101-509: Marble House , a Gilded Age mansion located at 596 Bellevue Avenue in Newport, Rhode Island , was built from 1888 to 1892 as a summer cottage for Alva and William Kissam Vanderbilt and was designed by Richard Morris Hunt in the Beaux Arts style . It was unparalleled in opulence for an American house when it was completed in 1892. Its temple-front portico has been compared to that of
202-603: A National Historic Landmark District on May 11, 1976. The mansion still stands in great visible condition and is used for many things such as guided and non-guided tours, as well as hosting various special events, parties, and weddings. The Marble House is one of the more popular tourist destinations in Newport, RI. In keeping with custom of the time, the Vanderbilts also commissioned a sizeable carriage house to be built for Marble House diagonally across Bellevue Avenue, on what
303-619: A ballroom and reception room. Designed in the Louis XIV style , it features green silk cut velvet upholstery and draperies. The originals were made by Prelle . The walls are carved wood and gold gilt panels representing scenes from classical mythology, inspired by the panels and trophies adorning the Galerie d'Apollon at the Louvre . The ceiling features an 18th-century French painting in the manner of Pietro da Cortona depicting Minerva , with
404-510: A designated period in American history. The term was adopted by literary and cultural critics as well as historians, including Van Wyck Brooks , Lewis Mumford , Charles Austin Beard , Mary Ritter Beard , Vernon Louis Parrington , and Matthew Josephson . For them, Gilded Age was a pejorative term for a time of materialistic excesses and widespread political corruption. The early half of
505-463: A gain of 48%. Economic historian Clarence D. Long estimates that (in terms of constant 1914 dollars), the average annual incomes of all American non-farm employees rose from $ 375 in 1870 to $ 395 in 1880, $ 519 in 1890 and $ 573 in 1900, a gain of 53% in 30 years. Australian historian Peter Shergold found that the standard of living for industrial workers was higher than in Europe. He compared wages and
606-564: A great communications network. Elisha Otis developed the elevator, allowing the construction of skyscrapers and the concentration of ever greater populations in urban centers. Thomas Edison , in addition to inventing hundreds of devices, established the first electrical lighting utility, basing it on direct current and an efficient incandescent lamp . Electric power delivery spread rapidly across Gilded Age cities. The streets were lit at night, and electric streetcars allowed for faster commuting to work and easier shopping. Petroleum launched
707-415: A lifetime career for young men; women were rarely hired. A typical career path would see a young man hired at age 18 as a shop laborer and promoted to skilled mechanic at age 24, brakeman at 25, freight conductor at 27, and passenger conductor at age 57. White-collar career paths likewise were delineated. Educated young men started in clerical or statistical work and moved up to station agents or bureaucrats at
808-628: A long-distance outlet for wheat, cattle and hogs that reached all the way to Europe. Rural America became one giant market, as wholesalers bought the consumer products produced by the factories in the East and shipped them to local merchants in small stores nationwide. Shipping live animals was slow and expensive. It was more efficient to slaughter them in major packing centers such as Chicago, Kansas City, St. Louis, Milwaukee, and Cincinnati, and then ship dressed meat out in refrigerated freight cars. The cars were cooled by slabs of ice that had been harvested from
909-480: A morning room and library. The doors and bookcases, in carved walnut, were a collaboration between Allard and Cuel. The Dining Room features pink Numidian marble and gilt bronze capitals and trophies. The fireplace is a replica of the one in the Salon d'Hercule at Versailles. The ceiling is decorated painted with a hunting and fishing motif, with an 18th-century French ceiling in the center. Mrs. Vanderbilt's Bedroom, on
1010-485: A new industry beginning with the Pennsylvania oil fields in the 1860s. The United States dominated the global industry into the 1950s. Kerosene replaced whale oil and candles for lighting homes. John D. Rockefeller founded Standard Oil Company and monopolized the oil industry. It mostly produced kerosene before the automobile created a demand for gasoline in the 20th century. According to historian Henry Adams
1111-508: A new middle class was rapidly growing, especially in northern cities. The nation became a world leader in applied technology. From 1860 to 1890, 500,000 patents were issued for new inventions—over ten times the number granted in the previous seventy years. George Westinghouse invented air brakes for trains (making them both safer and faster). Theodore Vail established the American Telephone & Telegraph Company and built
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#17327722349251212-761: A peak membership in 1919. This period saw several financial crises and economic recessions—called "panics", notably the Panic of 1873 and the Panic of 1893 . They lasted several years, with high urban unemployment, low incomes for farmers, low profits for business, slow overall growth, and reduced immigration. They generated political unrest. Gilded Age politics, called the Third Party System, featured intense competition between two major parties, with minor parties coming and going, especially on issues of concern to prohibitionists, to labor unions and to farmers. The Democrats and Republicans (the latter nicknamed
1313-507: A relatively relaxed summer colony of wooden houses to its current image as a resort of opulent stone palaces. The fifty-room mansion required a staff of 36 servants, including butlers, maids, coachmen, and footmen. The mansion cost $ 11 million (equivalent to $ 373 million in 2023); $ 660 million in gold-dollar equivalence (1890 $ 20 double eagle gold coin) of which $ 7 million was spent on 500,000 cubic feet (14,000 m) of marble. Vanderbilt's older brother Cornelius Vanderbilt II subsequently built
1414-709: A surround adapted from the ceiling of the Queen's Bedroom at Versailles. The Gothic Room, in the Gothic Revival -style, was designed to display Alva Vanderbilt's collection of Medieval and Renaissance decorative objects. The stone fireplace in the room was copied by Allard and Sons from one in the Jacques Cœur House in Bourges . The furniture was by Gilbert Cuel. The Library is in the Rococo -style. It served as both
1515-574: A ton and a half. Both are embellished by the monogram "WV" set into an oval medallion. They were made at the John Williams Bronze Foundry in New York. The Stair Hall is a two-story room that features walls and a grand staircase of yellow Siena marble, with a wrought iron and gilt bronze staircase railing. The railing is based on models at Versailles. An 18th-century Venetian ceiling painting featuring gods and goddesses adorns
1616-555: A year, which kept them mired in poverty. Workers had to put in roughly 60 hours a week to earn this much. Wage labor was widely condemned as 'wage slavery' in the working class press, and labor leaders almost always used the phrase in their speeches. As the shift towards wage labor gained momentum, working class organizations became more militant in their efforts to "strike down the whole system of wages for labor." In 1886, economist and New York Mayoral candidate Henry George , author of Progress and Poverty , stated "Chattel slavery
1717-482: Is also a study of the development of the taste and skill of men like Richard Upjohn , Richard Morris Hunt and McKim, Mead and White over their professional careers." Eight of the district's buildings have been designated as National Historic Landmarks in their own right. Several others are listed on the National Register of Historic Places . Many are open to the public for guided tours. To maintain
1818-512: Is dead, but industrial slavery remains." The unequal distribution of wealth remained high during this period. From 1860 to 1900, the wealthiest 2% of American households owned more than a third of the nation's wealth, while the top 10% owned roughly three-quarters of it. The bottom 40% had no wealth at all. In terms of property, the wealthiest 1% owned 51%, while the bottom 44% claimed 1.1%. Historian Howard Zinn argues that this disparity along with precarious working and living conditions for
1919-605: Is generally given as the beginning of the Progressive Era in the 1890s (sometimes the United States presidential election of 1896 ). The Gilded Age was a period of economic growth as the United States jumped to the lead in industrialization ahead of Britain. The nation was rapidly expanding its economy into new areas, especially heavy industry like factories, railroads , and coal mining . In 1869,
2020-567: Is located along and around Bellevue Avenue in Newport , Rhode Island , United States . Its property is almost exclusively residential, including many of the Gilded Age mansions built as summer retreats around the turn of the 20th century by the extremely wealthy, including the Vanderbilt and Astor families. Many of the homes represent pioneering work in the architectural styles of the time by major American architects. The district
2121-575: Is now known as Rovensky Avenue. The Carriage House abuts Rovensky Park, which is maintained by The Preservation Society of Newport County. The Carriage House property is currently privately owned and has been converted for residential use. Marble House, one of the earliest examples of Beaux-Arts architecture in the United States, is loosely inspired by the Petit Trianon at the Palace of Versailles . Jules Allard and Sons of Paris , first hired by
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#17327722349252222-636: Is the next most common, with many of the historic mansions now used as historic house museums . One, Vernon Court , is home of the National Museum of American Illustration . Another, Belcourt Castle , is a privately owned house museum. Many others are owned by the Preservation Society of Newport County . Salve Regina University , home to some more historic buildings, including the William Watts Sherman House ,
2323-465: Is wholly within the district, and there is also a more modern senior citizens home built in the mid-20th century. Commercial properties are clustered near the Newport Casino at the north end of the district, such as two contemporary strip malls opposite and to the right (respectively) of the casino itself. There are some small parks within the district, the block just south of Vernon Court on
2424-553: The America's Cup races which began being held in the nearby waters every three years. The onset of the Depression began to change this, as some families, faced with dwindling fortunes, turned their houses over to the public or private nonprofits such as the Preservation Society of Newport County . As the trend toward tourism continued in the years after World War II , the mansions began being converted into museums and opened to
2525-519: The Atlantic Ocean , is divided into a wing on each side. These wings semi-enclose a marble terrace and are surrounded by a marble balustrade on the ground floor level. The inset central portion of this facade differs from the others, with four bays of ground floor doors topped by second floor arched windows. The interior features a number of notable rooms. Entrance into the mansion is through one of two French Baroque -style doors, each weighing
2626-631: The Reconstruction Era and the Progressive Era . It was named by 1920s historians after an 1873 Mark Twain novel . Historians saw late 19th-century economic expansion as a time of materialistic excesses marked by widespread political corruption. It was a time of rapid economic growth, especially in the Northern and Western United States. As American wages grew much higher than those in Europe, especially for skilled workers, and industrialization demanded an increasingly skilled labor force,
2727-568: The White House . The house was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1971 and was designated a National Historic Landmark in 2006. It is now open to the public as a museum run by the Newport Preservation Society . The mansion was built as a summer "cottage" between 1888 and 1892 for Alva and William Kissam Vanderbilt . It was a social landmark that helped spark the transformation of Newport from
2828-611: The economic depression of the 1870s and became known as the Great Railroad Strike of 1877 , which was, according to historian Jack Beatty , "the largest strike anywhere in the world in the 19th century." This strike did not involve labor unions, but rather uncoordinated outbursts in numerous cities. The strike and associated riots lasted 45 days and resulted in the deaths of several hundred participants (no police or soldiers were killed), several hundred more injuries, and millions in damages to railroad property. The unrest
2929-472: The eight-hour working day , and the abolition of child labor ; middle-class reformers demanded civil service reform, prohibition of liquor and beer, and women's suffrage . Local governments across the North and West built public schools chiefly at the elementary level; public high schools started to emerge. The numerous religious denominations were growing in membership and wealth, with Catholicism becoming
3030-468: The first transcontinental railroad opened up the far-west mining and ranching regions. Travel from New York to San Francisco then took six days instead of six months. Railroad track mileage tripled from 1860 to 1880, and then doubled again by 1920. The new track linked formerly isolated areas with larger markets and allowed for the rise of commercial farming, ranching, and mining, creating a truly national marketplace. American steel production rose to surpass
3131-492: The "Grand Old Party", GOP) fought over control of offices, which were the rewards for party activists, as well as over major economic issues. Very high voter turnout typically exceeded 80% or even 90% in some Northern states as the parties ran strong campaigns. Turnout in the South was lower. Average presidential turnout 1872 to 1900 was 83% in the North and 62% in the South. Competition was intense and elections were very close. In
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3232-401: The 1974 film, The Great Gatsby , the 1995 miniseries The Buccaneers , the 1997 film Amistad , and the 2008 film 27 Dresses were shot here. More recently, Victoria's Secret filmed one of their 2012 holiday commercials here. Gilded Age In United States history , the Gilded Age is described as the period from about the late 1870s to the late 1890s, which occurred between
3333-714: The Bellevue area, later added to the National Register of Historic Places : the original Bellevue Avenue district along the residential portions of the street itself, the Ochre Point/Cliffs district around The Breakers and the Bellevue Avenue/Casino District in that area. In 1972 the city applied to the National Park Service to combine all three and expand them into the current Bellevue Avenue district. Four years later
3434-521: The Democrats and Republicans. Gilded age politicians are somewhat infamous among historians for having few actual policies and doing very little of importance in office. Gilded age presidents are frequently called the "forgotten presidents" because of their mediocre presidencies where they did very little. The major metropolitan centers underwent rapid population growth and as a result had many lucrative contracts and jobs to award. To take advantage of
3535-744: The Gilded Age roughly coincided with the middle portion of the Victorian Era in Britain and the Belle Époque in France. With respect to eras of American history, historical views vary as to when the Gilded Age began, ranging from starting right after the Civil War ended in 1865, or 1873, or as the Reconstruction Era ended in 1877. The date marking the end of the Gilded Age also varies. The ending
3636-503: The Knights claimed 700,000 members. By 1890, membership had plummeted to fewer than 100,000, then faded away. Strikes organized by labor unions became routine events by the 1880s as the gap between the rich and the poor widened. There were 37,000 strikes from 1881 to 1905. By far the largest number were in the building trades, followed far behind by coal miners. The main goal was control of working conditions and settling which rival union
3737-594: The Preservation Society. The mansion was added to the National Register of Historic Places on September 10, 1971. The Department of the Interior designated it as a National Historic Landmark on February 17, 2006. The Bellevue Avenue Historic District , which includes Marble House and many other historic Newport mansions, was added to the Register on December 8, 1972, and subsequently designated as
3838-629: The Prince family carefully occupied the house during Newport's summer season, taking special efforts to leave the vast majority of the interior intact as the Vanderbilts had originally intended. One notable event that occurred in the Marble House during the Prince family's residency was the famed Tiffany Ball in July 1957, sponsored by Tiffany & Company and held to benefit the relatively new Preservation Society of Newport County . Continuing late into
3939-410: The United States led the world. Kennedy reports that "U.S. national income, in absolute figures in per capita, was so far above everybody else's by 1914." Per capita income in the United States was $ 377 in 1914 compared to Britain in second place at $ 244, Germany at $ 184, France at $ 153, and Italy at $ 108, while Russia and Japan trailed far behind at $ 41 and $ 36. London remained the financial center of
4040-535: The Vanderbilts to design some of the interiors for their Petit Chateau on Fifth Avenue in Manhattan , designed the French-inspired interiors of Marble House. The grounds were designed by landscape architect Ernest W. Bowditch. The mansion is U-shaped and, while it appears to be two stories, it actually has four levels: the kitchen and other service areas are located in the basement; reception rooms are on
4141-664: The West based on farming, ranching, and mining. Labor unions became increasingly important in the rapidly growing industrial cities. Two major nationwide depressions—the Panic of 1873 and the Panic of 1893 —interrupted growth and caused social and political upheavals. The South remained economically devastated after the American Civil War ; the region's economy became increasingly tied to commodities like food and building materials, cotton for thread and fabrics, and tobacco production, all of which suffered from low prices. With
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4242-554: The agricultural and technical ("Ag & Tech") fields. Railroads, which had previously invented railroad time to standardize time zones, production, and lifestyles, created modern management, with clear chains of command, statistical reporting, and complex bureaucratic systems. They systematized the roles of middle managers and set up explicit career tracks for both skilled blue-collar jobs and for white-collar managers. These advances spread from railroads into finance, manufacturing, and trade. Together with rapid growth of small business,
4343-514: The book, whereby an increasingly complex set of rules dictated to everyone exactly what should be done in every circumstance, and exactly what their rank and pay would be. By the 1880s the career railroaders were retiring, and pension systems were invented to provide for them. America developed a love-hate relationship with railroads. Boosters in every city worked feverishly to make sure the railroad came through, knowing their urban dreams depended upon it. The mechanical size, scope, and efficiency of
4444-525: The building's third floor, which had formerly been used for servant housing during the Vanderbilts' time. In 1963, the Preservation Society of Newport County purchased the house from the Prince Trust, with funding provided by Harold Stirling Vanderbilt , the Vanderbilt couple's youngest son. Through the Prince Trust, the Prince family donated virtually all original furniture for the house directly to
4545-457: The ceiling. Architect Richard Morris Hunt hired Giuseppe Moretti to produce the interior's marble friezes and statuary, including work on bas-reliefs of Hunt and Jules Hardouin Mansart , the master architect for Louis XIV during the construction of Palace of Versailles; and which stood side by side on the mezzanine level of the staircase. The Grand Salon, designed by Allard and Sons, served as
4646-515: The cliffs at Ochre Point on the eastern shore. The Astors expanded the 1856 Beechwood to suit their needs. These houses and their occupants made Newport synonymous with wealth and leisure in the early 20th century. Tennis and sailing would become associated with the city and the district through the tennis courts in the Casino, which hosted the early tournaments that became the US Open , and
4747-568: The combined totals of Britain, Germany, and France. Investors in London and Paris poured money into the railroads through the American financial market centered in Wall Street . By 1900, the process of economic concentration had extended into most branches of industry—a few large corporations, called " trusts ", dominated in steel, oil, sugar, meat, and farm machinery. Through vertical integration these trusts were able to control each aspect of
4848-437: The competitive sectors. Increased mechanization of industry is a major mark of the Gilded Age's search for cheaper ways to create more product. Frederick Winslow Taylor observed that worker efficiency in steel could be improved through the use of very close observations with a stop watch to eliminate wasted effort. Mechanization made some factories an assemblage of unskilled laborers performing simple and repetitive tasks under
4949-486: The direction of skilled foremen and engineers. Machine shops grew rapidly, and they comprised highly skilled workers and engineers. Both the number of unskilled and skilled workers increased, as their wage rates grew. Engineering colleges were established to feed the enormous demand for expertise, many through the Federal government sponsored Morrill Land-Grant Acts passed to stimulate public education, particularly in
5050-589: The district's historic character, the city created its Historic District Commission (HDC) at the same time as the district itself. It consists of nine citizens appointed to three-year terms by the City Council to oversee not just the downtown historic district but Newport's other historic districts, two of which ( downtown and Ocean Drive ) are also recognized as National Historic Landmarks. The city considers them all one large district for its administrative purposes. The HDC must review any exterior alterations to
5151-411: The district. During the colonial era and the decades after independence , most of Newport's development remained around its downtown area, where port facilities, the mainstay of the city's economy, were. Early in the 19th century, visitors to the city in the summer months came to appreciate the moderating effects of the sea breezes and the panoramic ocean views. They began building cottages along
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#17327722349255252-404: The divisional or central headquarters. At each level they had more and more knowledge, experience, and human capital . They were very hard to replace and were virtually guaranteed permanent jobs and provided with insurance and medical care. Hiring, firing, and wage rates were set not by foremen, but by central administrators, to minimize favoritism and personality conflicts. Everything was done by
5353-534: The early morning hours, the ball welcomed internationally known guests including then Senator John F. Kennedy and his wife, Jacqueline Bouvier Kennedy; Mr. and Mrs. E. Sheldon Whitehouse ; the Astors; and Count Anthony and Countess Sylvia Szapary of the Vanderbilt family. During their summer occupancies, to help preserve the integrity of Marble House's famed interiors, the Princes primarily resided in smaller quarters in
5454-487: The east side of Bellevue is the location of the Frederick Law Olmsted Arboretum, located on the site of Stoneacre, no longer extant. The grounds of Stoneacre were designed by Frederick Law Olmsted . Rovensky Park is further down Bellevue Avenue and is maintained by the Preservation Society of Newport County. Many of the larger mansions sit on large lots , leaving plenty of open space within
5555-482: The end of the Reconstruction era in 1877 and the rise of Jim Crow laws , African American (more generally termed Black, referring to darker skin color) people in the South were stripped of political power and voting rights, and were left severely economically disadvantaged. The political landscape was notable in that despite rampant corruption, election turnout was comparatively high among all classes (though
5656-424: The era by 1920s historians who took the term from one of Mark Twain 's lesser-known novels, The Gilded Age: A Tale of Today (1873). The book (co-written with Charles Dudley Warner ) satirized the promised " golden age " after the Civil War, portrayed as an era of serious social problems masked by a thin gold gilding of economic expansion. In the 1920s, and 1930s, the metaphor "Gilded Age" began to be applied to
5757-463: The era, the bottom 25% owned 0.32% of the wealth while the top 0.1% owned 9.4%, which would mean the period had the lowest wealth gap in recorded history. He attributes this to the lack of government interference. There was a significant human cost attached to this period of economic growth, as American industry had the highest rate of accidents in the world. In 1889, railroads employed 704,000 men, of whom 20,000 were injured and 1,972 were killed on
5858-880: The expense of the working class, by chicanery and a betrayal of democracy. Their admirers argued that they were "Captains of Industry" who built the core America industrial economy and also the non-profit sector through acts of philanthropy. For instance, Andrew Carnegie donated over 90% of his wealth and said that philanthropy was their duty—the " Gospel of Wealth ". Private money endowed thousands of colleges, hospitals, museums, academies, schools, opera houses, public libraries, and charities. John D. Rockefeller donated over $ 500 million to various charities, slightly over half his entire net worth. Reflecting this, many business leaders were influenced by Herbert Spencer 's theory of social Darwinism , which justified laissez-faire capitalism, competition and social stratification . This emerging industrial economy quickly expanded to meet
5959-486: The extent of the franchise was generally limited to men), and national elections featured two similarly sized parties. The dominant issues were cultural (especially regarding prohibition , education, and ethnic or racial groups) and economic (tariffs and money supply). Urban politics were tied to rapidly growing industrial cities, which increasingly fell under control of political machines . In business, powerful nationwide trusts formed in some industries. Unions crusaded for
6060-429: The ground floor and rectangular ones on the second occupy most of the facade. A curved marble carriage ramp, fronted by a semi-circular fountain with grotesque masks, spans the entire western facade. The masks serve as water spouts. The center of this facade, facing Bellevue Avenue, features a monumental tetrastyle Corinthian portico. The north and south facades match the western in basic design. The eastern facade, facing
6161-444: The ground floor; bedrooms are on the second floor; and servant quarters are on the concealed third floor. Load-bearing walls are brick, with their exterior sides faced in white Westchester marble , which Hunt detailed in the manner of French neoclassical architecture of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The facade of the mansion features bays that are defined by two story Corinthian pilasters . These frame arched windows on
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#17327722349256262-414: The higher ground where Bellevue Avenue, then a lightly traveled farm path, now runs. In 1839, George Noble Jones , a Southern plantation owner, built Kingscote , a Carpenter Gothic building considered the first of the city's mansions. The Civil War and the years leading up to it slowed further development in the area, but then it picked up again during the economic prosperity of the Gilded Age in
6363-741: The job. The U.S. was also the only industrial power to have no workman's compensation program in place to support injured workers. Craft-oriented labor unions, such as carpenters, printers, shoemakers and cigar makers, grew steadily in the industrial cities after 1870. These unions used frequent short strikes as a method to attain control over the labor market and fight off competing unions. They generally blocked women, blacks, and Chinese from union membership, but welcomed most European immigrants. The railroads had their own separate unions. An especially large episode of unrest (estimated at eighty thousand railroad workers and several hundred thousand other Americans, both employed and unemployed) broke out during
6464-486: The largest of the Newport cottages, The Breakers , between 1893 and 1895. When Alva Vanderbilt divorced William in 1895, she already owned Marble House outright, having received it as her 39th birthday present. Upon her remarriage in 1896 to Oliver Hazard Perry Belmont , she relocated down the street to Belmont's mansion, Belcourt . After his death, she reopened Marble House and added the Chinese Tea House on
6565-399: The largest. They all expanded their missionary activity to the world arena. Catholics, Lutherans , and Episcopalians set up religious schools, and the largest of those schools set up numerous colleges, hospitals, and charities. Many of the problems faced by society, especially the poor, gave rise to attempted reforms in the subsequent Progressive Era . The term Gilded Age was applied to
6666-584: The later decades of the 19th century. Houses became slightly larger than the original cottages, and experimented with new architectural styles . Chateau-sur-Mer was one of the few built as a year-round residence in 1851, it was later expanded in the 1880s using the Second Empire architecture from France. The Casino and the Isaac Bell House inaugurated the Shingle style , where that material
6767-689: The local factory owner who could patrol every part of his own factory in a matter of hours. Civil engineers became the senior management of railroads. The leading innovators were the Western Railroad of Massachusetts and the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad in the 1840s, the Erie in the 1850s, and the Pennsylvania in the 1860s. The railroads invented the career path in the private sector for both blue- and white-collar workers. Railroading became
6868-559: The most hated railroad men in the country was Collis P. Huntington (1821–1900), the president of the Southern Pacific Railroad , who dominated California's economy and politics. One textbook argues: "Huntington came to symbolize the greed and corruption of late-nineteenth-century business. Business rivals and political reformers accused him of every conceivable evil. Journalists and cartoonists made their reputations by pillorying him.... Historians have cast Huntington as
6969-502: The natural resources and virgin lands that were available in America acted as a safety valve for poorer workers, hence, employers had to pay higher wages to hire labor. According to Shergold the American advantage grew over time from 1890 to 1914, and the perceived higher American wage led to a heavy steady flow of skilled workers from Britain to industrial America. According to historian Steve Fraser, workers generally earned less than $ 800
7070-464: The new district was recognized as a National Historic Landmark District , the second of three in the city. The mansions and museums continue to be a draw for visitors to the city today. The builders of the mansions had the means to employ the best architectural talent available to them at the highest level of creativity. "The list of architects", says NPS historian Carolyn Pitts,"embraces almost every major designer of that time and what emerges at Newport
7171-414: The new economic opportunity, both parties built so-called " political machines " to manage elections, to reward supporters and to pay off potential opponents. Financed by the " spoils system ", the winning party distributed most local, state and national government jobs, and many government contracts, to its loyal supporters. Bellevue Avenue Historic District The Bellevue Avenue Historic District
7272-560: The new market demands. From 1869 to 1879, the U.S. economy grew at a rate of 6.8% for NNP (GDP minus capital depreciation) and 4.5% for NNP per capita. The economy repeated this period of growth in the 1880s, in which the wealth of the nation grew at an annual rate of 3.8%, while the GDP was also doubled. Libertarian economist Milton Friedman states that for the 1880s, "The highest decadal rate [of growth of real reproducible, tangible wealth per head from 1805 to 1950] for periods of about ten years
7373-399: The northern lakes in wintertime and stored for summer and fall usage. Chicago, the main railroad center, benefited enormously, with Kansas City a distant second. Historian William Cronon concludes: During the 1870s and 1880s, the U.S. economy rose at the fastest rate in its history, with real wages, wealth, GDP, and capital formation all increasing rapidly. For example, from 1865 to 1898,
7474-413: The output of wheat increased by 256%, corn by 222%, coal by 800%, and miles of railway track by 567%. Thick national networks for transportation and communication were created. The corporation became the dominant form of business organization, and a scientific management revolution transformed business operations. By the beginning of the 20th century, gross domestic product and industrial production in
7575-406: The period saw an influx of millions of European immigrants. The rapid expansion of industrialization led to real wage growth of 40% from 1860 to 1890 and spread across the increasing labor force. The average annual wage per industrial worker (including men, women, and children) rose from $ 380 in 1880 ($ 11,998 in 2023 dollars ) to $ 584 in 1890 ($ 19,126 in 2023 dollars ), a gain of 59%. The Gilded Age
7676-405: The policemen dispersing a meeting. Police then randomly fired into the crowd, killing and wounding a number of people, including other police, and arbitrarily rounded up anarchists, including leaders of the movement. Seven anarchists went on trial; four were hanged even though no evidence directly linked them to the bombing. One had in his possession a Knights of Labor membership card. At its peak,
7777-427: The production of a specific good, ensuring that the profits made on the finished product were maximized and prices minimized, and by controlling access to the raw materials, prevented other companies from being able to compete in the marketplace. Several monopolies—most famously Standard Oil —came to dominate their markets by keeping prices low when competitors appeared; they grew at a rate four times faster than that of
7878-551: The public; the International Tennis Hall of Fame opened in the Casino in 1955. The 1962 sale of The Elms , the last of the mansions to be owned and operated by the original family, marked the end of the resort era. Preservation efforts had been going on in the downtown historic district for years, and the city had begun to appreciate their value as tourist attractions. In 1965, it recognized as part of its original local historic district three smaller areas in
7979-403: The railroads made a profound impression; people dressed in their Sunday best to go down to the terminal to watch the train come in. Travel became much easier, cheaper, and more common. Shoppers from small towns could make day trips to big city stores. Hotels, resorts, and tourist attractions were built to accommodate the demand. The realization that anyone could buy a ticket for a thousand-mile trip
8080-552: The seaside cliff, where she hosted rallies for women's suffrage . Alva Belmont closed the mansion permanently in 1919, when she relocated to France to be closer to her daughter, Consuelo Balsan . There she divided her time between a Paris townhouse, a villa on the Riviera , and the Château d'Augerville , which she restored. She sold the house to Frederick H. Prince in 1932, less than a year before her death. For more than 30 years,
8181-585: The second floor, is in the Louis XIV style. The ceiling in this room is adorned with a circular ceiling painting of Athena , painted circa 1721 by Giovanni Antonio Pellegrini . It was originally in the library of the Palazzo Pisani Moretta in Venice. The interiors of the mansion have appeared in several films or television series. Scenes appearing in the 1972–73 television series, America ,
8282-491: The solution. The AFL was a coalition of unions, each based on strong local chapters; the AFL coordinated their work in cities and prevented jurisdictional battles. Gompers repudiated socialism and abandoned the violent nature of the earlier unions. The AFL worked to control the local labor market, thereby empowering its locals to obtain higher wages and more control over hiring. As a result, the AFL unions spread to most cities, reaching
8383-526: The south and east, respectively, Spring Street and Coggeshall Avenue to the west, and Memorial Boulevard to the north. This takes in the southeastern quarter of the developed portions of the city on the southwestern neck of Aquidneck Island . Bellevue Avenue itself runs north–south for over two miles (3.2 km) through the middle of the district. Land use within the district is overwhelmingly residential. Most of its 63 buildings are dwellings either in use or originally built for that purpose. Institutional use
8484-498: The southern states, lingering resentment over the Civil War remained and meant that much of the South would vote Democratic. After the end of Reconstruction in 1877, competition in the South took place mainly inside the Democratic Party. Nationwide, turnout fell sharply after 1900. Despite the high voter turnout, aggressive political campaigning, and frequently nasty elections, there were few real policy differences between
8585-546: The standard of living in Pittsburgh with Birmingham, England, one of the richest industrial cities of Europe. After taking account of the cost of living (which was 65% higher in the U.S.), he found the standard of living of unskilled workers was about the same in the two cities, while skilled workers in Pittsburgh had about 50% to 100% higher standard of living as those in Birmingham, England. Warren B. Catlin proposed that
8686-418: The state's most despicable villain." However Huntington defended himself: "The motives back of my actions have been honest ones and the results have redounded far more to the benefit of California than they have to my own." The growth of railroads from 1850s to 1880s made commercial farming much more feasible and profitable. Millions of acres were opened to settlement once the railroad was nearby, and provided
8787-448: The system of railroads needed: The impact can be examined through five aspects: shipping, finance, management, careers, and popular reaction. Railroads provided a highly efficient network for shipping freight and passengers throughout the U.S., spurring the evolution of a large national market. This had a transformative impact on most sectors of the economy including manufacturing, retail and wholesale, agriculture, and finance. The result
8888-451: The working classes prompted the rise of populist , anarchist , and socialist movements. French economist Thomas Piketty notes that economists during this time, such as Willford I. King , were concerned that the United States was becoming increasingly inegalitarian to the point of becoming like old Europe, and "further and further away from its original pioneering ideal." According to economist Richard Sutch in an alternative view of
8989-935: The world until 1914, yet the United States' growth caused foreigners to ask, as British author W. T. Stead wrote in 1901, "What is the secret of American success?" The businessmen of the Second Industrial Revolution created industrial towns and cities in the Northeast with new factories, and hired an ethnically diverse industrial working class, many of them new immigrants from Europe. Wealthy industrialists and financiers such as John D. Rockefeller , Jay Gould , Henry Clay Frick , Andrew Mellon , Andrew Carnegie , Henry Flagler , Henry Huttleston Rogers , J. P. Morgan , Leland Stanford , Meyer Guggenheim , Jacob Schiff , Charles Crocker , and Cornelius Vanderbilt would sometimes be labeled " robber barons " by their critics, who argue their fortunes were made at
9090-489: Was $ 1.8 billion; 1897, it reached $ 10.6 billion (compared to a total national debt of $ 1.2 billion). Funding came primarily from private finance throughout the Northeast, and from Europe, especially Britain, with about 10 percent coming from the Federal government, especially in the form of land grants that could be realized when a certain amount of trackage was opened. The emerging American financial system
9191-486: Was also a dark side. By the 1870s railroads were vilified by Western farmers who absorbed the Granger movement theme that monopolistic carriers controlled too much pricing power, and that the state legislatures had to regulate maximum prices. Local merchants and shippers supported the demand and got some " Granger Laws " passed. Anti-railroad complaints were loudly repeated in late 19th century political rhetoric. One of
9292-489: Was also an era of poverty, especially in the South, and growing inequality, as millions of immigrants poured into the United States, and the high concentration of wealth became more visible and contentious. Railroads were the major growth industry, with the factory system, oil, mining, and finance increasing in importance. Immigration from Europe and the Eastern United States led to the rapid growth of
9393-406: Was an integrated market practically the size of Europe's, with no internal barriers, tariffs, or language barriers to hamper it, and a common financial and legal system to support it. Railroad financing provided the basis for a dramatic expansion of the private financial system. Construction of railroads was far more expensive than factories. In 1860, the combined total of railroad stocks and bonds
9494-511: Was apparently reached in the eighties with approximately 3.8 percent." The rapid expansion of industrialization led to real wage growth of 60% from 1860 to 1890, spread across the increasing labor force. Real wages (adjusting for inflation) rose steadily, with the exact percentage increase depending on the dates and the specific work force. The Census Bureau reported in 1892, that the average annual wage per industrial worker (including men, women, and children) rose from $ 380 in 1880 to $ 564 in 1890,
9595-454: Was based on railroad bonds. By 1860, New York was the dominant financial market. The British invested heavily in railroads around the world, but nowhere more so than the United States; The total came to about $ 3 billion by 1914. In 1914–1917, they liquidated their American assets to pay for war supplies. Railroad management designed complex systems that could handle far more complicated simultaneous relationships than could be dreamed of by
9696-399: Was declared a National Historic Landmark (NHL) in 1976. Several of the mansions within the district are also individually National Historic Landmarks, and a number of them are open to the public as museums. The district has become one of Newport's major tourist attractions. The district encompasses an area of 606 acres (245 ha) bounded by Block Island Sound and Narragansett Bay to
9797-713: Was deemed severe enough by the government that President Rutherford B. Hayes intervened with federal troops. Starting in the mid-1880s a new group, the Knights of Labor , grew too rapidly, and it spun out of control and failed to handle the Great Southwest Railroad Strike of 1886 . The Knights avoided violence, but their reputation collapsed in the wake of the Haymarket Square Riot in Chicago in 1886 , when anarchists allegedly bombed
9898-696: Was empowering. Historians Gary Cross and Rick Szostak argue: The civil and mechanical engineers became model citizens, bringing their can-do spirit and their systematic work effort to all phases of the economy as well as local and national government. By 1910, major cities were building magnificent palatial railroad stations, such as the Pennsylvania Station in New York City, and the Union Station in Washington, D.C. But there
9999-420: Was in control. Most were of very short duration. In times of depression strikes were more violent but less successful, because the company was losing money anyway. They were successful in times of prosperity when the company was losing profits and wanted to settle quickly. The largest and most dramatic strike was the 1894 Pullman Strike , a coordinated effort to shut down the national railroad system. The strike
10100-438: Was led by the upstart American Railway Union led by Eugene V. Debs and was not supported by the established brotherhoods. The union defied federal court orders to stop blocking the mail trains, so President Cleveland used the U.S. Army to get the trains moving again. The ARU vanished and the traditional railroad brotherhoods survived but avoided strikes. The new American Federation of Labor , headed by Samuel Gompers , found
10201-483: Was used as siding instead of clapboard. More and more wealthy families were drawn to Newport in the summers, transforming the architecture again. William Kissam Vanderbilt 's Marble House in 1888 helped spark the transformation of Newport with stone as a building material, Beaux Arts as a style, and set a new standard for size. A few years later, his brother Cornelius spent a record $ 7 million (equivalent to $ 256 million in 2023) on The Breakers , sitting above
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