fuels and chemicals as well as through leaks or accidental spills during exploration, production, refining, or transport of fossil fuels. Anthropogenic hydrocarbon contamination of soil is a serious global issue due to contaminant persistence and the negative impact on human health. When soil is contaminated by hydrocarbons, it can have a significant impact on its microbiological, chemical, and physical properties. This can serve to prevent, slow down or even accelerate

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1344-495: The growth of vegetation depending on the exact changes that occur. Crude oil and natural gas are the two largest sources of hydrocarbon contamination of soil. Bioremediation of hydrocarbon from soil or water contaminated is a formidable challenge because of the chemical inertness that characterize hydrocarbons (hence they survived millions of years in the source rock). Nonetheless, many strategies have been devised, bioremediation being prominent. The basic problem with bioremediation

1386-509: The multiple bonds to produce polyethylene , polybutylene , and polystyrene . The alkyne acetylene polymerizes to produce polyacetylene . Oligomers (chains of a few monomers) may be produced, for example in the Shell higher olefin process , where α-olefins are extended to make longer α-olefins by adding ethylene repeatedly. Some hydrocarbons undergo metathesis , in which substituents attached by C–C bonds are exchanged between molecules. For

1428-596: The northeastern regions. As plate migration proceeded, accretion along the South American plate increased. This accretion greatly influenced mountain building of the region. Uplift of the Sierra de Perijas occurred during the Oligocene whereas the Mérida Andes formed later in the middle Miocene. This uplift and subsequent erosion deposited large amount of sediment into the basin. The Maracaibo syncline formed later in this stage due to "inversion of Eocene rift-related structures". The main events of sediment deposition follow

1470-524: The passive margin occurred after rifting. Characterized by carbonate and shale, the stable passive margin allowed for large amounts of clastic sediment to deposit and stay undisturbed until burial. Some of the most important source rocks come from this stage, including the La Luna and Socuy formations. The timing of the Paleogene collision is clearly recorded in the stratigraphy of the Maracaibo basin. There

1512-558: The present-day foreland basin via multiple stages throughout time: Late Jurassic, Late Cretaceous, Paleocene-Eocene, and the Oligocene-Holocene stages. During the break-up of Pangea , the North American Plate began to separate from the South American Plate. The two plates rifted away from each other forming the " Proto-Caribbean Seaway ", an 1800 km wide region of oceanic crust. As this rifting occurred,

1554-401: The reactions of alkenes and oxygen. This process is the basis of rancidification and paint drying . Benzene burns with sooty flame when heated in air: Saturated hydrocarbons react with chlorine and fluorine . In the case of chlorination, one of the chlorine atoms replaces a hydrogen atom. The reactions proceed via free-radical pathways , in which the halogen first dissociates into

1596-534: The same pattern as the tectonic events, where major sedimentary formations coincide with the four tectonic stages mentioned above. The break-up of Pangea resulted in the break-up of the Paleozoic metamorphic basement rock . The basement rock formed half-grabens where eroded sediments from the break-up were then deposited. These sediments created the metasedimentary rocks of the La Quinta formation. Development of

1638-737: The simple non-ring structured hydrocarbons have higher viscosities , lubricating indices, boiling points, and solidification temperatures. At the opposite extreme from methane lie the heavy tars that remain as the lowest fraction in a crude oil refining retort. They are collected and widely utilized as roofing compounds, pavement material ( bitumen ), wood preservatives (the creosote series) and as extremely high viscosity shear-resisting liquids. Some large-scale non-fuel applications of hydrocarbons begin with ethane and propane, which are obtained from petroleum and natural gas. These two gases are converted either to syngas or to ethylene and propylene respectively. Global consumption of benzene in 2021

1680-517: The source of virtually all synthetic organic compounds, including plastics and pharmaceuticals. Natural gas is consumed almost exclusively as fuel. Coal is used as a fuel and as a reducing agent in metallurgy . A small fraction of hydrocarbon found on earth, and all currently known hydrocarbon found on other planets and moons, is thought to be abiological . Hydrocarbons such as ethylene, isoprene, and monoterpenes are emitted by living vegetation. Some hydrocarbons also are widespread and abundant in

1722-527: The southernmost point, near Ocaña, Colombia , this mountain range forms the boundary between the Colombian departments of Norte de Santander and Cesar , and then as the range progresses north, it forms the international boundary between Venezuela ( Zulia State ) and Colombia (Cesar Department). Included in the range are the Sierra Motilones, Sierra Valledupar, and Sierra Oca. The highest point

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1764-436: Was now subducting beneath the South American crust. This boundary interaction was greatly affecting the region of northwestern South America. Foreland basins formed across the region which received large amount of sediment due to the plate boundary interactions to the north. The Caribbean plate continued its eastward migration and continued to deform the northwestern regions of South America while also producing deformation along

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