Misplaced Pages

#752247

71-557: Archeologists have found sophisticated pottery in their excavations on the island. These pieces are large, and elaborately painted and incised with representations of plants and animals. These provided the first evidence that a complex society had existed on Marajó. Evidence of mound building further suggests that well-populated, complex and sophisticated settlements developed on this island, as only such settlements were believed capable of such extended projects as major earthworks. The extent, level of complexity, and resource interactions of

142-1000: A clayey soil (Roosevelt 1991: 426). Few female skeletons have been found yet (Roosevelt 1991: 409). "My sources did not discuss the causes of death, but did state there the available skeletons showed relatively few pathologies and lived healthier lives with more nutritious diets than post-contact Amazonians" (Roosevelt 1991: 394). Despite the importance, abundance, and ease of excavation, very few Marajo cemeteries have been systematically excavated and analyzed (Roosevelt 1991: 387). While skeletal remains have not been analyzed for trauma patterns yet, they do show peculiar signs of muscle development that strongly suggest regular participation in warfare (Roosevelt 1991: 406-407). The patterns of muscle development are similar to those in modern wrestlers, who practice and train specifically to wrestle. Finding similar muscle development suggests Marajoarans trained for combat. The earthen mounds could clearly serve defensive purposes in addition to flood protection. Other than

213-400: A differentiated culture which was earlier thought to be typical Indus Valley civilisation (IVC) culture. Pottery is durable, and fragments, at least, often survive long after artifacts made from less-durable materials have decayed past recognition. Combined with other evidence, the study of pottery artefacts is helpful in the development of theories on the organisation, economic condition and

284-675: A hard and durable form. The place where such wares are made by a potter is also called a pottery (plural potteries ). The definition of pottery , used by the ASTM International , is "all fired ceramic wares that contain clay when formed, except technical, structural, and refractory products". End applications include tableware , decorative ware , sanitary ware , and in technology and industry such as electrical insulators and laboratory ware. In art history and archaeology , especially of ancient and prehistoric periods, pottery often means only vessels, and sculpted figurines of

355-459: A locality. The main ingredient of the body is clay . Some different types used for pottery include: It is common for clays and other raw materials to be mixed to produce clay bodies suited to specific purposes. Various mineral processing techniques are often utilised before mixing the raw materials, with comminution being effectively universal for non-clay materials. Examples of non-clay materials include: The production of pottery includes

426-416: A more distant connection between groups, such as trade in the same market or even relatively close settlements. Techniques that require more studied replication (i.e., the selection of clay and the fashioning of clay) may indicate a closer connection between peoples, as these methods are usually only transmissible between potters and those otherwise directly involved in production. Such a relationship requires

497-552: A mythical female ancestor. There were parallels to Amazonian cosmology, which understands the universe to be gender divided, with men related to the sun and women to the moon. Further, ancestral females regarded as creators in Amazonian cosmology may be represented in Marajoaran iconography (Roosevelt 1991: 412). Marajo settlement patterns are aligned east-to-west, consistent with a gender-divided universe (Roosevelt 1991: 413). It

568-463: A possible point of origin for Marajo’s imported stone. An increased complexity of ceremonial wares and uniformity of utilitarian wares occurred with the Marajoara phase, suggesting ceramic manufacture became a specialized industry at this time. Sometime into the Marajoara phase, however, there was a decline in characteristics that indicate specialization of ceramics (Meggers 1957: 403-404). Many of

639-581: A rough guide, modern earthenwares are normally fired at temperatures in the range of about 1,000  °C (1,830 °F) to 1,200 °C (2,190 °F); stonewares at between about 1,100 °C (2,010 °F) to 1,300 °C (2,370 °F); and porcelains at between about 1,200 °C (2,190 °F) to 1,400 °C (2,550 °F). Historically, reaching high temperatures was a long-lasting challenge, and earthenware can be fired effectively as low as 600 °C (1,112 °F), achievable in primitive pit firing . The time spent at any particular temperature

710-512: A waterproof barrier, and improve its durability. Below are the major types of glazing commonly used in pottery: 1. Glossy Glaze - Produces a shiny, reflective surface. - Highlights intricate patterns and textures. - Often used for decorative purposes. 2. Matte Glaze - Provides a smooth, non-reflective finish. - Suitable for modern and minimalist designs. - Ideal for functional wares like plates and mugs, as it minimizes glare. 3. Transparent Glaze - Can be glossy or matte. - Allows

781-401: Is also important, the combination of heat and time is known as heatwork . Kilns can be monitored by pyrometers , thermocouples and pyrometric devices . The atmosphere within a kiln during firing can affect the appearance of the body and glaze. Key to this is the differing colours of the various oxides of iron, such as iron(III) oxide (also known as ferric oxide or Fe 2 O 3 ) which

SECTION 10

#1732772111753

852-475: Is another marker of the absence of root crops from the diet at Marajo (Roosevelt 1991: 378). Earthen mounds, unlike lithic artifacts, are abundant. They were used for cemetery purposes as well as for habitation, as the low-lying areas are prone to flooding in the rainy season. Mounds may have served a defensive purpose too. Pre-historic peoples of Marajo Island may have also constructed ramps, canals, ponds, and drained fields found near earthworks mounds, but most of

923-485: Is associated with brown-red colours, whilst iron(II) oxide (also known as ferrous oxide or FeO) is associated with much darker colours, including black. The oxygen concentration in the kiln influences the type, and relative proportions, of these iron oxides in fired the body and glaze: for example, where there is a lack of oxygen during firing the associated carbon monoxide (CO) will readily react with oxygen in Fe 2 O 3 in

994-400: Is important part of archaeology for understanding the archaeological culture of the excavated site by studying the fabric of artifacts, such as their usage, source material composition, decorative pattern, color of patterns, etc. This helps to understand characteristics, sophistication , habits, technology, tools, trade, etc. of the people who made and used the pottery. Carbon dating reveals

1065-426: Is lit and the woman runs around the circumference of the mound touching the burning torch to the dried grass. Some mounds are still being constructed as others are already burning. Pottery may be decorated in many different ways. Some decoration can be done before or after the firing, and may be undertaken before or after glazing. Glaze is a glassy coating on pottery, and reasons to use it include decoration, ensuring

1136-425: Is made by heating materials, generally including kaolin , in a kiln to temperatures between 1,200 and 1,400 °C (2,200 and 2,600 °F). This is higher than used for the other types, and achieving these temperatures was a long struggle, as well as realizing what materials were needed. The toughness, strength and translucence of porcelain, relative to other types of pottery, arises mainly from vitrification and

1207-638: Is normally fired below 1200 °C. Because unglazed earthenware is porous, it has limited utility for the storage of liquids or as tableware. However, earthenware has had a continuous history from the Neolithic period to today. It can be made from a wide variety of clays, some of which fire to a buff, brown or black colour, with iron in the constituent minerals resulting in a reddish-brown. Reddish coloured varieties are called terracotta , especially when unglazed or used for sculpture. The development of ceramic glaze made impermeable pottery possible, improving

1278-481: Is not always the case; for example fritware uses no or little clay, so falls outside these groups. Historic pottery of all these types is often grouped as either "fine" wares, relatively expensive and well-made, and following the aesthetic taste of the culture concerned, or alternatively "coarse", "popular", "folk" or "village" wares, mostly undecorated, or simply so, and often less well-made. Cooking in pottery became less popular once metal pots became available, but

1349-430: Is placed within the context of linguistic and migratory patterns, it becomes an even more prevalent category of social artifact. As proposed by Olivier P. Gosselain, it is possible to understand ranges of cross-cultural interaction by looking closely at the chaîne opératoire of ceramic production. The methods used to produce pottery in early Sub-Saharan Africa are divisible into three categories: techniques visible to

1420-467: Is possible that ancestor worship was very important, as the deceased were placed in urns and buried in the mounds that the Marajoarans used for residence (Roosevelt 1991). The most common type of tomb is the burial urn (Roosevelt 1991: 44). Grave goods typically include lithics and elaborate ceramics (Roosevelt 1991: 396). The skeletal remains preserve very well in burial urns, which were covered with

1491-405: Is shaped by a variety of techniques, which include: Prior to firing, the water in an article needs to be removed. A number of different stages, or conditions of the article, can be identified: Firing produces permanent and irreversible chemical and physical changes in the body. It is only after firing that the article or material is pottery. In lower-fired pottery, the changes include sintering ,

SECTION 20

#1732772111753

1562-455: Is still used for dishes that benefit from the qualities of pottery cooking, typically slow cooking in an oven, such as biryani , cassoulet , daube , tagine , jollof rice , kedjenou , cazuela and types of baked beans . The earliest forms of pottery were made from clays that were fired at low temperatures, initially in pit-fires or in open bonfires . They were hand formed and undecorated. Earthenware can be fired as low as 600 °C, and

1633-433: Is thought to have been occupied until shortly before European conquest, which puts the abandonment date around AD 1300 (Roosevelt 1991: 405). Abandonment is determined by the fact that structures ceased to be repaired and maintained, and no further building occurred after this time (Roosevelt 1991; Meggers 1957). The factors causing the island to be abandoned have not yet been determined.(Roosevelt 1991: 97, 405) Travelers in

1704-467: Is typically interpreted as evidence for centralized authority and stratified socioeconomic classes, but this is not an empirically supported assumption (Roosevelt 1991: 417). However, the data regarding leadership is inconclusive as to whether or not there was centralized rule (Roosevelt 1991: 420). Ethnohistoric records describe civic-ceremonial leaders, but the Marajoara existed several centuries prior to European contact and may have been quite different from

1775-400: The "clay matrix" – composed of grains of less than 0.02 mm grains which can be seen using the high-powered microscopes or a scanning electron microscope , and the "clay inclusions" – which are larger grains of clay and could be seen with the naked eye or a low-power binocular microscope. For geologists, fabric analysis means spatial arrangement of minerals in a rock. For Archaeologists,

1846-566: The "fabric analysis" of pottery entails the study of clay matrix and inclusions in the clay body as well as the firing temperature and conditions . Analysis is done to examine the following 3 in detail: The Six fabrics of Kalibangan is a good example of fabric analysis. Body , or clay body, is the material used to form pottery. Thus a potter might prepare, or order from a supplier, such an amount of earthenware body, stoneware body or porcelain body. The compositions of clay bodies varies considerably, and include both prepared and 'as dug';

1917-540: The Russian Far East (14,000 BC), Sub-Saharan Africa (9,400 BC), South America (9,000s–7,000s BC), and the Middle East (7,000s–6,000s BC). Pottery is made by forming a clay body into objects of a desired shape and heating them to high temperatures (600–1600 °C) in a bonfire , pit or kiln , which induces reactions that lead to permanent changes including increasing the strength and rigidity of

1988-524: The 1800s noted both the presence of mounds and the beauty of the ceramics found inside them or exposed on their sides. Museums in Europe and the United States began to collect some of the larger and more beautiful pieces, the largest of which are funerary urns. Buried in house floors constructed on the tops of the mounds, the elaborately decorated urns contain the remains of significant individuals. When

2059-408: The 1800s noted both the presence of mounds and the beauty of the ceramics found inside them or exposed on their sides. Museums in Europe and the United States began to collect some of the larger and more beautiful pieces, the largest of which are funerary urns. Buried in house floors constructed on the tops of the mounds, the elaborately decorated urns contain the remains of significant individuals. When

2130-791: The Amazon is the Pedra Pintada cave, located near the city of Monte Alegre, in Pará (Brazil), which was studied by the American archaeologist Anna Roosvelt. In the cave area you can admire several cave paintings that represent anthropomorphic and zoomorphic figures, as well as representations of the sun, which was worshiped as a god. Rossetti et al. proposed that the archaeological settlements associated with isolated or compound mounds were "systematically developed on top of extensive elevated surfaces formed due to natural sedimentary processes". Thus,

2201-531: The Marajoara Phase. But later in the Marajoara Phase, specialization and complexity declined. (Roosevelt 1991; Meggers 1957). Although some characteristics do point to stratification, the evidence regarding inequality and leadership is inconclusive as to whether it was gender or class based, or whether it represented centralized rule (Roosevelt 1991: 411). The existence of large mounds and large, multi-family malocas, complex crafts, and intensive subsistence

Marajoara culture - Misplaced Pages Continue

2272-470: The Marajoara culture have been disputed. Working in the 1950s in some of her earliest research, American Betty Meggers suggested that the society migrated from the Andes and settled on the island. In the 1980s, another American archeologist, Anna Curtenius Roosevelt , led excavations and geophysical surveys of the mound Teso dos Bichos. She concluded that the society that constructed the mounds originated on

2343-503: The ability of the involved parties to communicate effectively, implying pre-existing norms of contact or a shared language between the two. Thus, the patterns of technical diffusion in pot-making that are visible via archaeological findings also reveal patterns in societal interaction. Chronologies based on pottery are often essential for dating non-literate cultures and are often of help in the dating of historic cultures as well. Trace-element analysis , mostly by neutron activation , allows

2414-452: The age. Sites with similar pottery characteristics have the same culture, those sites which have distinct cultural characteristics but with some overlap are indicative of cultural exchange such as trade or living in vicinity or continuity of habitation, etc. Examples are black and red ware , redware , Sothi-Siswal culture and Painted Grey Ware culture . The six fabrics of Kalibangan is a good example of use of fabric analysis in identifying

2485-417: The branches and then grass is piled high to complete the mound. Although the mound contains the pots of many women, who are related through their husbands' extended families, each women is responsible for her own or her immediate family's pots within the mound. When a mound is completed and the ground around has been swept clean of residual combustible material, a senior potter lights the fire. A handful of grass

2556-527: The carbonized seed remains have not yet been identified, though they seem to be herbaceous and derived from local grasses (Roosevelt 1991: 377, 405). Trees such as the açai and tucuma palms also provided important supplements in the Marajo diet, as well being used for manufacturing items such as baskets or canoes (Roosevelt 1991; Meggers 1957). Evidence from human remains shows that Marajo peoples limited their consumption of starchy root crops like manioc ; rather,

2627-867: The center of the building; each hearth likely represented one nuclear family (Roosevelt 1991: 37). The malocas were arranged east to west (Roosevelt 1991: 37) and generally grouped in a concentric oval pattern (Roosevelt 1991: 401). They were built of earth, wooden poles, and thatch roofs (Roosevelt 1991: 37). They were occupied continually as evidenced by superimposed layers of structures (Roosevelt 1991: 335), with up to 20 structures built atop one another at some places, such as Os Camutins (Roosevelt 1991: 38). There were permanent cooking facilities made of baked clay and plastered floors, which were frequently repaired over time (Roosevelt 1991: 38, 334-335). There are also monumental earthworks, causeways, ramps, canals, ponds, and drained fields that have been buried by extensive sedimentation (Roosevelt 1991: 33, 331-333, 422) Travelers in

2698-431: The cultural development of the societies that produced or acquired pottery. The study of pottery may also allow inferences to be drawn about a culture's daily life, religion, social relationships, attitudes towards neighbours, attitudes to their own world and even the way the culture understood the universe. It is valuable to look into pottery as an archaeological record of potential interaction between peoples. When pottery

2769-687: The defensive position of residences atop earthen mounds, there is relatively little evidence that can either confirm or deny the existence of warfare or localized violence. However, the frequent presence of warfare in many other societies around the world makes it unlikely that Marajoarans lived in complete peace. The most common motif found in Marajoara iconography involves female imagery (Roosevelt 1991: 410-415) such as females as mythical ancestors, creators, cultural heroes, or females portrayed in shamanistic roles and with shamanistic power. These female motifs are typically found on ceramic artifacts, either pottery vessels or statues (Roosevelt 1991). Marajo Island

2840-480: The duration of firing influences the final characteristics of the ceramic. Thus, the maximum temperature within a kiln is often held constant for a period of time to soak the wares to produce the maturity required in the body of the wares. Kilns may be heated by burning combustible materials, such as wood , coal and gas , or by electricity . The use of microwave energy has been investigated. When used as fuels, coal and wood can introduce smoke, soot and ash into

2911-491: The evidence has likely been buried by sediment in seasonal floods (Roosevelt 1991: 33). Evidence for trade networks at Marajo is found mostly in lithics, because the island has no local source of suitable igneous or metamorphic rock (Roosevelt 1991: 9, 348; Meggers 1957: 371). None of the lithic artifacts have been sourced, although they are primarily made from a green, microcrystalline mafic rock (Roosevelt 1991: 348). Such greenstones are typically more associated with Mesoamerica,

Marajoara culture - Misplaced Pages Continue

2982-401: The excavations on Marajo island have focused on the largest earthen mound sites (Meggers 1957). Smaller mounds and non-mound sites likely outnumber them (Roosevelt 1991: 33). Multi-level stratification of sites by size (Roosevelt 1991: 39): Mounds predominate in the lowest areas that are most prone to severe flooding (Roosevelt 1991: 31). They were constructed of earthen materials, and garbage

3053-460: The eye (decoration, firing and post-firing techniques), techniques related to the materials (selection or processing of clay, etc.), and techniques of molding or fashioning the clay. These three categories can be used to consider the implications of the reoccurrence of a particular sort of pottery in different areas. Generally, the techniques that are easily visible (the first category of those mentioned above) are thus readily imitated, and may indicate

3124-566: The first mounds of the tradition were built in the Formative, the period when horticulture appears to become widespread for the first time." The earliest phase of human activity and moundbuilding on Marajo Island is known as the 'Ananatuba phase'. The Castanheira site of that phase is an artificial mound. Plant remains on Marajo Island show a subsistence pattern that relied heavily on small seed crops, as well as small fish, which were either cultivated or protected by indigenous peoples. Many of

3195-430: The following stages: Before being shaped, clay must be prepared. This may include kneading to ensure an even moisture content throughout the body. Air trapped within the clay body needs to be removed, or de-aired, and can be accomplished either by a machine called a vacuum pug or manually by wedging . Wedging can also help produce an even moisture content. Once a clay body has been kneaded and de-aired or wedged, it

3266-486: The foot) is left unglazed or, alternatively, special refractory " spurs " are used as supports. These are removed and discarded after the firing. Some specialised glazing techniques include: Types of Glazing in Pottery. Glazing in pottery is the process of applying a coating or layer of material to ceramics that, when fired, forms a vitreous or glass-like surface. Glazes enhance the aesthetic appeal of pottery, provide

3337-659: The formation of the mineral mullite within the body at these high temperatures. Although porcelain was first made in China , the Chinese traditionally do not recognise it as a distinct category, grouping it with stoneware as "high-fired" ware, opposed to "low-fired" earthenware. This confuses the issue of when it was first made. A degree of translucency and whiteness was achieved by the Tang dynasty (AD 618–906), and considerable quantities were being exported. The modern level of whiteness

3408-443: The former being by far the dominant type for studio and industry. The properties also vary considerably, and include plasticity and mechanical strength before firing; the firing temperature needed to mature them; properties after firing, such as permeability, mechanical strength and colour. There can be regional variations in the properties of raw materials used for pottery, and these can lead to wares that are unique in character to

3479-412: The fusing together of coarser particles in the body at their points of contact with each other. In the case of porcelain, where higher firing-temperatures are used, the physical, chemical and mineralogical properties of the constituents in the body are greatly altered. In all cases, the reason for firing is to permanently harden the wares, and the firing regime must be appropriate to the materials used. As

3550-459: The heavy wear patterns of teeth suggest a diet based predominantly on seed crops, tree fruits, and fish (Roosevelt 1991: 394-395). Since small fish make up the majority of biomass fauna and there are relatively few terrestrial animals, it follows that pre-historic peoples focused on the abundant populations of small fish (Roosevelt 1991: 23). The method for catching fish was likely very similar to present-day techniques, which involves stunning fish with

3621-448: The individuals died, the flesh was cleared from their bones and the remains were placed in the urns, which were then topped with a bowl or platter. In addition to the urns, ceramic artifacts include plates, bowls, vases, and tangas (female pubic coverings). Pottery Pottery is the process and the products of forming vessels and other objects with clay and other raw materials, which are fired at high temperatures to give them

SECTION 50

#1732772111753

3692-922: The individuals died, the flesh was cleared from their bones and the remains were placed in the urns, which were topped with a bowl or platter. The people on Marajo produced many diverse artifacts (Roosevelt 1991: 59-60) such as pottery vessels (urns, jars, bottles, cups, bowls, plates, dishes), figurines, large statues, pubic covers, pendants, ear and lip jewelry, whistles, spindle whorls, and ceramic miniatures of axes, mashers, hammers, and other tools. Lithics were very rare because Marajo island has no source of suitable stone (Roosevelt 1991: 9, 348; Meggers 1957: 371). Lithics that have been found suggest they were used as high-status items and gifts, or they were used in craft production (Roosevelt 1991: 396). Elaborate pottery vessels were found in garbage fills between houses and in graves, but not around hearths, which contained only plain domestic wares (Roosevelt 1991: 37, 402). Additionally,

3763-471: The island itself. The pre-Columbian culture of Marajó may have developed social stratification and supported a population as large as 100,000 people. The Native Americans of the Amazon rain forest may have used their method of developing and working in terra preta to make the land suitable for the large-scale agriculture needed to support large populations and complex social formations such as chiefdoms . Conclusive proof of this ancient human presence in

3834-417: The item is impermeable to liquids, and minimizing the adherence of pollutants. Glaze may be applied by spraying, dipping, trailing or brushing on an aqueous suspension of the unfired glaze. The colour of a glaze after it has been fired may be significantly different from before firing. To prevent glazed wares sticking to kiln furniture during firing, either a small part of the object being fired (for example,

3905-431: The kiln which can affect the appearance of unprotected wares. For this reason, wares fired in wood- or coal-fired kilns are often placed in the kiln in saggars , ceramic boxes, to protect them. Modern kilns fuelled by gas or electricity are cleaner and more easily controlled than older wood- or coal-fired kilns and often allow shorter firing times to be used. Niche techniques include: [...] pots are positioned on and amid

3976-502: The large Marajoara mounds or tesos are not entirely manmade. Rather, the inhabitants took advantage of the natural, preexisting elevated surfaces and added on top of those to build their earthworks. This interpretation suggests less cumulative labor investment in the construction of the mounds. "Several mounds on Marajo Island and several in Bolivia have yielded radiocarbon dates as early as 1000 to 300 BC in early levels, suggesting that

4047-586: The late Middle Ages, as European kilns were less efficient, and the right type of clay less common. It remained a speciality of Germany until the Renaissance. Stoneware is very tough and practical, and much of it has always been utilitarian, for the kitchen or storage rather than the table. But "fine" stoneware has been important in China , Japan and the West, and continues to be made. Many utilitarian types have also come to be appreciated as art. Porcelain

4118-496: The later contact-period societies. Marajoara iconography does not suggest a centralized political authority, but does suggest social ranking based on matrilineal genealogy (Roosevelt 1991: 398, 408). Skeletal traits also point to some sort of stratification, likely between elites and commoners. It was very clear through bone analysis that some individuals were well-nourished and tall, while others were significantly shorter and consumed poorer diets. Further, some skull deformation among

4189-472: The low mound and non-mound sites contain very little if any fineware (Roosevelt 1991: 37). Some artifacts are found only at specific sites; for example, Teso dos Bichos contains thousands of small ceramic and sandstone abraders, which are very rare or absent from other sites (Roosevelt 1991: 37). The general pattern of change found throughout artifacts on Marajo, especially in ceramics, is one that moves toward more complex, elaborate, and specialized wares through

4260-424: The object. Much pottery is purely utilitarian, but some can also be regarded as ceramic art . An article can be decorated before or after firing. Pottery is traditionally divided into three types: earthenware , stoneware and porcelain . All three may be glazed and unglazed. All may also be decorated by various techniques. In many examples the group a piece belongs to is immediately visually apparent, but this

4331-535: The poisonous liana plant and collecting them as they float to the surface. This method of mass harvesting is not as useful in the rainy season as it is during the dry months when fish are trapped in receding streams or ponds (Roosevelt 1991: 382-383). The agricultural technology at Marajo is limited to, primarily, stone axes that were introduced in the Marajoara Phase (Meggers 1957: 603). Other stone artifacts include griddles found at Teso Dos Bichos during Roosevelt’s excavations, although these are very rare. Their rarity

SECTION 60

#1732772111753

4402-453: The popularity and practicality of pottery vessels. Decoration has evolved and developed through history. Stoneware is pottery that has been fired in a kiln at a relatively high temperature, from about 1,100 °C to 1,200 °C, and is stronger and non-porous to liquids. The Chinese, who developed stoneware very early on, classify this together with porcelain as high-fired wares. In contrast, stoneware could only be produced in Europe from

4473-421: The raw materials and cause it to be reduced to FeO. An oxygen deficient condition, called a reducing atmosphere, is generated by preventing the complete combustion of the kiln fuel; this is achieved by deliberately restricting the supply of air or by supplying an excess of fuel. Firing pottery can be done using a variety of methods, with a kiln being the usual firing method. Both the maximum temperature and

4544-745: The same material are called terracottas . Pottery is one of the oldest human inventions , originating before the Neolithic period , with ceramic objects such as the Gravettian culture Venus of Dolní Věstonice figurine discovered in the Czech Republic dating back to 29,000–25,000 BC. However, the earliest known pottery vessels were discovered in Jiangxi , China, which date back to 18,000 BC. Other early Neolithic and pre-Neolithic pottery artifacts have been found, in Jōmon Japan (10,500 BC),

4615-1281: The society are difficult to define. (Roosevelt 1991: 410-411). For example, women are featured prominently in Marajoara art, portrayed as creators and lineage heroes or founders. Also, households were matrilocal and women were important in subsistence production. Amazonian ethnohistory describes many floodplain societies with matrilineal descent reckoned from a mythical female ancestor. Amazonian ethnohistorical evidence also points to women holding high socioeconomic status, as well as holding leading political and ritual roles (Roosevelt 1991: 411). The fact that women are largely absent from elaborate burial urns and number very few at all compared to male skeletons could be regarded as evidence for gender stratification. However, high-ranking women do not always hold political positions and thus their absence from elaborate burials does not necessarily indicate lower status (Roosevelt 1991: 409). Low-mound and non-mound sites have far fewer, if any, elaborate ceramics. Additionally, elaborate ceramics are found only in garbage and burial contexts, not around hearths (Roosevelt 1991: 339-340). This could suggest that women primarily made and used domestic plainware, while men primarily controlled ceremonial fineware (Roosevelt 1991: 407). Nonetheless,

4686-471: The sources of clay to be accurately identified and the thermoluminescence test can be used to provide an estimate of the date of last firing. Examining sherds from prehistory, scientists learned that during high-temperature firing, iron materials in clay record the state of the Earth's magnetic field at that moment. The "clay body" is also called the "paste" or the "fabric" , which consists of 2 things,

4757-445: The true relationship between ceramic distribution and social rank is still unclear and needs to be further investigated (Roosevelt 1991: 396). The belief system of the Marajo people is not wholly understood, though it almost certainly involved important female figures (Roosevelt 1991). Marajoara iconography and art portrays women with shamanistic powers and roles (Roosevelt 1991: 410), consistent with societies that reckon descent through

4828-579: The underlying decoration or texture of the pottery to show through. - Often used over underglaze decorations. 4. Opaque Glaze - Completely covers the surface of the pottery, hiding any underlying texture or decoration. - Useful for creating uniform, bold colors. 5. Celadon Glaze - A translucent glaze, usually in shades of green or blue. - Originated in China and is popular in East Asian ceramics. - Accentuates carved or textured designs beneath

4899-576: The well-nourished skeletons also point to an elite class (Roosevelt 1991: 399). Despite the current evidence, only a few individuals have been examined. A more comprehensive, systematic investigation of burials and houses is required to tell whether the differentiation in food production and consumption was based on class or gender (Roosevelt 1991: 403, 417). There is evidence that women held a lower status relative to men in Marajo, but other evidence suggests women commanded more importance and higher status than they do in contemporary Amazonia. Interpretations of

4970-520: Was not reached until much later, in the 14th century. Porcelain was also made in Korea and in Japan from the end of the 16th century, after suitable kaolin was located in those countries. It was not made effectively outside East Asia until the 18th century. The study of pottery can help to provide an insight into past cultures. Fabric analysis (see section below), used to analyse the fabric of pottery ,

5041-434: Was used as fill to maintain them (Roosevelt 1991: 37). The mounds served many purposes (Roosevelt 1991: 333-334, 401-402), for example as cemeteries, for habitation, for militaristic defense, and as defense against seasonal flooding The mounds housed residential structures similar to present-day malocas, which are Amazonian longhouses (Roosevelt 1991: 37). These were multi-family structures with several hearths lined up along

#752247