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50-489: In 1913, Maralbexi County was established. In September 1937, two regiments of Soviet Kirghiz troops and one regiment of Russian troops equipped with forty airplanes and twenty tanks entered Sinkiang from Atushe and attacked Maralbexi, dividing Ma Hushan 's 36th Corps into two sections. In February 2002, a 6.7 magnitude earthquake killed 267 people in Maralbexi County and Payzawat County . On February 24, 2003,

100-529: A result, the concept of China proper fell out of favour in China. The Eighteen Provinces of the Qing dynasty still largely exist, but their boundaries have changed. Beijing and Tianjin were eventually split from Hebei (renamed from Zhili), Shanghai from Jiangsu, Chongqing from Sichuan, Ningxia autonomous region from Gansu , and Hainan from Guangdong. Guangxi is now an autonomous region . The provinces that

150-411: A single language if the criterion of mutual intelligibility is used to classify its subdivisions. In polls the majority of the people of Taiwan call themselves "Taiwanese" only with the rest identifying as "Taiwanese and Chinese" or "Chinese" only. 98% of the people of Taiwan are descendants of immigrants from mainland China since the 1600s, but the inclusion of Taiwan in the definition of China proper,

200-471: Is based on the succession of states principle. According to sinologist Colin Mackerras , foreign governments have generally accepted Chinese claims over its ethnic minority areas, because to redefine a country's territory every time it underwent a change of regime would cause endless instability and warfare. Also, he asks, "if the boundaries of the Qing were considered illegitimate, why should it go back to

250-538: Is served by the Southern Xinjiang Railway and G3012 Turpan–Hotan Expressway . Agricultural products include corn, cotton, wheat and others as well as sword-leaf dogbane . The central and eastern parts of the county have old desert poplar forests. Animal herding is prominent and rock salt and phosphate fertilizer are produced in the county. Industries include food processing, plastics, rug making, electricity and construction. As of 1885, there

300-726: The 2003 Bachu earthquake occurred. In April 2013, twenty-one died in an incident in Seriqbuya . In October 2014, twenty-two died in an incident at a farmer's market in the county. According to her husband, in May-June 2017, Mailikemu Maimati / Malika Mamiti, in her 30s, native of the county and wife of businessman Mirza Imran Baig of Pakistan, in his 40s, was detained in the county's re-education camp . After her release, she and their young son were not given their passports by Chinese authorities. Maralbexi County includes 4 towns ( بازىرى / 镇), 8 townships ( يېزىسى / 乡): Bachu

350-691: The British Empire , which would encompass vast lands overseas. The same would apply to France proper in contrast to the First French Empire , which Napoleon managed to expand all the way to Moscow . According to Harry Harding , the concept can date back to 1827. But as early as in 1795, William Winterbotham adopted this concept in his book. When describing the Chinese Empire under the Qing dynasty, Winterbotham divided it into three parts: China proper, Chinese Tartary , and

400-526: The Central Plain and did not administer as part of a regular province of China proper. On the other hand, Taiwan was a new acquisition of the Qing dynasty, and it was placed under the administration of Fujian , one of the provinces of China proper. Eastern Kham in Greater Tibet was added to Sichuan , while much of what now constitutes northern Burma was added to Yunnan . Near the end of

450-659: The Kuomintang Islamic insurgency in China from 1950 to 1954 against the PLA using guerrilla tactics . He was captured in 1954 and executed at Lanzhou . China proper China proper , also called Inner China , are terms used primarily in the West in reference to the traditional "core" regions of China centered in the southeast. The term was first used by Westerners during the Manchu -led Qing dynasty to describe

500-470: The states tributary to China . He adopted the opinions of Du Halde and Grosier and suspected that the name of "China" came from Qin dynasty . He then said: "China, properly so called,... comprehends from north to south eighteen degrees; its extent from east to west being somewhat less..." However, to introduce China proper, Winterbotham still used the outdated 15-province system of the Ming dynasty , which

550-607: The "people of the Central Kingdom" (dulimba-i gurun; 中國 , Zhongguo) were like the Torghut Mongols, and the "people of the Central Kingdom" referred to the Manchus. While the Qing dynasty used "China" (Zhongguo) to describe non-Han areas, some Han scholar-officials opposed the Qing emperor's use of Zhongguo to refer to non-Han areas, using instead Zhongguo to mark a distinction between the culturally Han areas and

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600-631: The 18-province system between 1662 and 1667. Using the 15-province system and the name of Kiang-nan Province indicates that the concept of China proper probably had appeared between 1645 and 1662 and this concept may reflect the idea that identifies China as the territory of the former Ming dynasty after the Ming–Qing transition . The concept of "China proper" also appeared before this 1795 book. It can be found in The Gentleman's Magazine , published in 1790, and The Monthly Review , published in 1749. In

650-596: The Han people, the majority ethnic group of China and with the extent of the Chinese languages, an important unifying element of the Han ethnicity. However, Han regions in the present day do not correspond well to the Eighteen Provinces of the Qing dynasty. Much of southwestern China, such as areas in the provinces of Yunnan , Guangxi , and Guizhou , was part of successive dynasties of ethnic Han origin, including

700-594: The Han people. Chinese civilization developed from a core region in the North China Plain, and expanded outwards over several millennia, conquering and assimilating surrounding peoples, or being conquered and influenced in turn. Some dynasties, such as the Han and Tang dynasties, were particularly expansionist, extending far into Inner Asia , while others, such as the Jin and Song dynasties, were forced to relinquish

750-542: The Japanese invasion of Mongolia, Manchuria , and other parts of China. Gu's article sparked a heated debate on the definition and origin of " Zhonghua minzu " (Chinese nation), which contributed to unifying the Chinese people in the Second Sino-Japanese War , and to an extent shaped the later established concept of Zhonghua minzu. Today, China proper is a controversial concept in China itself, since

800-494: The Manchu language. The Qing emperors equated the lands of the Qing state (including both "China proper" and present day Manchuria, Xinjiang, Mongolia, Tibet and other areas) as "China" in both the Chinese and Manchu languages, defining China as a multiethnic state, rejecting the idea that China only meant Han-populated areas in "China proper", proclaiming that both Han and non-Han peoples were part of "China", using "China" to refer to

850-684: The Ming dynasty and the Eighteen Provinces of the Qing dynasty. However, these areas were and continue to be populated by various non-Han minority groups, such as the Zhuang , the Miao people , and the Bouyei . Conversely, Han people form the majority in most of Manchuria, much of Inner Mongolia, many areas in Xinjiang and scattered parts of Tibet today, not least due to the expansion of Han settlement encouraged by

900-447: The Ming dynasty in China proper, the Qing court decided to continue to use the Ming administrative system to rule over former Ming lands, without applying it to other domains under Qing rule, namely Manchuria , Mongolia , Xinjiang , Taiwan and Tibet . The 15 administrative units of the Ming dynasty underwent minor reforms to become the "Eighteen Provinces" ( 一十八行省 ; Yīshíbā Xíngshěng , or 十八省 ; Shíbā Shěng ) of China proper under

950-488: The North China Plain itself to rivaling regimes founded by peoples from the north. The Ming dynasty was the last orthodox Chinese dynasty of ethnic Han origin and the second-last imperial dynasty of China. It governed fifteen administrative entities, which included thirteen provinces ( Chinese : 布政使司 ; pinyin : Bùzhèngshǐ Sī ) and two "directly-governed" areas. After the Manchu-led Qing dynasty succeeded

1000-417: The Qing dynasty maintained until 1662. Although Ming dynasty also had 15 basic local divisions, Winterbotham uses the name of Kiang-nan ( 江南 , Jiāngnán) province, which had been called South Zhili ( 南直隶 , Nán-Zhílì) during the Ming dynasty and was renamed to Kiang-nan (i.e., Jiangnan ) in 1645, the second year after the Qing dynasty replaces the Ming dynasty. This 15-province system was gradually replaced by

1050-575: The Qing dynasty, there was an effort to extend the province system of China proper to the rest of the empire. Taiwan was converted into a separate province in 1885, but was ceded to Japan in 1895. Xinjiang was reorganized into a province in 1884. Manchuria was split into the three provinces of Fengtian , Jilin and Heilongjiang in 1907. There was discussion to do the same in Tibet, Qinghai (Kokonor), Inner Mongolia, and Outer Mongolia, but these proposals were not put to practice, and these areas were outside

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1100-496: The Qing dynasty. It was these eighteen provinces that early Western sources referred to as China proper. There are some minor differences between the extent of Ming China and the extent of the eighteen provinces of Qing China: for example, some parts of Manchuria were Ming possessions belonging to the province of Liaodong (now Liaoning ), which is inside the Ming Great Wall ; however, the Qing conquered it before entering

1150-410: The Qing in official documents, international treaties, and foreign affairs, and the "Chinese language" (Dulimbai gurun i bithe) referred to Chinese, Manchu, and Mongol languages, and the term "Chinese people" ( 中國人 , Zhongguo ren; Manchu: Dulimbai gurun i niyalma) referred to all Han, Manchu, and Mongol subjects of the Qing. When the Qing conquered Dzungaria in 1759 , they proclaimed that the new land

1200-523: The Ryukyus and Japan , who paid tribute to Qing China or were vassal states of China but were not part of China. In the early 20th century, a series of Sino-Japanese conflicts had raised Chinese people's concern for national unity, and the concept of a unified, undivided Chinese nation became more popular among Chinese scholars. On Jan 1, 1939, Gu Jiegang published his article "The term 'China proper' should be abolished immediately", which argued that

1250-572: The Soviets, whom they had previously fought, that since the Japanese had begun full-scale warfare with China , that Tungans led by Ma Hushan would help Chinese forces battle Japan, and that he would return to Gansu . Sven Hedin reported that a telegram from the diplomatic office in India stated Ma Hushan would "certainly obey the summons" to join the Chinese side in the war against Japan. Ma led

1300-538: The borders of Ming China, in effect refusing to acknowledge the legitimacy of the Qing dynasty. Han Chinese intellectuals gradually embraced the new meaning of "China" and began to recognize it as their homeland. The Qing dynasty referred to the Han-inhabited 18 provinces as "nèidì shíbā shěng" ( 內地十八省 ), which meant the "interior region eighteen provinces", or abbreviated it as "nèidì" ( 內地 ), "interior region" and also as "jùnxiàn" ( 郡县 ), while they referred to

1350-523: The current official paradigm does not contrast the core and the periphery of China. There is no single widely used term corresponding to it in the Chinese language . The separation of China into a "China proper" dominated by Han people and other states for ethnic minorities such as East Turkestan ( Chinese Turkestan ) for the Uyghurs impugns on the legitimacy of China's current territorial borders, which

1400-644: The different peoples. A Manchu language version of a treaty with the Russian Empire concerning criminal jurisdiction over bandits called people from the Qing as "people of the Central Kingdom (Dulimbai Gurun)". In the Manchu official Tulisen 's Manchu language account of his meeting with the Torghut Mongol leader Ayuki Khan , it was mentioned that while the Torghuts were unlike the Russians,

1450-440: The distinction between the historical "Han lands" ( 漢地 )—i.e. regions long dominated by the majority Han population—and the "frontier" regions of China where more non-Han ethnic groups and new foreign immigrants (e.g. Russians ) reside, sometimes known as "Outer China". There is no fixed extent for China proper , as many administrative, cultural, and linguistic shifts have occurred in Chinese history . One definition refers to

1500-758: The fiji (airplane) and bombed and gassed us “ he said about the war. He also took part in the war to destroy the First East Turkestan Republic , commanding the new 36th division at the Battle of Kashgar and Battle of Khotan . Ma's 36th Division crushed the Charkhlik Revolt by the Uighurs in the Charkhlik oasis. It controlled southern Xinjiang's oasis and the area was nicknamed "Tunganistan" by Peter Fleming . Ma Hushan and

1550-547: The geographical regions of Dzungaria , Tarim Basin , Gobi Desert , Tibetan Plateau , Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau , and Manchuria . It is not clear when the concept of "China proper" in the Western world appeared. However, it is plausible that historians during the age of empires and the fast-changing borders in the eighteenth century, applied it to distinguish the 18 provinces in China's interior from its frontier territories. This would also apply to Great Britain proper versus

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1600-734: The late Qing dynasty set up have also been kept: Xinjiang became an autonomous region under the People's Republic of China, while the three provinces of Manchuria now have somewhat different borders, with Fengtian renamed as Liaoning. When the Qing dynasty fell, Republican Chinese control of Qing territories, including of those generally considered to be in "China proper", was tenuous, and non-existent in Tibet and Mongolian People's Republic (former Outer Mongolia ) since 1922, which were controlled by governments that declared independence from China. The Republic of China subdivided Inner Mongolia in its time on

1650-522: The late Qing dynasty, the Republic of China, and the People's Republic of China. Ethnic Han is not synonymous with speakers of the Chinese language. Many non-Han ethnicities, such as the Hui and Manchu, are essentially monolingual in the Chinese language, but do not identify as ethnic Han. The Chinese language itself is also a complex entity, and should be described as a family of related languages rather than

1700-594: The mainland, although the People's Republic of China later joined Mongol-inhabited territories into a single autonomous region. The PRC joined the Qamdo area into the Tibet area (later the Tibet Autonomous Region ). The Republic of China officially recognized the independence of Mongolia in 1946, which was also acknowledged by the PRC government since its founding in 1949. China proper is often associated with

1750-438: The much smaller Ming in preference to the quite extensive Tang dynasty boundaries?" There is no fixed geographical extent for China proper, as it is used to express the contrast between the core and frontier regions of China from multiple perspectives: historical, administrative, cultural, and linguistic. One way of thinking about China proper is to refer to the long-standing territories held by dynasties of China founded by

1800-716: The new 36th Division declared their loyalty to the Kuomintang government in Nanjing and sent emissaries there requesting aid to fight against Sheng Shicai 's provincial forces and the Soviet Union. Khotan was the base of Ma Hushan during his rule over the southern oases. His troops were said to be "strongly anti-Japanese", and the territory they ruled was covered with "most of the stock anti-Japanese slogans from China proper ," and Ma made "Resistance to Japanese Imperialism" part of his governing doctrine. Ma Hushan himself

1850-532: The nineteenth century, the term "China proper" was sometimes used by Chinese officials when they were communicating in foreign languages. For instance, the Qing ambassador to Britain Zeng Jize used it in an English language article, which he published in 1887. "Dulimbai Gurun" is the Manchu name for China ( 中國 , Zhongguo; "Middle Kingdom"). After conquering the Ming, the Qing identified their state as "China" (Zhongguo), and referred to it as "Dulimbai Gurun" in

1900-461: The non-Han areas of China such as the Northeast , Outer Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang, and Tibet as "wàifān" ( 外藩 ) which means "outer feudatories" or "outer vassals", or as "fānbù" ( 藩部 , "feudatory region"). These wàifān were fully subject to and governed by the Qing government and were considered part of China (Zhongguo), unlike wàiguó ( 外國 , "outer/foreign countries") like Korea, Vietnam,

1950-594: The original area of Chinese civilization, the Central Plain (in the North China Plain ); another to the Eighteen Provinces of the Qing dynasty. There was no direct translation for "China proper " in the Chinese language at the time due to differences in terminology used by the Qing to refer to the regions. Even to today, the expression is controversial among scholars, particularly in mainland China , due to issues pertaining to contemporary territorial claim and ethnic politics. Outer China usually includes

2000-552: The provincial system of China proper when the Qing dynasty fell in 1912. The Provinces of the Qing Dynasty were: Some of the revolutionaries who sought to overthrow Qing rule desired to establish a state independent of the Qing dynasty within the bounds of the Eighteen Provinces, as evinced by their Eighteen-Star Flag . Others favoured the replacement of the entire Qing dynasty by a new republic, as evinced by their Five-Striped Flag. Some revolutionaries, such as Zou Rong , used

2050-543: The term Zhongguo Benbu ( 中国本部 ) which roughly identifies the Eighteen Provinces. When the Qing dynasty fell, the abdication decree of the Xuantong Emperor bequeathed all the territories of the Qing dynasty to the new Republic of China , and the latter idea was therefore adopted by the new republic as the principle of Five Races Under One Union , with Five Races referring to the Han, Manchus, Mongols, Muslims (Uyghurs, Hui etc.) and Tibetans. The Five-Striped Flag

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2100-539: The territories newly acquired by the Qing empire. In the early 19th century, Wei Yuan 's Shengwuji (Military History of the Qing Dynasty) calls the Inner Asian polities guo , while the seventeen provinces of the traditional heartland, that is, "China proper", and three eastern provinces of Manchuria are called " Zhongguo ". Some Ming loyalists of Han ethnicity refused to use Zhongguo to refer to areas outside

2150-424: The widely accepted area covered by "China proper" is not the actual territory of any of the Chinese dynasties . Gu further theorized that " 中国本部 ", the Chinese and Japanese term equal to "China proper" at the time, actually originated from Japan and was translated into "China proper", hence the concept of "China proper" was developed by Japanese people, and it had become a tool to divide Chinese people, making way for

2200-667: Was a Hui (Chinese Muslim) warlord and the brother-in-law and follower of Ma Zhongying , a Dungan/Hui Ma Clique warlord. He ruled over an area of Southern Xinjiang , nicknamed Tunganistan (named after the Dungans ) by Westerners, from 1934 to 1937. He was sometimes known as the "King of Tunganistan". Ma Hushan fought against the Russian Red Army and White Russian forces during the Soviet Invasion of Xinjiang and defeated them in battle. “ The Russ brought

2250-698: Was about 30,600 acres (202,728 mu ) of cultivated land in Maralbexi. As of 2015, 363,488 of the 382,186 residents of the county were Uyghur , 17,816 were Han Chinese and 882 were from other ethnic groups. As of 2019, the population of Maralbexi County was 95.13% Uyghur . As of 1999, 83.12% of the population of Maralbexi (Bachu) County was Uyghur and 16.41% of the population was Han Chinese. Historical English-language maps including Maralbexi: Ma Hushan Ma Hushan ( Xiao'erjing : ﻣَﺎ ﺧُﻮْ شً , traditional Chinese : 馬虎山 ; simplified Chinese : 马虎山 ; pinyin : Mǎ Hŭshān ; 1910 – 1954)

2300-546: Was absorbed into "China" (Dulimbai Gurun) in a Manchu language memorial. The Qing expounded on their ideology that they were bringing together the "outer" non-Han peoples like the Manchus, Mongols, Uighurs and Tibetans together with the "inner" Han people, into "one family" united under the Qing state, showing that the diverse subjects of the Qing were all part of one family, the Qing used the phrase "Zhong Wai Yi Jia" ( 中外一家 ) or "Nei Wai Yi Jia" ( 內外一家 , "interior and exterior as one family"), to convey this idea of "unification" of

2350-418: Was adopted as the national flag, and the Republic of China viewed itself as a single unified state encompassing all five regions handed down by the Qing dynasty. The People's Republic of China, which was founded in 1949 and replaced the Republic of China on the Chinese mainland, has continued to claim essentially the same borders, with the only major exception being the recognition of an independent Mongolia . As

2400-570: Was confiscated by the British. The British kept that money to pay for the alleged "looting" of British property in Kashgar by Ma's troops, but eventually sent the money "back" to Sheng Shicai 's regime. He was briefly detained by the British, then took a steamer from Calcutta back to China—specifically Qinghai province—in 1938. British telegrams from India in 1937 said that Tungans like Ma Zhongying and Ma Hushan had reached an agreement with

2450-457: Was described by Ella Maillart as a "well-set-up long-legged man". Ma's regime forced the switch from the old style to the manufacture of Chinese-style carpets by the government-owned factory. He ordered the creation of "small blue carpets", "woven in Khotan". They were of Chinese design, with Chinese writing on them. Peter Birchler mistakenly said that Ma Hushan's brother-in-law Ma Zhongying

2500-587: Was the client of the carpet factory. Ma Hushan formulated a plan for an anti-Soviet " jihad " to conquer the Kremlin, Russian Turkestan and Siberia. He promised a devastated Europe and the conquering of Russia and India. The anti-Soviet client uprising by Ma Hsi Jung (Ma Ho San) was reported by United Press International (UPI) 3 June 1937. Ma's troops were defeated by Sheng Shicai and the Soviets, and many of them deserted or defected. Ma fled to British India. He brought with him thousands of ounces of gold, which

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