Margariti ( Greek : Μαργαρίτι ) is a village and a former municipality in Thesprotia , Epirus , Greece . Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Igoumenitsa , of which it is a municipal unit. The municipal unit has an area of 149.223 km. Population 1,931 (2021).
119-707: The toponym Margariti ( Greek : Μαργαρίτι ) is thought to come from Margaritos , a pirate of the Emirate of Sicily to whom the Crusader Normans surrendered their holdings on the Ionian coast in the 12th century. The toponym is of uncertain origin and is attested for the first time during the 16th century. In the Albanian language it is known as Margëlliç and in Ottoman Turkish as Margliç . This form
238-516: A thalassocracy leaving traces in written sources, they invested the ports at the start of important trade routes linking India , China and Indonesian islands. Historians are now no longer disputing in associating the Sa Huynh culture (1000 BC–200 AD) with the ancestors of the Cham people and other Chamic-speaking groups. Patterns and chronology of migration remain debated and it is assumed that
357-577: A basis for coinages: anthropology , photography , telephony , isomer , biomechanics , cinematography , etc. Together with Latin words , they form the foundation of international scientific and technical vocabulary ; for example, all words ending in -logy ('discourse'). There are many English words of Greek origin . Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European language family. The ancient language most closely related to it may be ancient Macedonian , which, by most accounts,
476-643: A campaign which was launched in the Southwest as early as 1972. In the 1960s various movements emerged calling for the creation of a separate Cham state in Vietnam. The Front for the Liberation of Champa (FLC) and the Front de Libération des Hauts plateaux dominated. The latter group sought greater alliance with other hill tribe minorities. Initially known as " Front des Petits Peuples " from 1946 to 1960,
595-558: A fairly stable set of consonantal contrasts . The main phonological changes occurred during the Hellenistic and Roman period (see Koine Greek phonology for details): In all its stages, the morphology of Greek shows an extensive set of productive derivational affixes , a limited but productive system of compounding and a rich inflectional system. Although its morphological categories have been fairly stable over time, morphological changes are present throughout, particularly in
714-560: A faster, more convenient cursive writing style with the use of ink and quill . The Greek alphabet consists of 24 letters, each with an uppercase ( majuscule ) and lowercase ( minuscule ) form. The letter sigma has an additional lowercase form (ς) used in the final position of a word: In addition to the letters, the Greek alphabet features a number of diacritical signs : three different accent marks ( acute , grave , and circumflex ), originally denoting different shapes of pitch accent on
833-540: A foreign language. It is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, " Homeric Greek is probably closer to Demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English ". Greek is spoken today by at least 13 million people, principally in Greece and Cyprus along with a sizable Greek-speaking minority in Albania near
952-587: A large minority presence in Ho Chi Minh City . This group represents the core of the Muslim communities in both Cambodia and Vietnam . Including the diaspora , their total is about 400,000. An additional 4,000 Chams live in Bangkok , Thailand , whose ancestors migrated there during Rama I 's reign. Recent immigrants to Thailand are mainly students and workers, who preferably seek work and education in
1071-620: A law banning marriage between Cham women and Vietnamese men, regardless of class. ( Tạ 1988 , p. 137) The Vietnamese also issued instructions in the capital to kill all Chams within the vicinity. More attacks by the Vietnamese continued and in 1693 the Champa Kingdom's territory was integrated as part of Vietnamese territory. The trade in Vietnamese ceramics was damaged due to the plummet in trade by Cham merchants after
1190-462: A part of the vast tide of exchange, treading the same path as Hinduism and Buddhism centuries before. Cham people picked up these ideas by the 11th century. This can be seen in the architecture of Cham temples, which shares similarities with the one of the Angkor temples. Ad-Dimashqi writes in 1325, "the country of Champa... is inhabited by Muslims and idolaters. The Muslim religion came there during
1309-956: A princess of Champa who married to Kertawijaya (Brawijaya V), the King of Majapahit Empire. Local legend says that he built the Great Mosque of Demak ( Masjid Agung Demak ) in 1479 CE, but other legends attribute that work to Sunan Kalijaga . Sunan Ampel died in Demak in 1481 CE, but is buried in Ampel Mosque at Surabaya , East Java . Recent scholarship, however, has shown that widespread conversion to Islam came much later. Poorly studied artifacts such as Islamic graves (which simply could have been ships' ballast) have been reexamined to show that they were, in fact, Tunisian and not Cham. Poorly conducted linguistic research attempting to link vocabulary to Arabic has been debunked as well. Rather, there
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#17327877128441428-504: Is R-M17. Changmai et. al (2022) re-affirms the presence of South Asian Y-haplogroups in Cham, mainly R-M17 (13.6%) and R-M124 (3.4%). The Cham culture is diverse and rich because of the combination of indigenous cultural elements (plains culture, maritime culture, and mountain culture) and foreign cultural features (Indian cultures and religions such as Buddhism; early Han Chinese influences; Islam) (Phan Xuan Bien et al. 1991:376). The blend of indigenous and foreign elements in Cham culture
1547-719: Is a result of ecological, social, and historical conditions. The influences of various Indian cultures produced similarities among many groups in Southeast Asia such as the Cham, who traded or communicated with polities on the Indian subcontinent. However, the indigenous elements also allow for cultural distinctions. As an example, Brahmanism became the Ahier religion, while other aspects of influence were changed, to adapt to local Ahier characteristics and environment. The blending of various cultures has produced its own unique form through
1666-804: Is also found in Bulgaria near the Greek-Bulgarian border. Greek is also spoken worldwide by the sizable Greek diaspora which has notable communities in the United States , Australia , Canada , South Africa , Chile , Brazil , Argentina , Russia , Ukraine , the United Kingdom , and throughout the European Union , especially in Germany . Historically, significant Greek-speaking communities and regions were found throughout
1785-773: Is an Indo-European language, constituting an independent Hellenic branch within the Indo-European language family. It is native to Greece , Cyprus , Italy (in Calabria and Salento ), southern Albania , and other regions of the Balkans , Caucasus , the Black Sea coast, Asia Minor , and the Eastern Mediterranean . It has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning at least 3,400 years of written records. Its writing system
1904-479: Is an Indo-European language, but also includes a number of borrowings from the languages of the populations that inhabited Greece before the arrival of Proto-Greeks, some documented in Mycenaean texts ; they include a large number of Greek toponyms . The form and meaning of many words have changed. Loanwords (words of foreign origin) have entered the language, mainly from Latin, Venetian , and Turkish . During
2023-462: Is attested since 1611, when Gjon Mekuli from Parga reports to the Venetians that Marghelici had been affected by the plague. Historical documents tend to use the form Margariti . Margariti was not used as the name of the area for most of its existence. The settlements and the region were known as the nahiye/kaza of Mazarak , the name of a village 6km to the south of modern Margariti. Mazarak
2142-568: Is considered as a focal point of the Wali Sanga, because several of them were actually his descendants and/or his students. His father is Maulana Malik Ibrahim also known as Ibrahim as-Samarkandy ("Ibrahim Asmarakandi" to Javanese ears), and his mother is Dewi Candrawulan, a princess of Champa who's also the sister of Queen Dwarawati. Sunan Ampel was born in Champa in 1401 CE. He came to Java in 1443 CE, in order to visit his aunt Queen Dwarawati,
2261-466: Is difficult to categorize. According to Cham human rights activists, the Vietnamese regime, the fears of historical influence has evolved into suppression of Islam among Muslims Chams. For example, there is an unofficial ban on distributing the Quran and other Islamic scripture. Even with Vietnam's growing relations with Muslim states like Indonesia , Malaysia , Saudi Arabia , Iran , Turkey and Egypt ,
2380-550: Is no sound evidence for widespread conversion to Islam until the 16th century. Between the rise of the Khmer Empire around 800 and the Vietnamese 's territorial expansion southwards from Jiaozhi and, later, Đại Việt , Champa began to shrink. At a disadvantage against Dai Viet's army of 300,000 troops, the Cham army of 100,000 were overwhelmed. In the Cham–Vietnamese War (1471) , Champa suffered serious defeats at
2499-519: Is protected and promoted officially as a regional and minority language in Armenia, Hungary , Romania, and Ukraine. It is recognized as a minority language and protected in Turkey by the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne . The phonology , morphology , syntax , and vocabulary of the language show both conservative and innovative tendencies across the entire attestation of the language from the ancient to
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#17327877128442618-640: Is said that the king of Brawijaya V has a wife named Dewi Anarawati (or Dewi Dwarawati), a Muslim daughter of the King of Champa (Chams). Chams had trade and close cultural ties with the maritime kingdom of Srivijaya in the Malay Archipelago . Another significant figure from Champa in the history of Islam in Indonesia is Raden Rakhmat (Prince Rahmat) who's also known as Sunan Ampel , one of Wali Sanga (Nine Saints), who spread Islam in Java . He
2737-1144: Is sometimes called aljamiado , as when Romance languages are written in the Arabic alphabet. Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Greek: Transcription of the example text into Latin alphabet : Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in English: Proto-Greek Mycenaean Ancient Koine Medieval Modern Chams The Chams ( Cham : ꨌꩌ , چام, cam ), or Champa people ( Cham : ꨂꨣꩃ ꨌꩌꨛꨩ , اوراڠ چامفا, Urang Campa ; Vietnamese : Người Chăm or Người Chàm ; Khmer : ជនជាតិចាម , Chônchéatĕ Cham ), are an Austronesian ethnic group in Southeast Asia and are
2856-526: Is spoken by at least 13.5 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey , and the many other countries of the Greek diaspora . Greek roots have been widely used for centuries and continue to be widely used to coin new words in other languages; Greek and Latin are the predominant sources of international scientific vocabulary . Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around
2975-776: Is spoken by the Utsul , a Cham subgroup on China's Hainan Island ), the two Chamic languages from the Malayo-Polynesian branch of the Austronesian family . The Cham people were one among several ethnic groups that were primarily targeted by the Khmer Rouge 's ethnic cleansing campaign during the Cambodian Genocide (1975–1979). For a long time, researchers believed that the Chams had arrived by sea in
3094-763: Is still used internationally for the writing of Ancient Greek . In Greek, the question mark is written as the English semicolon, while the functions of the colon and semicolon are performed by a raised point (•), known as the ano teleia ( άνω τελεία ). In Greek the comma also functions as a silent letter in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing ό,τι ( ó,ti , 'whatever') from ότι ( óti , 'that'). Ancient Greek texts often used scriptio continua ('continuous writing'), which means that ancient authors and scribes would write word after word with no spaces or punctuation between words to differentiate or mark boundaries. Boustrophedon , or bi-directional text,
3213-650: Is the Greek alphabet , which has been used for approximately 2,800 years; previously, Greek was recorded in writing systems such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary . The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin , Cyrillic , Coptic , Gothic , and many other writing systems. The Greek language holds a very important place in the history of the Western world. Beginning with
3332-503: Is the common average for villages situated on arable land that were not very productive. Local Muslim converts appear in Margariti as early as the 16th century. It is noted that the conversion to Islam of the guard of Margariti, which came from the local medieval Albanian Mazaraki clan, must have been finalized before 1571. A century later, in 1670, when Evliya Çelebi passed through Margariti, he noted that there were 200 houses within
3451-518: Is two thirds less than the figure mentioned by the Greek report in 1880. Many ruins, such as minarets, houses and mosques, can be found throughout Margariti and the surrounding villages as a reminder of the expulsion of the Cham Albanians from the region. The ruins of the castle of Margariti can be found on the southern edge of the modern town. Despite the restoration efforts on Ottoman monuments elsewhere in Greece, nothing has been done to restore
3570-786: Is written in Eastern Cham script in Central Vietnam while the language is predominantly written in Jawi Arabic script around the Mekong Delta . Western Cham script, used in Cambodia, is different enough from Eastern Cham's to be under review by the Unicode Consortium for inclusion as its own block — as of 2022, the character set is still being revised. The Kan Imam San sect, accounting for about 10% of
3689-531: The Cambodian genocide in Democratic Kampuchea . The Khmer Rouge targeted ethnic minorities like Chinese , Thai, Lao, Vietnamese and the Cham people, though the Cham suffered the largest death toll in proportion to their population. Around 80,000 to 100,000 Cham out of a total Cham population of 250,000 people in 1975, died in the genocide. The Cham in Vietnam are officially recognized by
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3808-581: The Cambodian–Dutch War to expel the Dutch. The Vietnamese Nguyen Lords toppled Ibrahim from power to restore Buddhist rule. In the 18th century and the 19th century, Cambodian-based Chams settled in Bangkok . Further expansion by the Vietnamese in 1692 resulted in the total annexation of the Champa kingdom Panduranga and dissolution by the 19th century Vietnamese Emperor, Minh Mạng . In response,
3927-639: The Communist Party of Kampuchea (CPK), and he co-established the Eastern Zone Islamic Movement with his son, Mat Ly. Together, they became the mouthpiece of the Khmer Rouge and they encouraged the Cham people to participate in the revolution. Sos Man's Islamic Movement was also tolerated by the Khmer Rouge's leadership between 1970 and 1975. The Chams were gradually forced to abandon their faith and their distinct practices,
4046-495: The Eastern Mediterranean , in what are today Southern Italy , Turkey , Cyprus , Syria , Lebanon , Israel , Palestine , Egypt , and Libya ; in the area of the Black Sea , in what are today Turkey, Bulgaria , Romania , Ukraine , Russia , Georgia , Armenia , and Azerbaijan ; and, to a lesser extent, in the Western Mediterranean in and around colonies such as Massalia , Monoikos , and Mainake . It
4165-516: The Indo-Iranian languages (see Graeco-Aryan ), but little definitive evidence has been found. In addition, Albanian has also been considered somewhat related to Greek and Armenian, and it has been proposed that they all form a higher-order subgroup along with other extinct languages of the ancient Balkans; this higher-order subgroup is usually termed Palaeo-Balkan , and Greek has a central position in it. Linear B , attested as early as
4284-736: The Malacca Sultanate was officially Muslim since 1414. The King of Champa then became an ally of the Johor Sultanate ; in 1594, Champa sent its military forces to fight alongside Johor against the Portuguese occupation of Malacca . Between 1607 and 1676, one of the Champa kings converted to Islam and it became a dominant feature of Cham society. The Chams also adopted the Jawi alphabet . Historical records in Indonesia showed
4403-523: The Malaysian government out of sympathy for fellow Muslims; most of them have now assimilated with Malay cultures. The integrated community who self identifies as Melayu Champa (" Champa Malay") has dabbled into trades of agarwood , clothing (especially in Kelantan) and fishery (in coastal Pahang ) from their arrival in the late 1970s to the 80s. The Cham community suffered a major blow during
4522-609: The Tanzimat reforms of 1861, Margariti once again became the centre of a Kaza in the Sanjak of Preveza . Representatives from Margariti were part of the southern branch of the League of Prizren . In 1880, Muslim Albanians constituted 82% of Margariti's population with a total of 1,100 inhabitants; the remainder consisted of 240 Christians. The Kaza of Margariti itself numbered to 48 villages with 3,813 Christians and 15,202 Muslims, making
4641-492: The nominal and verbal systems. The major change in the nominal morphology since the classical stage was the disuse of the dative case (its functions being largely taken over by the genitive ). The verbal system has lost the infinitive , the synthetically -formed future, and perfect tenses and the optative mood . Many have been replaced by periphrastic ( analytical ) forms. Pronouns show distinctions in person (1st, 2nd, and 3rd), number (singular, dual , and plural in
4760-422: The 12th century, the Cham fought a series of wars with the Khmer Empire to the west. In 1177, the Cham and their allies launched an attack from the lake Tonlé Sap and managed to sack the Khmer capital of Angkor . In 1181, however, they were defeated by the Khmer King Jayavarman VII . Islam first arrived in Champa around the ninth century; however, it did not become significant among the Cham people until after
4879-412: The 17th century CE, Champa became an Islamic sultanate. Today, the Cham people are largely Muslim , with a minority following Hinduism , both formed the indigenous Muslim and Hindu population in both Cambodia and Vietnam. Despite their adherence to Islam, the Cham people still retain their ancestral practice of matriarchy in family and inheritance. The Cham people speak Cham and Tsat (the latter
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4998-415: The 3rd millennium BC, or possibly earlier. The earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the world's oldest recorded living language . Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now-extinct Anatolian languages . The Greek language is conventionally divided into
5117-447: The 4th century AD. The Dong Yen Chau inscription , written in old Cham, is the oldest known attestation of an Austronesian language. Cham is very rich with many loan words and terminology influenced by many other languages it came into contact with. Most Cham speak the language though many also speak the dominant language of the nation they reside in like Vietnamese, Khmer, Malay and others. Some Cham can also speak and write Arabic. Cham
5236-410: The Cham most likely originated from admixture between islander Southeast Asian immigrants and mainland Southeast Asians, especially Mon-Khmers. About 18.6% of their Y haplogroups are also South Asian in origin, mostly R-M17, R-M124, and H-M69. This significantly differs from the Kinh Vietnamese, who mostly have haplogroup O-M7, which originated from China. But they possess one South Asian haplogroup, which
5355-417: The Cham of central Vietnam. The festival venerates ancient Cham royalty gods. Among Cham Muslims, Ramadan, El Fitri, and the Hajj are important celebrations. However, the Cham (regardless of faith) all have a very rich tradition of dance, arts, music, costumes, poetry, and more. The Cham language is part of the Austronesian language family . Although sparse, Cham literary tradition is ancient, dating back to
5474-512: The Cham people, the only Austronesian ethnic group originated from South Asia, arrived later in peninsular Southeast Asia via Borneo. Mainland Southeast Asia had been populated on land routes by members of the Austroasiatic language family , such as the Mon people and the Khmer people around 5,000 years ago. The Cham were accomplished Austronesian seafarers that from centuries populated and soon dominated maritime Southeast Asia . Earliest known records of Cham presence in Indochina date back to
5593-456: The Chams, the International Office of Champa (IOC), whose headquarter locates in San Jose, California , only demands civil and land rights for the Cham people in Vietnam and Cambodia. Criticism and concerns against Vietnamese, Indian, Malaysian governments and tourist corporations for misappropriating Cham heritage and ignoring living indigenous culture was made by the IOC and international scientists in recent years. He et. al (2012) states that
5712-486: The Greek alphabet since approximately the 9th century BC. It was created by modifying the Phoenician alphabet , with the innovation of adopting certain letters to represent the vowels. The variant of the alphabet in use today is essentially the late Ionic variant, introduced for writing classical Attic in 403 BC. In classical Greek, as in classical Latin, only upper-case letters existed. The lower-case Greek letters were developed much later by medieval scribes to permit
5831-425: The Greek language are often emphasized. Although Greek has undergone morphological and phonological changes comparable to those seen in other languages, never since classical antiquity has its cultural, literary, and orthographic tradition been interrupted to the extent that one can speak of a new language emerging. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than
5950-442: The Greek language was the Cypriot syllabary (also a descendant of Linear A via the intermediate Cypro-Minoan syllabary ), which is closely related to Linear B but uses somewhat different syllabic conventions to represent phoneme sequences. The Cypriot syllabary is attested in Cyprus from the 11th century BC until its gradual abandonment in the late Classical period, in favor of the standard Greek alphabet. Greek has been written in
6069-530: The Greek part of Chameria and it functioned as a centre of the Albanian speaking area. The region witnessed the largest level of participation to the National Youth Organisation of Ioannis Metaxas in Thesprotia. At the beginning of the Axis occupation during World War II , when the town was occupied by Fascist Italian troops in 1941, armed Cham Albanian groups under J. Sadik committed a number of massacres and lootings. Almost all Cham Albanian monuments of Margariti were destroyed during World War II, and during
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#17327877128446188-430: The Greek population of Epirus that lived under Ottoman rule. Venice commissioned a painting for the Doge's Palace to commemorate the destruction of the fort of Margariti. This was one of the final Venetian incursions in Ottoman territory and in the following decades, the region stopped being a battleground district. After the conclusion of peace between the Ottomans and the Venetians on 7 March 1573, Margariti remained in
6307-629: The Greek verb have likewise remained largely the same over the course of the language's history but with significant changes in the number of distinctions within each category and their morphological expression. Greek verbs have synthetic inflectional forms for: Many aspects of the syntax of Greek have remained constant: verbs agree with their subject only, the use of the surviving cases is largely intact (nominative for subjects and predicates, accusative for objects of most verbs and many prepositions, genitive for possessors), articles precede nouns, adpositions are largely prepositional, relative clauses follow
6426-446: The Greek-Albanian border. A significant percentage of Albania's population has knowledge of the Greek language due in part to the Albanian wave of immigration to Greece in the 1980s and '90s and the Greek community in the country. Prior to the Greco-Turkish War and the resulting population exchange in 1923 a very large population of Greek-speakers also existed in Turkey , though very few remain today. A small Greek-speaking community
6545-452: The Hindu and Bani population. The Western Cham population is concentrated between the in Cambodia and in Southern Vietnam , mainly in Kampong Cham province and An Giang province . In Kampot province , communities of Chvea of Malay origin also identify themselves as Cham. Chams also made significant presence in other southern Vietnamese provinces like Đồng Nai , Tây Ninh , Kiên Giang , and even as far as in Ninh Thuận, as well as having
6664-447: The Kaza 80% Muslim. In 1898, Sami Frasheri describes Margariti as a town with about 3,000 Muslim Albanian inhabitants, although this figure is slightly exaggerated. During this time, the Kaza of Margariti, which included the nahiyes of Margariti (largely coterminous to the modern municipality), Parga and Fanari included 71 villages with a total of 25,000 inhabitants, all of which spoke Albanian and most of which were Muslim. Margariti
6783-416: The Malaysian states of Kelantan and Terengganu . Kelantan served as a center of Islamic teachings for Chams in Cambodia for three to four centuries and many Cambodian Chams had relatives living there, subsequently many Chams chose to settle in Kelantan. By 1985, around 50,000 or more Chams were living in Malaysia. As of 2013, many have been integrated into Malaysian society. While historically complicated,
6902-431: The Nha Trang, Phan Rang, Phan Rí, and Phan Thiết provinces of central Vietnam were absorbed into the Vietnamese polity. Cham provinces were seized by the Nguyen Lords. After Vietnam invaded and conquered Champa , Cambodia granted refuge to Cham Muslims escaping from Vietnamese conquest. In 1832, the Vietnamese Emperor Minh Mang annexed the last Champa Kingdom. This resulted in the Cham Muslim leader Katip Sumat , who
7021-450: The Orang Dampuan. Harmonious commerce between Sulu and the Orang Dampuan was later restored. The Yakans were descendants of the Taguima-based Orang Dampuan who came to Sulu from Champa. Sulu received civilization in its Indic form from the Orang Dampuan. A number of Cham also fled across the sea to the Malay Peninsula and as early as the 15th century, a Cham colony was established in Malacca . The Chams encountered Sunni Islam there as
7140-498: The Portuguese. When the Ming dynasty in China fell, several thousand Chinese refugees fled south and extensively settled on Cham lands and in Cambodia. Most of these Chinese were young males, and they took Cham women as wives. Their children identified more with Chinese culture. This migration occurred in the 17th and 18th centuries. Chams participated in defeating the Spanish invasion of Cambodia . Cambodian king Cau Bana Cand Ramadhipati , also known as 'Sultan Ibrahim', launched
7259-468: The Venetians and the Albanian beys of Margariti resulted in disputes for the control of the agricultural territory between Parga and the inland territory. Evliya's visit occurred during the last years of the Cretan War , when there was a constant threat of Venetian attack. An Ottoman budget record of 1669/70 shows that the small castle of Margariti had eight gunners, and an estimated 40-50 Janissaries . The local Albanian Çapari family emerged in this era. By
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#17327877128447378-480: The Vietnamese government as one of 54 ethnic groups. There has also been wide-reaching recognition of the historical Champa Kingdom . An attempt at Salafist expansion among the Cham in Vietnam has been halted by Vietnamese government controls; however, the loss of the Salafis among Chams has been to the benefit of Tablighi Jamaat . There is evidence that some Acehnese people of Aceh , Sumatra , Indonesia are descendants of Cham refugees who fled after defeat by
7497-431: The Vietnamese invasion. Vietnam's export of ceramics was also damaged by its internal civil war, the Portuguese and Spanish entry into the region and the Portuguese conquest of Malacca which caused an upset in the trading system, while the carracks ships in the Malacca to Macao trade run by the Portuguese docked at Brunei due to good relations between the Portuguese and Brunei after the Chinese permitted Macao to be leased to
7616-404: The Vietnamese polity in the 15th century. Eastern Chams (also known as Panduranga Chams or Phan Rang Chams ) and their related ethnic groups, Raglai and Churu , are a major minority in Panduranga region in Bình Thuận and Ninh Thuận provinces of Vietnam. The Haroi Cham mainly populate in Đồng Xuân district of Phu Yen and Vân Canh district of Bình Định province. They are the core of
7735-404: The acute during the late 20th century, and it has only been retained in typography . After the writing reform of 1982, most diacritics are no longer used. Since then, Greek has been written mostly in the simplified monotonic orthography (or monotonic system), which employs only the acute accent and the diaeresis. The traditional system, now called the polytonic orthography (or polytonic system),
7854-404: The administrative center of the nahiye of Mazaraki which in 1551 was renamed to Margariti. The name refers to the Albanian Mazreku tribe which lived in the region and who, via their military services, founded the core of Margariti. The nahiye had 38 and 35 villages in 1551 and 1613 respectively whereas the settlement of Margariti itself had 17 and 20 households in 1551 and 1613 respectively. It
7973-402: The ancient language; singular and plural alone in later stages), and gender (masculine, feminine, and neuter), and decline for case (from six cases in the earliest forms attested to four in the modern language). Nouns, articles, and adjectives show all the distinctions except for a person. Both attributive and predicative adjectives agree with the noun. The inflectional categories of
8092-439: The annexation of Margariti there was a decrease of its population of Muslim Albanians. From 1913 to 1920, its population dropped from 2606 to 1803. During that period all village elders of the region gathered and declared that they would resist the incorporation of the area into Greece. According to the Greek census of 1928, the town of Margariti had dropped to 1,805 inhabitants of which 200 were Greeks, who had increased as part of
8211-402: The citadel and another 1,200 were located in the town which had developed around it. At this time, the town of Margariti, which was split into seven neighbourhoods and had a population of 5,000-6,000 inhabitants, had mainly converted to Islam. Çelebi recorded two Friday mosques with stone minarets and tile-covered roofs in the town, but no churches. He also recorded seven masjids divided across
8330-404: The colonial and following Sihanouk governments, the Cham communities here sought communism. The Cham began to rise in prominence in Cambodian politics when they joined the communists as early as the 1950s, with a Cham elder, Sos Man joining the Indochina Communist Party and rising through the ranks to become a major in the Party's forces. He then returned home to the Eastern Zone in 1970 and joined
8449-413: The cooperation of the population in the surrounding region. A larger force of 6,000 Venetians and Corfiots , which also included local groups from Parga and Paramythia, assembled under the Venetian commander Sebastiano Venier and attacked the fort of Margariti, which was seized and burnt after a four-day siege. The fall of Margariti had a profound impact in the Christian states of the West as well as among
8568-404: The early 19th century that was used for literary and official purposes in the newly formed Greek state. In 1976, Dimotiki was declared the official language of Greece, after having incorporated features of Katharevousa and thus giving birth to Standard Modern Greek , used today for all official purposes and in education . The historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of
8687-526: The eleventh century. Cham who migrated to Sulu were Orang Dampuan. Champa and Sulu engaged in commerce with each other which resulted in merchant Chams settling in Sulu where they were known as Orang Dampuan from the 10th-13th centuries. The Orang Dampuan were slaughtered by envious native Sulu Buranuns due to the wealth of the Orang Dampuan. The Buranun were then subjected to retaliatory slaughter by
8806-500: The end of the 18th century, Hasan Çapari, the leading figure of the family, owned the entire plain of Fanari (to the south of Margariti). Cham Albanian landlords of Margariti and Paramythia were in conflict with Ali Pasha of Yannina during much of the existence of the Pashalik of Yanina . After Ali occupied the town in 1811 following a stubborn resistance led by Hasan Aga of Margariti, the settlement lost much of its prosperity. During
8925-533: The end of the war, most Muslim families of the region were relocated north of Ioannina under Nazi German instructions. The region of Margariti together with Mazaraki, was among the first to produce resistance units in Thesprotia in order to deal with the activity of Muslim Cham Albanian groups. At the end of World War II , the presence of Albanian Islam in Chameria was annihilated; Chams were expelled from
9044-618: The epics of Homer , ancient Greek literature includes many works of lasting importance in the European canon . Greek is also the language in which many of the foundational texts in science and philosophy were originally composed. The New Testament of the Christian Bible was also originally written in Greek. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world , the Greek texts and Greek societies of antiquity constitute
9163-512: The first millennium BC from Sumatra , Borneo and the Malay Peninsula , eventually settling in central modern Vietnam . The original Cham are therefore the likely heirs of Austronesian navigators from Taiwan and Borneo, whose main activities are commerce, transport and perhaps also piracy. Austronesian Chamic peoples might have migrated into present-day Central Vietnam around 3 kya to 2.5 kya (1,000 to 500 BC). With having formed
9282-452: The following periods: In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia : the coexistence of vernacular and archaizing written forms of the language. What came to be known as the Greek language question was a polarization between two competing varieties of Modern Greek: Dimotiki , the vernacular form of Modern Greek proper, and Katharevousa , meaning 'purified', a compromise between Dimotiki and Ancient Greek developed in
9401-516: The fort of Margariti from the Ottomans. The Venetian governor of Corfu initially assessed that the force of the group was too small (200-250 men) for the attack. After the Battle of Lepanto , crucial support was provided by armed units during the second siege of Margariti (November 10–14, 1571); revolutionary leader Petros Lantzas became a key figure by organizing the military movements and securing
9520-517: The gradual Hellenization of Albanian-majority towns in the area in the 1920s. According to the Greek census of 1928, the Eparchy of Margariti (including Margariti, Parga, Fanari, Perdika ) had 14,531 inhabitants of which only 5,000 were Muslim Chams. During the interwar period, Margariti was among the most important towns of the Cham Albanian community located in the coastal region of
9639-564: The group later took the designation " Front de Libération des Hauts plateaux " and joined, with the FLC, the " Front unifié pour la Libération des Races opprimées " ( FULRO ) at some point in the 1960s. Since the late 1970s, there has been no serious Cham secessionist movement or political activity in Vietnam or Cambodia. During the Vietnam War , a sizable number of Chams migrated to Peninsular Malaysia , where they were granted sanctuary by
9758-400: The hands of the Vietnamese, in which 120,000 people were either captured or killed, and the kingdom was reduced to a small enclave near Nha Trang with many Chams fleeing to Cambodia . Champa was no longer a threat to Vietnam, and some were even enslaved by their victors. The Cham were matrilineal and inheritance passed through the mother. Because of this, in 1499 the Vietnamese enacted
9877-439: The infinitive entirely (employing a raft of new periphrastic constructions instead) and uses participles more restrictively. The loss of the dative led to a rise of prepositional indirect objects (and the use of the genitive to directly mark these as well). Ancient Greek tended to be verb-final, but neutral word order in the modern language is VSO or SVO. Modern Greek inherits most of its vocabulary from Ancient Greek, which in turn
9996-609: The influence of Queen Dwarawati, a Muslim princess from the kingdom of Champa, toward her husband, Kertawijaya, the Seventh King of Majapahit Empire , so that the royal family of the Majapahit Empire eventually converted to Islam, which finally led to the conversion to Islam of the entire region. Chams Princess tomb can be found in Trowulan , the site of the capital of the Majapahit Empire. In Babad Tanah Jawi , it
10115-575: The last Cham Muslim king, Pô Chien, gathered his people in the hinterland and fled south to Cambodia , while those along the coast migrated to Trengganu ( Malaysia ). A small group fled northward to the Chinese island of Hainan where they are known today as the Utsuls . The king and his people who took refuge in Cambodia were scattered in communities across the Mekong Basin . Those who remained in
10234-467: The late 15th century BC, was the first script used to write Greek. It is basically a syllabary , which was finally deciphered by Michael Ventris and John Chadwick in the 1950s (its precursor, Linear A , has not been deciphered and most likely encodes a non-Greek language). The language of the Linear B texts, Mycenaean Greek , is the earliest known form of Greek. Another similar system used to write
10353-594: The many monuments in Margariti which once functioned as the core district of Chameria . The province of Margariti ( Greek : Επαρχία Μαργαριτίου ) was one of the provinces of the Thesprotia Prefecture. Its territory corresponded with that of the current municipal units Margariti and Perdika . It was abolished in 2006. Greek language Greek ( Modern Greek : Ελληνικά , romanized : Elliniká , [eliniˈka] ; Ancient Greek : Ἑλληνική , romanized : Hellēnikḗ )
10472-458: The members of the garrison of the “ castle of Margaliç ” with a castle commander ( Dizdar ) and 17 soldiers. Their pay was covered by the tax revenue of a group of villages in the district of Margariti. In 1570, the Venetian commander Girolamo Zane unsuccessfully attacked the fort of Margariti. In 1571, a group of Albanians from Margariti travelled to Corfu and asked for assistance to take
10591-640: The membership of Greece and Cyprus in the European Union, Greek is one of the organization's 24 official languages . Greek is recognized as a minority language in Albania, and used co-officially in some of its municipalities, in the districts of Gjirokastër and Sarandë . It is also an official minority language in the regions of Apulia and Calabria in Italy. In the framework of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages , Greek
10710-502: The modern Chams of Cambodia and Vietnam have had friendly relationships with the Khmer and Vietnamese majority. Despite ethnic and religious differences, the majority people of Cambodia and Vietnam have accepted the Cham as closer to them than other minorities. Some Muslim Cham report a friendly attitude of both Cambodians and Vietnamese toward the Chams and little harassment against them from locals. However, between government and people, it
10829-441: The modern period. The division into conventional periods is, as with all such periodizations, relatively arbitrary, especially because, in all periods, Ancient Greek has enjoyed high prestige, and the literate borrowed heavily from it. Across its history, the syllabic structure of Greek has varied little: Greek shows a mixed syllable structure, permitting complex syllabic onsets but very restricted codas. It has only oral vowels and
10948-477: The neighbourhoods that did not hold Friday services and functioned as prayer rooms. Additionally, two primary schools ( mektep ), a hamam , two caravanserais , two tekkes and a number of shops were recorded; a madrasa was constructed in the town at some point during the 1670s following Evliya's visit. The position of Margariti at the Venetian-Ottoman border was a cause of friction as the interests of
11067-399: The noun they modify and relative pronouns are clause-initial. However, the morphological changes also have their counterparts in the syntax, and there are also significant differences between the syntax of the ancient and that of the modern form of the language . Ancient Greek made great use of participial constructions and of constructions involving the infinitive, and the modern variety lacks
11186-536: The objects of study of the discipline of Classics . During antiquity , Greek was by far the most widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world . It eventually became the official language of the Byzantine Empire and developed into Medieval Greek . In its modern form , Greek is the official language of Greece and Cyprus and one of the 24 official languages of the European Union . It
11305-813: The old Panduranga territory in 1885. At the division of Vietnam in 1954, majority of Cham population remained in South Vietnam. A handful dozens of Chams who were members of the Viet Minh went North during the population exchange between North and South known as Operation Passage to Freedom – along with around ten thousand indigenous highland peoples – mainly Chamic and Bahnaric – from South Vietnam. The Democratic Republic of Vietnam during its early years (1954–1960) were actually more favorable toward ethnic minorities and indigenous peoples, compared to Republic of Vietnam , attacking Ngo Dinh Diem 's Kinh chauvinist attitudes. Leaders of Communist Party of Vietnam at
11424-706: The older periods of Greek, loanwords into Greek acquired Greek inflections, thus leaving only a foreign root word. Modern borrowings (from the 20th century on), especially from French and English, are typically not inflected; other modern borrowings are derived from Albanian , South Slavic ( Macedonian / Bulgarian ) and Eastern Romance languages ( Aromanian and Megleno-Romanian ). Greek words have been widely borrowed into other languages, including English. Example words include: mathematics , physics , astronomy , democracy , philosophy , athletics , theatre, rhetoric , baptism , evangelist , etc. Moreover, Greek words and word elements continue to be productive as
11543-523: The original inhabitants of central Vietnam and coastal Cambodia before the arrival of the Cambodians and Vietnamese, during the expansion of the Khmer Empire (802–1431 CE) and the Vietnamese conquest of Champa (11th–19th century CE). From the 2nd century CE, the Cham founded Champa , a collection of independent Hindu-Buddhist principalities in what is now central and southern Vietnam . By
11662-470: The passage of a girl from infancy to puberty (the marriageable age), and usually takes place when the girl is aged fifteen and has completed her development. If it has not taken place, the girl cannot marry since she is "tabung". After the ceremony is done the girl can marry. Circumcision to the Cham was less significant than karoeh. It is not practiced, only symbolic and performed with a toy wooden knife. Important festivals include Kate, celebrated mainly by
11781-497: The possession of the Ottomans. The Cham Albanians who had escaped returned and rebuilt the castle. The Ottoman defter of 1583 shows that Margaliç had only slightly grown, as the number of households increased to only 10 with another 10 unmarried adult males in the settlement. The household heads had Albanian names such as Gjin, Gjon and Duka, although there were three priests with Greek Orthodox names and one recent Muslim convert. Each household paid around 100 Akçe as tax annually, which
11900-435: The prolific production of sculptures and architecture only seen at the Champa temple tower sites. The Cham shielded and always observed their girls attentively, placing great importance on their virginity. A Cham saying said "As well leave a man alone with a girl, as an elephant in a field of sugarcane." The Cham Muslims view the karoeh (also spelled karoh) ceremony for girls as very significant. This symbolic ceremony marks
12019-719: The regime discourages growth of Islam because the Vietnamese government distrusts the Cham Muslims. "Relations between the Hanoi government and ethnic minorities are sensitive. In 2001 and 2004 massive human rights protests by hill tribes resulted in deaths and mass imprisonments. For some time after that, the Central Highlands were sealed off to foreigners." According to international scholars, it's observed that both modern Cham separatism and Cham nationhood are non-existent. The only active representative organization for
12138-471: The second century CE. Population centers were located on the river outlets along the coast. As they controlled the import/export trade of continental Southeast Asia, they enjoyed a prosperous maritime economy. Cham folklore includes a creation myth in which the founder of the Cham people was a certain Lady Po Nagar . According to Cham mythology, Lady Po Nagar was born out of sea foam and clouds in
12257-494: The sick and the poor" and "a temple was erected in her honor". Like countless other political entities of Southeast Asia, the Champa principalities underwent the process of Indianization since the early common era as a result of centuries of socio-economic interaction adopted and introduced cultural and institutional elements of India. From the 8th century onward, Muslims from such regions as Gujarat began to increasingly appear in trade and shipping of India. Islamic ideas became
12376-507: The sky. However, in Vietnamese mythology, which adopted the goddess after taking over the Champa kingdom, her name is Thiên Y A Na and she instead came from a humble peasant home somewhere in the Dai An Mountains, Khánh Hòa Province , spirits assisted her as she traveled to China on a floating log of sandalwood where she married a man of royalty and had two children. She eventually returned to Champa "did many good deeds in helping
12495-642: The southern Islamic Pattani , Narathiwat , Yala and Songkhla provinces. After the fall of Saigon in Vietnam and Phnom Penh in Cambodia in 1975, 9,704 Cham refugees made their way to Malaysia and were allowed to stay, unlike 250,000 other refugees that fled to Malaysia. Most of the Cham refugees came from Cambodia and were Muslims, known as Melayu Kemboja and Melayu Champa in Malay. Many of these Cham refugees chose to settle in Malaysia, as they preferred to live in an Islamic country and had family ties in
12614-437: The stressed vowel; the so-called breathing marks ( rough and smooth breathing ), originally used to signal presence or absence of word-initial /h/; and the diaeresis , used to mark the full syllabic value of a vowel that would otherwise be read as part of a diphthong. These marks were introduced during the course of the Hellenistic period. Actual usage of the grave in handwriting saw a rapid decline in favor of uniform usage of
12733-454: The time of Caliph Uthman ... and Ali , many Muslims who were expelled by the Umayyads and by Hajjaj , fled there". The Daoyi Zhilüe records that at Cham ports, Cham women were often married to Chinese merchants, who frequently came back to them after trading voyages. A Chinese merchant from Quanzhou , Wang Yuanmao, traded extensively with Champa and married a Cham princess. In
12852-662: The time promised equal rights and autonomy, and by 1955 the North's national broadcast station Voice of Việt Nam began broadcasting propaganda radio in Rhadé , Bahnar , and Jarai , to recruit support from the South's indigenous groups. These cultivation efforts later contributed to the foundation of the FULRO in 1964, although FULRO's objective was to fight against both North and South Vietnam. In Cambodia, due to discriminatory treatments of
12971-461: The town by ELAS forces. Those who could save themselves fled to Albania, whereas mosques, tekkes and other buildings reminiscent of the Islamic period were torn down, blown up or set on fire. The town and many of the surviving villages were largely deserted. According to the Greek census of 1960, Margariti had 982 inhabitants. The town and its 48 villages together had a total population of 6,464, which
13090-574: Was a distinct dialect of Greek itself. Aside from the Macedonian question, current consensus regards Phrygian as the closest relative of Greek, since they share a number of phonological, morphological and lexical isoglosses , with some being exclusive between them. Scholars have proposed a Graeco-Phrygian subgroup out of which Greek and Phrygian originated. Among living languages, some Indo-Europeanists suggest that Greek may be most closely related to Armenian (see Graeco-Armenian ) or
13209-568: Was also used as the official language of government and religion in the Christian Nubian kingdoms , for most of their history. Greek, in its modern form, is the official language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population. It is also the official language of Cyprus (nominally alongside Turkish ) and the British Overseas Territory of Akrotiri and Dhekelia (alongside English ). Because of
13328-557: Was also used in Ancient Greek. Greek has occasionally been written in the Latin script , especially in areas under Venetian rule or by Greek Catholics . The term Frankolevantinika / Φραγκολεβαντίνικα applies when the Latin script is used to write Greek in the cultural ambit of Catholicism (because Frankos / Φράγκος is an older Greek term for West-European dating to when most of (Roman Catholic Christian) West Europe
13447-585: Was educated in Kelantan , declaring a Jihad against the Vietnamese. The Vietnamese coercively fed lizard and pig meat to Cham Muslims and cow meat to Cham Hindus against their will to punish them and assimilate them to Vietnamese culture. The second revolt led by Ja Thak Wa , a Bani cleric, resulting in the establishment of a Cham resistance which lasted from 1834 to 1835 until it was bloody crushed by Minh Mang's forces in July 1835. Only 40,000 Cham remained in
13566-401: Was founded before the 16th century. The Ottoman defter of 1530 that was based on the information of a register made under Selim I in 1519-1520 is the first source to mention the hamlet of “ Margarit ”, which had only 8 Christian households; the neighbouring villages were also devoid of Muslims. The Ottoman fort in the settlement was built in the first half of the 16th century. Margariti was
13685-985: Was located on the Venetian-Ottoman borderlands of the time. The locals of the areas of Paramythia , Parakalamos and Margariti were specifically harassed by the Venetians and the inhabitants of Venetian Corfu in violation of the Ottoman-Venetian treaty of 1540. In the register of 1551, Margariti was recorded as having been inhabited by a total of 17 individuals, 14 of which were household heads and 3 bachelors. The anthroponyms recorded were almost exclusively Albanian in character: Duka Bruni ; Spani Deda ; Gjon Ilia ; Qesar Dhima ; Menksh Leka ; Tupe (Popa) Todri ; Gjin Jorga ; Popa Brushi ; Gjin Gjoni ; Gjon Jani ; Andria Qesari ; Gjin Popa (Tope) ; Jani Nika ; Papa Mihali ; Gjon Shorri ; Gjon Nika . The defter of 1551 enumerates
13804-572: Was represented as part of the delegation of Chameria by prominent local figure Jakup Veseli when Albania declared its independence in 1912. Some Albanian beys of Margariti were willing to accept Greek rule during the Balkan Wars. In February 1913, Margariti was taken by the Greek army and incorporated into Greece following the Treaty of London (May 1913). Margariti was one of the most severely damaged Cham settlements by Greek militia. Following
13923-542: Was the central settlement of the Albanian Mazreku clan, which provided the guard of the citadel of Margariti. Until the 19th century, the region was known as the kaza of Mazarak in Ottoman records. Marglic/Margariti appears as the common name of the kaza/nahiye as early as the salname 1865. Various ancient sites have been located in the vicinity of the modern settlement. There is a possibility that Margariti
14042-580: Was under the control of the Frankish Empire ). Frankochiotika / Φραγκοχιώτικα (meaning 'Catholic Chiot') alludes to the significant presence of Catholic missionaries based on the island of Chios . Additionally, the term Greeklish is often used when the Greek language is written in a Latin script in online communications. The Latin script is nowadays used by the Greek-speaking communities of Southern Italy . The Yevanic dialect
14161-673: Was written by Romaniote and Constantinopolitan Karaite Jews using the Hebrew Alphabet . In a tradition, that in modern time, has come to be known as Greek Aljamiado , some Greek Muslims from Crete wrote their Cretan Greek in the Arabic alphabet . The same happened among Epirote Muslims in Ioannina . This also happened among Arabic-speaking Byzantine rite Christians in the Levant ( Lebanon , Palestine, and Syria ). This usage
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