Misplaced Pages

#773226

55-965: Margulies (occasionally Margolies or Margolyes ) is a surname that, like its variants shown below, is derived from the Ashkenazi Hebrew pronunciation of the Hebrew word מרגליות ‎ ( Israeli Hebrew [maʁɡaliˈjot] ), meaning 'pearls'. Notable people with the surname include: Ben Margulies , American songwriter and record producer David Margulies (1937–2016), American actor Donald Margulies (born 1954), American playwright Jimmy Margulies (born 1951), American award-winning editorial cartoonist Joseph Margulies (artist) (1896–1984), Vienna-born American painter and printmaker Joseph Margulies (lawyer) , American attorney and law professor Julianna Margulies (born 1966), American actress Lazar C. Margulies (1895–1982), physician and inventor of

110-580: A lingua franca may evolve by itself, the tendency to formally codify and normalize it is widespread in most parts of the world. Foreign language instruction is also considered a form of prescription, since it involves instructing learners how to speak, based on usage documentation laid down by others. Linguistic prescription may also be used to advance a social or political ideology. Throughout history, prescription has been created around high-class language, and therefore it degeneralizes lower-class language. This has led to many justifications of classism , as

165-439: A standard language , teach what a particular society or sector of a society perceives as a correct or proper form, or advise on effective and stylistically apt communication. If usage preferences are conservative, prescription might appear resistant to language change ; if radical, it may produce neologisms . Such prescription may be motivated by attempts to improve the consistency of language to make it more "logical"; to improve

220-548: A certain degree of conceptual overlap as comprehensive descriptive accounts must take into account and record existing speaker preferences, and a prior understanding of how language is actually used is necessary for prescription to be effective. Since the mid-20th century some dictionaries and style guides , which are prescriptive works by nature, have increasingly integrated descriptive material and approaches. Examples of guides updated to add more descriptive material include Webster's Third New International Dictionary (1961) and

275-405: A certain time one after another, from century to century, we laugh at the elixir that promises to prolong life to a thousand years; and with equal justice may the lexicographer be derided, who is able to produce no example of a nation that has preserved their words and phrases from mutability, shall imagine that his dictionary can embalm his language, and secure it from corruption and decay, that it

330-564: A distinction between "prescription" and "prescriptivism", defining the former as "a process of codification of a certain variety of language for some sort of official use", and the latter as "an unscientific tendency to mystify linguistic prescription". Linguistic prescription is a part of a language standardization process. The chief aim of linguistic prescription is to specify socially preferred language forms (either generally, as in Standard English , or in style and register ) in

385-705: A few cases, an entire publishing sector complies with a publication that originated as a house style manual, such as The Chicago Manual of Style and New Hart's Rules in non-fiction book publishing in the United States and the United Kingdom, respectively, and The Associated Press Stylebook in American news style . Others are by self-appointed advocates whose rules are propagated in the popular press, as in " proper Cantonese pronunciation ". The aforementioned Fowler, and Strunk & White, were among

440-538: A foreign language . Although these have a more democratic base, they still exclude the vast majority of the English-speaking world: speakers of Scottish English , Hiberno-English , Appalachian English , Australian English , Indian English , Nigerian English or African-American English may feel the standard is arbitrarily selected or slanted against them. Therefore, prescription has political consequences; indeed, it can be—and has been—used consciously as

495-414: A political tool. A second issue with prescriptivism is that it tends to explicitly devalue non-standard dialects . It has been argued that prescription, apart from formulating standard language norms, often attempts to influence speakers to apply the proposed linguistic devices invariably, without considering the existence of different varieties and registers of language. While some linguists approve

550-529: A prestige language or dialect over a less prestigious one, even if it is their native tongue. Government bureaucracy tends toward prescriptivism as a means of enforcing functional continuity. Such prescriptivism dates from ancient Egypt , where bureaucrats preserved the spelling of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt into the Ptolemaic period through the standard usage of Egyptian hieroglyphics . From

605-488: A prestige variety.) A classic example from 18th-century England is Robert Lowth's tentative suggestion that preposition stranding in relative clauses sounds colloquial. This blossomed into a grammatical rule that a sentence should never end with a preposition. For these reasons, some writers argue that linguistic prescription is foolish or futile. Samuel Johnson commented on the tendency of some prescription to resist language change: When we see men grow old and die at

SECTION 10

#1732782505774

660-431: A standard language when a society establishes social stratification and a socio-economic hierarchy . The spoken and written language usages of the authorities (state, military, church) is preserved as the standard language. Departures from this standard language may jeopardize social success (see social class ). Sometimes, archaisms and honorific stylizations may be deliberately introduced or preserved to distinguish

715-797: A type of Intrauterine device Leo Margulies (1900–1975), American editor and publisher Martin Margulies (born 1948), American musician/film producer better known as Johnny Legend Martin Margulies , real-estate developer and collector of contemporary art and photography Roni Margulies (1955–2023), Turkish poet and activist Samuel Hirsch Margulies (1858–1922), rabbi and Jewish scholar Susan Margulies , American engineer and professor Miriam Margolyes (born 1941), British-Australian actress See also [ edit ] Margolies Margolin (disambiguation) Margolis Margules Margulis Margolus Margaliot [REDACTED] Surname list This page lists people with

770-417: A way that is easily taught and learned. Prescription may apply to most aspects of language, including spelling, pronunciation, vocabulary, morphology, syntax, and semantics. Prescription is useful for facilitating inter-regional communication, allowing speakers of divergent dialects to understand a standardized idiom used in broadcasting , for example, more readily than each other's dialects. While such

825-580: Is actually used (while avoiding passing judgment). The basis of linguistic research is text ( corpus ) analysis and field study, both of which are descriptive activities. Description may also include researchers' observations of their own language usage. In the Eastern European linguistic tradition, the discipline dealing with standard language cultivation and prescription is known as "language culture" or "speech culture". Despite being apparent opposites, prescriptive and descriptive approaches have

880-461: Is different from Wikidata All set index articles Ashkenazi Hebrew As it is used parallel with Modern Hebrew , its phonological differences are clearly recognized: There are considerable differences between the Lithuanian, Polish (also known as Galician), Hungarian, and German pronunciations. In addition to geographical differences, there are differences in register between

935-763: Is imposed by regulation in some places. The French Academy in Paris is the national body in France whose recommendations about the French language are often followed in the French-speaking world (francophonie) , though not legally enforceable. In Germany and the Netherlands , recent spelling and punctuation reforms, such as the German orthographic reform of 1996 , were devised by teams of linguists commissioned by

990-404: Is in his power to change sublunary nature, and clear the world at once from folly, vanity, and affectation. With this hope, however, academies have been instituted, to guard the avenues of their languages, to retain fugitives, and repulse intruders; but their vigilance and activity have hitherto been vain; sounds remain too volatile and subtle for legal restraints; to enchain syllables, and to lash

1045-506: Is one of the only non-liturgical and non-Biblical medieval Ashkenazi texts to use nequddot . Owing to its more day-to-day vocabulary, linguists have been able to conclude that medieval Ashkenazi Hebrew was akin to contemporary Sephardi Hebrew . In other respects, Ashkenazi Hebrew resembles Yemenite Hebrew , which appears to be related to the Babylonian notation. Shared features include the pronunciation of qamaṣ gadol as [o] and, in

1100-634: Is propagated by people with an opposing ideology. Later, during the second half of the 20th century, efforts driven by various advocacy groups had considerable influence on language use under the broad banner of " political correctness ", to promote special rules for anti-sexist , anti-racist , or generically anti- discriminatory language (e.g. " people-first language " as advocated by disability rights organizations). Prescription presupposes authorities whose judgments may come to be followed by many other speakers and writers. For English, these authorities tend to be books. H. W. Fowler 's Modern English Usage

1155-543: Is that prescription has a tendency to favor the language of one particular area or social class over others, and thus militates against linguistic diversity. Frequently, a standard dialect is associated with the upper class , for example the United Kingdom 's Received Pronunciation (RP). RP has now lost much of its status as the Anglophone standard, and other standards are now alternative systems for English as

SECTION 20

#1732782505774

1210-441: Is that prescriptive rules quickly become entrenched and it is difficult to change them when the language changes. Thus, there is a tendency for prescription to lag behind the vernacular language . In 1834, an anonymous writer advised against the split infinitive , reasoning that the construction was not a frequent feature of English as he knew it. Today the construction is in everyday use and generally considered standard usage, yet

1265-512: Is the system of Japanese honorific speech . Most, if not all, widely spoken languages demonstrate some degree of social codification in how they conform to prescriptive rules. Linguistic prestige is a central research topic within sociolinguistics . Notions of linguistic prestige apply to different dialects of the same language and also to separate, distinct languages in multilingual regions. Prestige level disparity often leads to diglossia : speakers in certain social contexts consciously choose

1320-952: The American Medical Association , the Modern Language Association , and the Modern Humanities Research Association ; there are many others. Scientific Style and Format , by the Council of Science Editors, seeks to normalize style in scientific journal publishing, based where possible on standards issued by bodies like the International Standards Organization . None of these works have any sort of legal or regulatory authority (though some governments produce their own house style books for internal use). They still have authority in

1375-738: The Greek and Cyrillic alphabets. Judaism used the Hebrew alphabet , and Islam the Arabic script . Hinduism used the Devanagari script . In certain traditions, strict adherence to prescribed spellings and pronunciations was and remains of great spiritual importance. Islamic naming conventions and greetings are notable examples of the linguistic prescription being a prerequisite to spiritual righteousness. Another commonly cited example of prescriptive language usage closely associated with social propriety

1430-625: The surname Margulies . If an internal link intending to refer to a specific person led you to this page, you may wish to change that link by adding the person's given name (s) to the link. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Margulies&oldid=1190900102 " Categories : Surnames Surnames of Jewish origin Hebrew-language surnames Hidden categories: Pages with plain IPA Articles with short description Short description

1485-495: The "natural" pronunciation in general use and the more prescriptive rules advocated by some rabbis and grammarians, particularly for use in reading the Torah. For example: In brief, Ashkenazi Hebrew appears to be a descendant of the Babylonian tradition, partially adapted to accommodate Tiberian notation, and further influenced by the pronunciation of Middle German and its sound changes as it evolved into Yiddish . The origins of

1540-500: The ability of the language to make subtle distinctions are easier to defend. Judgments based on the subjective associations of a word are more problematic. Finally, there is the problem of inappropriate dogmatism. Although competent authorities tend to make careful statements, popular pronouncements on language are apt to condemn. Thus, wise prescriptive advice identifying a form as colloquial or non-standard and suggesting that it be used with caution in some contexts may – when taken up in

1595-523: The belief that non-codified forms of language are innately inferior, creating social stigma and discrimination toward their speakers. In contrast, modern linguists would generally hold that all forms of language, including both vernacular dialects and different realizations of a standardized variety, are scientifically equal as instruments of communication, even if deemed socially inappropriate for certain situational contexts. Resulting in standard language ideology , normative practices might also give rise to

1650-485: The case of Litvaks and some but not all Yemenites, of ḥolam as [eː] . These features are not found in the Hebrew pronunciation of North Mesopotamian Jews, which has been overlaid by Sephardi Hebrew practices, but are found in some of the Judeo-Aramaic languages of Upper Mesopotamia and in some dialects of Syriac. According to Judah Loew ben Bezalel and many other scholars, including Jacob Emden , one of

1705-402: The classroom – become converted into a ruling that the dispreferred form is automatically unacceptable in all circumstances, a view academic linguists reject. (Linguists may accept that a construction is ungrammatical or incorrect in relation to a certain lect if it does not conform to its inherent rules, but they would not consider it absolutely wrong simply because it diverges from the norms of

Margulies - Misplaced Pages Continue

1760-484: The concept where a certain language variety is promoted as linguistically superior to others, thus recognizing the standard language ideology as a constitutive element of prescriptivism or even identifying prescriptivism with this system of views. Others, however, use this term in relation to any attempts to recommend or mandate a particular way of language usage (in a specific context or register ), without, however, implying that these practices must involve propagating

1815-484: The consistent transcription of culturally important transactions (laws, scriptures, contracts, poetry, etc.) allow a large number of discussants to understand written conversations easily, and across multiple generations. Early historical trends in literacy and alphabetization were closely tied to the influence of various religious institutions. Western Christianity propagated the Latin alphabet . Eastern Orthodoxy spread

1870-487: The conviction that explicit formal instruction is an essential prerequisite for acquiring proper command of one's native language, thus creating a massive feeling of linguistic insecurity . Propagating such language attitudes is characteristic of the prescriptivists in Eastern Europe , where normativist ideas of correctness can be found even among professional linguists. Another serious issue with prescription

1925-636: The different Hebrew reading traditions reflect older differences between the pronunciations of Hebrew and Middle Aramaic current in different parts of the Fertile Crescent : Judea , the Galilee , Greater Syria , Upper Mesopotamia , and Lower Mesopotamia ("Babylonia"). In the time of the Masoretes (8th-10th centuries), there were three distinct notations for denoting vowels and other details of pronunciation in biblical and liturgical texts. One

1980-419: The earliest attempts at prescription in classical times grammarians have based their norms on observed prestige use of language. Modern prescriptivist textbooks draw heavily on descriptive linguistic analysis. The prescription may privilege some existing forms over others for the sake of maximizing clarity and precision in language use. Others are subjective judgments of what constitutes good taste. Some reflect

2035-491: The facet of language, or very compact works insistent upon only a few matters of particular importance to the publisher. Some aim to be comprehensive only for a specific field, deferring to more general-audience guides on matters that are not particular to the discipline in question. There are different types of style guides, by purpose and audience. Because the genres of writing and the audiences of each manual are different, style manuals often conflict with each other, even within

2090-608: The leading Hebrew grammarians of all time, Ashkenazi Hebrew is the most accurate pronunciation of Hebrew preserved. The reason given is that it preserves distinctions, such as between pataḥ and qamaṣ , which are not reflected in the Sephardic and other dialects. Only in the Ashkenazi pronunciation are all seven "nequdot" (the Hebrew vowels of the ancient Tiberian tradition) distinguished: Yemenite, which comes close, does not distinguish pataḥ from segol . Although Modern Hebrew

2145-481: The lower-class can easily be portrayed to be incoherent and improper if they do not speak the standard language. This also corresponds to the use of prescription for racism , as dialects spoken by what is seen as the superior race are usually standardized in countries with prominent racism. A good example of this is the demeaning of AAVE in the United States , as the idea that the "lower race" speaks improperly

2200-460: The old prohibition can still be heard. A further problem is a challenge of specifying understandable criteria. Although prescribing authorizations may have clear ideas about why they make a particular choice, and their choices are seldom entirely arbitrary, there exists no linguistically sustainable metric for ascertaining which forms of language should be considered standard or otherwise preferable. Judgments that seek to resolve ambiguity or increase

2255-456: The practical role of language standardization in modern nation states, certain models of prescriptive codification have been criticized for going far beyond mere norm-setting, i.e. by promoting the sanctioned language variety as the only legitimate means of communication and presenting it as the only valid baseline of correctness, while stigmatizing non-standard usages as " mistakes ". Such practices have been said to contribute to perpetuating

Margulies - Misplaced Pages Continue

2310-402: The prestige form of the language from contemporary colloquial language . Likewise, the style of language used in ritual also differs from everyday speech. Special ceremonial languages known only to a select few spiritual leaders are found throughout the world; Liturgical Latin has served a similar function for centuries. When a culture develops a writing system, orthographic rules for

2365-401: The promotion of one class or region within a language community over another, which can become politically controversial. Prescription can also reflect ethical considerations, as in prohibiting swear words . Words referring to elements of sexuality or toilet hygiene may be regarded as obscene. Blasphemies against religion may be forbidden. In the 21st century, political correctness objects to

2420-405: The quality of advice given in many usage guides, including highly regarded books like Strunk and White's The Elements of Style . In particular, linguists point out that popular books on English usage written by journalists or novelists (e.g. Simon Heffer 's Strictly English: The Correct Way to Write ... and Why It Matters ) often make basic errors in linguistic analysis. A frequent criticism

2475-467: The respective governments and then implemented by statutes, some met with widespread dissent. Examples of national prescriptive bodies and initiatives are: Other kinds of authorities exist in specific settings, most commonly in the form of style guidebooks (also called style guides, manuals of style, style books, or style sheets). Style guides vary in form, and may be alphabetical usage dictionaries, comprehensive manuals divided into numerous subsection by

2530-424: The rhetorical effectiveness of speakers; to align with the prescriber's aesthetics or personal preference; to impose linguistic purity on a language by removing foreign influences; or to avoid causing offense (i.e. for etiquette or political correctness ). Prescriptive approaches to language are often contrasted with the descriptive approach of academic linguistics , which observes and records how language

2585-557: The same vernacular of English. Many publishers have established an internal house style specifying preferred spellings and grammatical forms, such as serial commas , how to write acronyms , and various awkward expressions to avoid. Most of these are internal documentation for the publisher's staff, though various newspapers, universities, and other organizations have made theirs available for public inspection, and sometimes even sell them as books, e.g. The New York Times Manual of Style and Usage and The Economist Style Guide . In

2640-432: The self-appointed, as are some modern authors of style works, like Bryan A. Garner and his Modern English Usage (formerly Modern American Usage ). Various style guides are used for academic papers and professional journals and have become de facto standards in particular fields, though the bulk of their material pertains to formatting of source citations (in mutually conflicting ways). Some examples are those issued by

2695-512: The sense that a student may be marked down for failure to follow a specified style manual; a professional publisher may enforce compliance; a publication may require its employees to use house style as a matter of on-the-job competence. A well-respected style guide, and usually one intended for a general audience, may also have the kind of authority that a dictionary does consult as a reference work to satisfy personal curiosity or settle an argument. Historically, linguistic prescriptivism originates in

2750-406: The standard language ideology. According to another understanding, the prescriptive attitude is an approach to norm-formulating and codification that involves imposing arbitrary rulings upon a speech community , as opposed to more liberal approaches that draw heavily from descriptive surveys; in a wider sense, however, the latter also constitute a form of prescriptivism. Mate Kapović makes

2805-678: The third edition Garner's Modern English Usage (2009) in English, or the Nouveau Petit Robert (1993) in French. A partially descriptive approach can be especially useful when approaching topics of ongoing conflict between authorities, or in different dialects , disciplines, styles , or registers . Other guides, such as The Chicago Manual of Style , are designed to impose a single style and thus remain primarily prescriptive (as of 2017 ). Some authors define "prescriptivism" as

SECTION 50

#1732782505774

2860-462: The use of words perceived as offensive. Some elements of prescription in English are sometimes thought to have been based on the norms of Latin grammar . Robert Lowth is frequently cited as having done so, but he specifically objected to "forcing the English under the rules of a foreign Language". Prescriptivism is often subject to criticism. Many linguists, such as Geoffrey Pullum and other posters to Language Log , are highly skeptical of

2915-579: Was intended to be based on Mishnaic spelling and Sephardi Hebrew pronunciation, the language as spoken in Israel has adapted to the popular (as opposed to the strict liturgical) Ashkenazi Hebrew phonology in the following respects: Linguistic prescription Linguistic prescription is the establishment of rules defining preferred usage of language , including rules of spelling , pronunciation , vocabulary , morphology , syntax , and semantics . Linguistic prescriptivism may aim to establish

2970-655: Was the Babylonian ; another was the Palestinian Hebrew ; still another was Tiberian Hebrew , which eventually superseded the other two and is still in use today. By the time of Saadia Gaon and Jacob Qirqisani , Palestinian Hebrew had come to be regarded as standard, even in Babylonia. That development roughly coincided with the popularisation of the Tiberian notation. The 14th century work Sefer Asufot

3025-589: Was widely taken as an authority for British English for much of the 20th century; Strunk and White 's The Elements of Style has done similarly for American English . The Duden grammar (first edition 1880) has a similar status for German. Although lexicographers often see their work as purely descriptive, dictionaries are widely regarded as prescriptive authorities. Books such as Lynne Truss 's Eats, Shoots & Leaves (2003), which argues for stricter adherence to prescriptive punctuation rules, also seek to exert an influence. Linguistic prescription

#773226