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98-703: The Markarfljót rises in the Rauðafossafjöll [ˈrœyːðaˌfɔsːaˌfjœtl̥] massif, east of the volcano Hekla and drains the Grænafjall, Framfjall (to the east) and Emstrur, Almenningar (to the west) basins. The main sources for the river are the glaciers Mýrdalsjökull (including Sléttjökull, Entujökull, Hrútárökull outlet glaciers and the Goðalandsjökull ice margin) and Eyjafjallajökull (including Steinsholtsjökull, Gígjökull and Eyjafjallajökull outlet glaciers). It flows through narrow gorges in

196-436: A flow rate of around 1500 m³/s. For the first two hours, tephra was produced at the rate of 10000 m³/s. The cloud from the eruption, which had reached 53,000 feet (16,154 m) by 10:10 pm, caused a lightning storm . The tephra was transported northwards by the wind, causing the sky to turn black in places – 190 km (120 mi) away at Blönduós tephra fell from midnight until 2 am, and ash fell on

294-517: A reflexive pronoun instead. The case of the pronoun depends on the case that the verb governs. As for further classification of verbs, Icelandic behaves much like other Germanic languages, with a main division between weak verbs and strong, and the strong verbs, of which there are about 150 to 200, are divided into six classes plus reduplicative verbs. The basic word order in Icelandic is subject–verb–object . However, as words are heavily inflected,

392-460: A trawler 330 km (210 mi) away at 2 am. Icelanders sampled the tephra fall in their locality by putting a plate outside to capture everything that fell onto it. This, and other measurements, showed the area covered was long and narrow with the 1 mm contour (an equivalent of 8 tonnes per hectare) extending to the north coast. By 5:30 on 6 May, the lava flow measured 4 km (2.5 mi) long. Many lava bombs were found near

490-407: A 2–4 cm layer of tephra was deposited over Austur-Húnavatnssýsla and Skagafjördur, resulting in the deaths of both fish and livestock. Rangárvellir, Land and Hreppar also suffered damage. During the eruption up to 0.5 m (1 ft 8 in) lava bombs were thrown 15–20 km (9.3–12.4 mi) away, and flooding was caused by the sudden melting of snow and ice on Hekla's slopes. Hekla

588-462: A 900 m (3,000 ft) long fissure opened 1 m (11 sq ft)1 km north of the main Hlídargígar crater. That night it contained 17 lava fountains, each 20–50 m (66–164 ft) in height. By the evening of the next day, 10–12 craters had formed, each throwing pieces of lava 50–100 m (160–330 ft) in the air. This row of craters was named Öldugígar. Gradually

686-463: A VEI of 3 and produced 0.2 km (0.048 cu mi) of lava covering an area of 18.5 km (7.1 sq mi) and 6.6×10   m³ of tephra, deposited over an area of 40,000 km (15,000 sq mi), mainly to the northwest of the volcano. The main Hekla fissure only erupted at its far southwest end, most of the eruption was from other fissures nearby. The eruption stopped in

784-401: A West Scandinavian language. Icelandic is derived from an earlier language Old Norse , which later became Old Icelandic and currently Modern Icelandic. The division between old and modern Icelandic is said to be before and after 1540. East Germanic languages West Germanic languages Icelandic Faroese Norwegian Danish Swedish Around 900 CE, the language spoken in

882-454: A century after the last eruption of Hekla proper, the longest dormant period since 1104. Before the eruption the volcano had been visible from the surrounding area but nothing remarkable was noticed. The eruption occurred at 6:41 am ± 3 min with a loud roar; later eruptions could be heard throughout Iceland. An earthquake at 6:50 am measured 6 on the Mercalli intensity scale and increased

980-499: A century later. It started on 25 July and was particularly violent (VEI 4), firing volcanic bombs as far as Vördufell , 40 km (25 mi) west. Tephra was deposited over Rangárvellir , Holt and Landeyjar , 0.2 km (0.048 cu mi) in total. A man in Landsveit was killed. A VEI-4 eruption began on 3 January and lasted for over 6 months, with 0.15 km (0.036 cu mi) of tephra being deposited to

1078-471: A couple of hours or less. Some are very short (a week to ten days) whereas others can stretch into months and years (the 1947 eruption started 29 March 1947 and ended April 1948). But there is a general correlation: the longer Hekla goes dormant, the larger and more catastrophic its opening eruption will be. The most recent eruption was on 26 February 2000. One of the largest Holocene eruptions in Iceland

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1176-509: A crater at 780 m (2,560 ft) was producing a lava column which reached an altitude of around 1 km (0.62 mi). During the night a 700 m (2,300 ft) high lava fountain was thrown up from the main crater. A 500 m (1,600 ft) long fissure starting below the Lava Crater opened, and lava fountains and other lava flows emanated from it. One hour into the eruption, a new 400 m (1,300 ft) fissure opened to

1274-458: A decade. The dates were recently recalibrated of the major eruptions and a table is given below as the difference in dates could cause confusion. Unless otherwise stated eruption dates in Year (2019 values) column are from Global Volcanism Program and Catalogue of Icelandic Volcanoes, As other sources can disagree, there has been a recent literature update. The values and range given in

1372-510: A fluorine content of 0.2%, and two days after the eruption contaminated grass had a dry weight content of up to 0.4% fluorine. 450 farms and 95,000 sheep were affected by the eruption. Some sheep were kept inside and fed on hay or moved, but other farmers were forced to graze their flocks outside. Icelandic language Icelandic ( / aɪ s ˈ l æ n d ɪ k / eyess- LAN -dik ; endonym : íslenska , pronounced [ˈistlɛnska] )

1470-498: A great eruption of the mountain. On the night of 1 September, the dwellers in its neighbourhood were terrified by a fearful underground groaning, which continued till mid-day on the 2nd. Then, with a tremendous crash, there were formed in the sides of the cone two large openings, whence there gushed torrents of lava, which flowed down two gorges on the flanks of the mountain. The whole summit was enveloped in clouds of vapour and volcanic dust. The neighbouring rivers became so hot as to kill

1568-433: A historical or a formalistic view: -a , -i , and -ur , referring to the endings that these verbs take when conjugated in the first person singular present. Almost all Icelandic verbs have the ending -a in the infinitive, some with á , two with u ( munu , skulu ) one with o ( þvo : "wash") and one with e . Many transitive verbs (i.e. they require an object ), can take

1666-722: A monophthong and adding either /i/ or /u/ to it. All the vowels can either be long or short; vowels in open syllables are long, and vowels in closed syllables are short. Icelandic retains many grammatical features of other ancient Germanic languages , and resembles Old Norwegian before much of its fusional inflection was lost. Modern Icelandic is still a heavily inflected language with four cases : nominative , accusative , dative and genitive . Icelandic nouns can have one of three grammatical genders : masculine, feminine or neuter. There are two main declension paradigms for each gender: strong and weak nouns , and these are further divided into subclasses of nouns, based primarily on

1764-403: A protectionist language culture, however, this is deep-rooted ideologically primarily in relation to the forms of the language, while Icelanders in general seem to be more pragmatic as to domains of language use. Since the late 16th century, discussion has been ongoing on the purity of the Icelandic language. The bishop Oddur Einarsson wrote in 1589 that the language has remained unspoiled since

1862-599: A result, the Irish language has had some influence on both Faroese and Icelandic. The oldest preserved texts in Icelandic were written around 1100. Many of the texts are based on poetry and laws traditionally preserved orally. The most famous of the texts, which were written in Iceland from the 12th century onward, are the sagas of Icelanders , which encompass the historical works and the Poetic Edda . The language of

1960-579: A series of craters, two of which are generally the most active. Hekla has a morphological type between that of a fissure vent and stratovolcano (built from mixed lava and tephra eruptions) sited at a rift- transform junction in the area where the south Iceland seismic zone and eastern volcanic zone meet. The unusual form of Hekla is found on very few volcanoes around the world, notably Callaqui in Chile . The 5.5 km (3.4 mi) Heklugjá fissure opens along its entire length during major eruptions and

2058-647: A standard established in the 19th century, primarily by the Danish linguist Rasmus Rask . It is based strongly on an orthography laid out in the early 12th century by a document referred to as the First Grammatical Treatise by an anonymous author, who has later been referred to as the First Grammarian. The later Rasmus Rask standard was a re-creation of the old treatise, with some changes to fit concurrent Germanic conventions, such as

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2156-515: Is a North Germanic language from the Indo-European language family spoken by about 314,000 people, the vast majority of whom live in Iceland , where it is the national language. Since it is a West Scandinavian language , it is most closely related to Faroese , western Norwegian dialects , and the extinct language Norn . It is not mutually intelligible with the continental Scandinavian languages ( Danish , Norwegian , and Swedish ) and

2254-570: Is closely studied today for parameters such as strain , tilt, deformation and other movement and seismic activity. Earthquakes in the volcano's vicinity are generally below magnitude 2 while it is dormant and magnitude 3 when erupting. The earliest recorded eruption of Hekla took place in 1104. Since then there have been between twenty and thirty considerable eruptions, with the mountain sometimes remaining active for periods of six years with little pause. Eruptions in Hekla are varied and difficult to predict. Precursor seismic activity may only be for

2352-477: Is distinguished by a wide assortment of irregular declensions. Icelandic vocabulary is also deeply conservative, with the country's language regulator maintaining an active policy of coining terms based on older Icelandic words rather than directly taking in loanwords from other languages. Aside from the 300,000 Icelandic speakers in Iceland, Icelandic is spoken by about 8,000 people in Denmark, 5,000 people in

2450-404: Is evident in general language discourses, in polls, and in other investigations into Icelandic language attitudes. The general consensus on Icelandic language policy has come to mean that language policy and language ideology discourse are not predominantly state or elite driven; but rather, remain the concern of lay people and the general public. The Icelandic speech community is perceived to have

2548-440: Is fed by a magma reservoir estimated to have a top 4 km (2.5 mi) below the surface with centroid 2.5 km (1.6 mi) lower. The chamber extends to an unusual depth of more than 10 km (6.2 mi), and the more silicic lavas have matured at more than 9 km (5.6 mi). Many of the eruptions commence with thicker more explosive rhyolite , dacite or andesite eruptives which create tephra and have

2646-521: Is likely that this was both the second greatest lava eruption of Hekla whilst Iceland was inhabited and the second greatest lava eruption in the world in the period 1900–1970. A total lava volume 0.8 km (0.19 cu mi) was produced with 0.21 km (0.050 cu mi) of tephra. The height of Hekla was 1,447 m (4,747 ft) before the eruption, increasing to a maximum of 1,503 m (4,931 ft), before dropping to 1,491 m (4,892 ft) subsequently. The eruption occurred over

2744-623: Is likely to be the source of the Efrahvolshraun lava on Hekla's west. The VEI-3 eruption began on 4 December. The VEI-2 eruption and the 1206 eruption distributed around 0.24 km (0.058 cu mi) of tephra mainly to the northeast. This VEI-4 eruption, which started on 11 July and lasted for a year, was the second largest tephra eruption of Hekla since Iceland was settled, covering 30,000 km (12,000 sq mi) of land with 0.31 km (0.074 cu mi) of tephra. Over 0.5 km (0.12 cu mi) of lava

2842-511: Is more distinct from the most widely spoken Germanic languages, English and German . The written forms of Icelandic and Faroese are very similar, but their spoken forms are not mutually intelligible . The language is more conservative than most other Germanic languages. While most of them have greatly reduced levels of inflection (particularly noun declension ), Icelandic retains a four- case synthetic grammar (comparable to German , though considerably more conservative and synthetic) and

2940-647: Is not very well known and because those Icelanders not proficient in the other Scandinavian languages often have a sufficient grasp of English to communicate with institutions in that language (although there is evidence that the general English skills of Icelanders have been somewhat overestimated). The Nordic countries have committed to providing services in various languages to each other's citizens, but this does not amount to any absolute rights being granted, except as regards criminal and court matters. All Icelandic stops are voiceless and are distinguished as such by aspiration . Stops are realised post-aspirated when at

3038-555: Is still a conscious effort to create new words, especially for science and technology, with many societies publishing dictionaries, some with the help of The Icelandic Language Committee ( Íslensk málnefnd ). The Icelandic alphabet is notable for its retention of three old letters that no longer exist in the English alphabet : Þ, þ ( þorn , modern English "thorn"), Ð, ð ( eð , anglicised as "eth" or "edh") and Æ, æ (æsc, anglicised as "ash" or "asc"), with þ and ð representing

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3136-431: Is the only Icelandic volcano to produce calc-alkaline lavas. Phenocrysts in Hekla's lava can contain plagioclase , pyroxene , titanomagnetite , olivine , and apatite . When not erupting Hekla is often covered with snow and small glaciers ; it is also unusually aseismic with activity only starting 30–80 minutes before an eruption. Hekla is located on the mid-ocean ridge, a diverging plate boundary . Hekla

3234-595: Is the river Krossá [ˈkʰrɔsːˌauː] , flowing through Þórsmörk, which is notorious for sudden changes in its water level. This river is sourced from the Krossárjökull outlet glacier of Mýrdalsjökull. The highest discharges ever measured in the Markarfljót were 2,100 m/s (74,000 cu ft/s) in 1967, during the Steinholt jökulhlaup and then 2,640 m/s (93,000 cu ft/s) during

3332-619: The 2010 eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull . There is evidence of at least 10 jokulhlaups down the Markarfljot in the past 7000 years. Prehistoric jökulhlaup discharges have been much higher than recently and completely covered the Markarfljótsaurar outwash plain which means the total river basin of about 830 km (320 sq mi) with a population of over 1000 is at risk from a jökulhlaup of over 180,000 km/s (2,600,000 cu mi/min) in size. The tsunami wave hitting

3430-599: The Parliament in 2011, Icelandic is "the national language of the Icelandic people and the official language in Iceland"; moreover, "[p]ublic authorities shall ensure that its use is possible in all areas of Icelandic society". Iceland is a member of the Nordic Council , a forum for co-operation between the Nordic countries, but the council uses only Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish as its working languages (although

3528-501: The bishop and members of parliament . Early Icelandic vocabulary was largely Old Norse with a few words being Celtic from when Celts first settled in Iceland. The introduction of Christianity to Iceland in the 11th century brought with it a need to describe new religious concepts . The majority of new words were taken from other Scandinavian languages ; kirkja ("church"), for example. Numerous other languages have influenced Icelandic: French brought many words related to

3626-444: The genitive singular and nominative plural endings of a particular noun. For example, within the strong masculine nouns, there is a subclass (class 1) that declines with -s ( hests ) in the genitive singular and -ar ( hestar ) in the nominative plural. However, there is another subclass (class 3) of strong masculine nouns that always declines with -ar ( hlutar ) in the genitive singular and -ir ( hlutir ) in

3724-554: The last ice age . During the last 7,000 years, one third of the volcanic ash deposited in Scandinavia, Germany, Ireland, and the United Kingdom originated from Hekla. Hekla had been dormant for at least 250 years when it erupted explosively in 1104 (probably in the autumn), covering 55,000 km (21,000 sq mi) which is over half of Iceland with 1.2 km / 2.5 km of rhyodacitic tephra. This

3822-525: The voiceless and voiced "th" sounds (as in English thin and this ), respectively, and æ representing the diphthong /ai/ which does not exist in English. The complete Icelandic alphabet is: The letters with diacritics , such as á and ö , are for the most part treated as separate letters and not variants of their derivative vowels. The letter é officially replaced je in 1929, although it had been used in early manuscripts (until

3920-549: The ʻAʻā lava type with Pāhoehoe and lava a budella (lava tubes) areas. In April and May 1948 CO 2 emitted from cracks in the ground pooled in hollows near to Hekla, killing 15 sheep and some wild animals and birds. In total 24,000 tonnes (26,000 tons) of CO 2 was emitted. Ditches were dug by farmers to drain these hollows, and the CO 2 emission had stopped by the end of the year. The 1970 eruption of Hekla started at 9:23 pm on 5 May 1970 and lasted until 5 July. It had

4018-445: The 11th century, when the first texts were written on vellum . Modern speakers can understand the original sagas and Eddas which were written about eight hundred years ago. The sagas are usually read with updated modern spelling and footnotes, but otherwise are intact (as with recent English editions of Shakespeare's works). With some effort, many Icelanders can also understand the original manuscripts. According to an act passed by

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4116-474: The 12.5 km (4.8 sq mi) Nordurhraun . In total around 0.3 km (0.072 cu mi) of lava and 5 × 10  m (1.8 × 10  cu ft) of tephra were produced. An eruption may have occurred around 1440 at Raudölder ; despite being close to Hekla this is not classed as an eruption of Hekla based on the SiO 2 content of the lava. Details of the 1510 eruption were not recorded until

4214-462: The 16th century, especially in vowels (in particular, á , æ , au , and y / ý ). The letters -ý & -y lost their original meaning and merged with -í & -i in the period 1400 - 1600. Around the same time or a little earlier the letter -æ originally signifying a simple vowel, a type of open -e, formed into the double vowel -ai, a double vowel absent in the original Icelandic. The modern Icelandic alphabet has developed from

4312-602: The Faroes was Old Norse , which Norse settlers had brought with them during the time of the settlement of Faroe Islands ( landnám ) that began in 825. However, many of the settlers were not from Scandinavia , but descendants of Norse settlers in the Irish Sea region. In addition, women from Norse Ireland, Orkney , or Shetland often married native Scandinavian men before settling in the Faroe Islands and Iceland. As

4410-479: The Lava Crater. The longest lava stream produced was 8 km (5.0 mi) long and stopped in Stóraskógsbotnar. A scientist filming one of the lava streams on 2 November was hit by a block of lava and was killed. The lava flow stopped after 13 months on 21 April, having covered 40 km (15 sq mi) and with a maximum depth of 100 m (330 ft). The lava beds produced were mainly

4508-671: The Shoulder Crater had a 960 m (3,150 ft) circumference at its top and the Summit Crater a 700 m (2,300 ft)circumference at its highest point, 90 m (300 ft) above the ridge. Sandy tephra and ash fell over Iceland in May and June, sometimes making it dark in the daytime near Hekla. The tephra caused fluorine poisoning of grazing sheep, making them unable to walk. That winter more craters formed, building up cones. Explosive activity had ceased six months after

4606-459: The SiO 2 content of the lava. The eruption of 1766 was large (VEI-4) and produced the second largest lava flow, 1.3 km (0.31 cu mi) covering 65 km (25 sq mi), and third largest tephra volume, 0.24 km (0.058 cu mi), of any Icelandic volcano during the inhabited era. The eruption started at around 3:30 am on 5 April 1766 and ceased in May 1768. Initially

4704-603: The United States, and more than 1,400 people in Canada, notably in the region known as New Iceland in Manitoba which was settled by Icelanders beginning in the 1880s. The state-funded Árni Magnússon Institute for Icelandic Studies serves as a centre for preserving the medieval Icelandic manuscripts and studying the language and its literature. The Icelandic Language Council, comprising representatives of universities,

4802-533: The Vestmannaeyjar Islands from such an event has been estimated to be 2–3 m (6 ft 7 in – 9 ft 10 in) in height and not to cause significant damage off the coast. The first bridge over the river was opened in 1934 near Litli Dímon [ˈlɪhtla ˈtiːˌmɔːn] . It is 242 meters long and was at the time the longest bridge in Iceland. A second bridge was built in 1978 at Emstrur [ˈɛmstrʏr̥] . A third bridge

4900-416: The Year (2024 values) column used IntCal20 for H-5 and H-3 and ice core data for H-4 which were not available in 2019. Hekla 3, 4, and 5 produced huge amounts of rhyolitic ash and tephra, covering 80% of Iceland and providing useful date markers in soil profiles in other parts of Europe such as Orkney , Scandinavia, and elsewhere. H 3 and H 4 produced the largest layers of tephra in Iceland since

4998-432: The above examples, the conjugated verbs veit and fór are always the second element in their respective clauses. A distinction between formal and informal address ( T–V distinction ) had existed in Icelandic from the 17th century, but use of the formal variant weakened in the 1950s and rapidly disappeared. It no longer exists in regular speech, but may occasionally be found in pre-written speeches addressed to

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5096-399: The areas west and southwest of Hekla, leading to many cattle deaths, probably mainly from fluorosis . In late 1389 Hekla erupted again (VEI-3), starting with a large ejection of tephra to the southeast. Later "the eruption fissure moved itself out of the mountain proper and into the woods a little above Skard". Skard and another nearby farm were destroyed by a large lava flow that now forms

5194-591: The arts, journalists, teachers, and the Ministry of Culture, Science and Education , advises the authorities on language policy . Since 1995, on 16 November each year, the birthday of 19th-century poet Jónas Hallgrímsson is celebrated as Icelandic Language Day . Icelandic is an Indo-European language and belongs to the North Germanic group of the Germanic languages . Icelandic is further classified as

5292-408: The beginning of the word, but pre-aspirated when occurring within a word. Scholten (2000 , p. 22) includes three extra phones: [ʔ l̥ˠ lˠ] . Word-final voiced consonants are devoiced pre-pausally, so that dag ('day (acc.)') is pronounced as [ˈtaːx] and dagur ('day (nom.)') is pronounced [ˈtaːɣʏr̥] . Icelandic has 8 monophthongs and 5 diphthongs. The diphthongs are created by taking

5390-562: The council does publish material in Icelandic). Under the Nordic Language Convention , since 1987 Icelandic citizens have had the right to use Icelandic when interacting with official bodies in other Nordic countries, without becoming liable for any interpretation or translation costs. The convention covers visits to hospitals, job centres, the police, and social security offices. It does not have much effect since it

5488-502: The court and knightship; words in the semantic field of trade and commerce have been borrowed from Low German because of trade connections. In the late 18th century, linguistic purism began to gain noticeable ground in Iceland and since the early 19th century it has been the linguistic policy of the country. Nowadays, it is common practice to coin new compound words from Icelandic derivatives. Icelandic personal names are patronymic (and sometimes matronymic ) in that they reflect

5586-432: The crater, the lava-stream was between forty and fifty feet deep and nearly a mile in width. On 12 October a fresh torrent of lava burst forth, and heaped up another similar mass. The mountain continued in a state of activity up to April 1846; then it rested for a while, and began again in the following month of October. Since then, however, it has enjoyed repose. The effects of these eruptions were disastrous. The whole island

5684-594: The entire eruption, which also caused lahars and tsunami . The tephra was deposited to the northwest, destroying and damaging farms and woodland in Þjórsárdalur, Land, Hreppar and Biskupstungur . Fine ash from the eruption reached Norway. There was damage to wildlife with significant numbers of trout , salmon , ptarmigan and farm animals dying. A very small eruption, possibly only VEI-1, took place on 2 April 1725, producing flows of lava from locations around Hekla which have since been covered by later lava flows. These eruptions are not classed as of Hekla itself based on

5782-534: The eruption had started, ash fell on Helsinki , Finland, having covered 2,860 km (1,780 mi) in this time. The initial tephra production rate in the first 30 minutes of the eruption was 75,000 m ·s , dropping to 22,000 m ·s for the next half-hour. The initial phase produced 0.18 km (0.043 cu mi) of tephra, equating to 4.5 × 10  km (1.1 × 10  cu mi) of Dense-rock equivalent , covering 3,130 km (1,210 sq mi) of land and sea. 98 farms were damaged by

5880-455: The eruption intensity until it covered a 4 km (2.5 mi) fissure on the ridge. The cloud from the eruption had ascended to a height of 30 km by 7:08 am, the wind then carried it southwards towards Eyjafjallajökull , turning it black. Pumice first landed on Fljótshlíð at around 7:10 am, and tephra and ash continued falling until it formed a 3–10 cm (1.2–3.9 in) layer. A lava bomb that landed 32 km (20 mi) from Hekla

5978-475: The eruption, but only 2 were no longer farmed in 1970. A large volunteer effort was mobilized to clear the tephra – around 1000 man-days by the end of July. The eruption produced around 3 ML (110 × 10 ^  cu ft) of water (snowmelt and directly from the fissure) which caused flooding of the Ytri Rangá river. In the first 20 hours of the eruption approximately 3,500 m ·s of lava

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6076-488: The evening of the eruption; the largest had a magnitude of 4. The eruption started weakly at 9:23 pm IMT ± 2 min before increasing in power. The first pumice fell on Búrfell power station, 15 km (9.3 mi) away, at 9:35 pm causing people to evacuate. The eruption seems to have started in two locations at the same time – to the Shoulder crater's south-southwest and below the Lava Crater. At 10:30 pm

6174-439: The exclusive use of k rather than c . Various archaic features, such as the letter ð , had not been used much in later centuries. Rask's standard constituted a major change in practice. Later 20th-century changes include the use of é instead of je and the replacement of z with s in 1974. Apart from the addition of new vocabulary, written Icelandic has not changed substantially since

6272-556: The first eruption. Lava flowed from the Lava Crater continuously during the eruption, starting at a rate of over 100 m ·s , dropping to 5–10 m ·s in April and early May at a speed of around 20 cm·s before increasing, eventually reaching 150 m ·s at the end of June and at similar levels until mid-July with a peak flow speed of 2–2.5 m·s . From there it gradually decreased to under 10 m ·s in November. Initially

6370-421: The fish, and the sheep fled in terror from the adjoining heaths, some being burnt before they could escape. On the night of 15 September, two new openings were formed — one on the eastern, and the other on the southern slope — from both of which lava was discharged for twenty-two hours. It flowed to a distance of upwards of twenty miles, killing many cattle and destroying a large tract of pasturage. Twelve miles from

6468-422: The immediate father or mother of the child and not the historic family lineage. This system, which was formerly used throughout the Nordic area and beyond, differs from most Western systems of family name . In most Icelandic families, the ancient tradition of patronymics is still in use; i.e. a person uses their father's name (usually) or mother's name (increasingly in recent years) in the genitive form followed by

6566-409: The last thousand years has come from Hekla, amounting to 5 km (1.2 cu mi). Cumulatively, the volcano has produced one of the largest volumes of lava of any in the world in the last millennium, around 8 km (1.9 cu mi). In Icelandic Hekla is the word for a short hooded cloak, which may relate to the frequent cloud cover on the summit. An early Latin source refers to

6664-474: The lava comprised 57–58% SiO 2 and 11% Fe 2 O 3 , from the time of peak flow onwards this changed to 54% SiO 2 and 13.5% Fe 2 O 3 . The lava river sometimes ran through lava tubes before emerging again. The lava front had a height of up to 15 m (49 ft). On 15 and 16 June, a branch of lava flow to the south of Melfell traveled over 1 km (0.62 mi) in 30 hours before slowing and stopping by 21 June, 7.8 km (4.8 mi) from

6762-555: The main crater, one had an area of 6 m (65 sq ft) and a likely weight of 12 tons. Xenoliths formed around 2% of the material produced by the craters. These were of rock types including basalt, andesite, ignimbrite and sedimentary rock . The eruption became stronger at Skjólkvíar on 12 May, with columns of steam attaining a height of 2,500 m (8,200 ft). The eruption intensity then gradually reduced until it stopped on 20 May. The lava field then had an area of 5.8 km (2.2 sq mi). Later that day

6860-639: The middle voice is a voice or simply an independent class of verbs of its own, as every middle-voice verb has an active-voice ancestor, but sometimes with drastically different meaning, and the middle-voice verbs form a conjugation group of their own. Examples are koma ("come") vs. komast ("get there"), drepa ("kill") vs. drepast ("perish ignominiously") and taka ("take") vs. takast ("manage to"). Verbs have up to ten tenses, but Icelandic, like English, forms most of them with auxiliary verbs . There are three or four main groups of weak verbs in Icelandic, depending on whether one takes

6958-552: The monk Benedeit from c.  1120 about the voyages of Saint Brendan mentions Hekla as the prison of Judas . In the Flatey Book Annal it was recorded that during the 1341 eruption, people saw large and small birds flying in the mountain's fire which were taken to be souls. In the 16th century Caspar Peucer wrote that the Gates of Hell could be found in "the bottomless abyss of Hekla Fell". The belief that Hekla

7056-418: The morpheme -son ("son") or -dóttir ("daughter") in lieu of family names. In 2019, changes were announced to the laws governing names. Icelanders who are officially registered with non-binary gender will be permitted to use the suffix -bur ("child of") instead of -son or -dóttir . A core theme of Icelandic language ideologies is grammatical, orthographic and lexical purism for Icelandic. This

7154-456: The mountain as Mons Casule . After the eruption of 1104, stories, probably spread deliberately through Europe by Cistercian monks, told that Hekla was the gateway to Hell. The Cistercian monk Herbert of Clairvaux wrote in his De Miraculis (without naming Hekla): The renowned fiery cauldron of Sicily , which men call Hell's chimney ... that cauldron is affirmed to be like a small furnace compared to this enormous inferno. A poem by

7252-456: The mountainous area between the glaciers Tindfjallajökull and Torfajökull (and Kaldaklofsjökull), which are also sources, then spreads in the wide Markarfljótsaurar sandur plains at Iceland's south coast, near Þórsmörk . The Markarfljót takes its course first north, then west of Þórsmörk and finally empties into the Atlantic west of Eyjafjallajökull. One of the Markarfljót's tributaries

7350-445: The nominative plural. Additionally, Icelandic permits a quirky subject , that is, certain verbs have subjects in an oblique case (i.e. other than the nominative). Nouns, adjectives and pronouns are declined in the four cases and for number in the singular and plural. Verbs are conjugated for tense , mood , person , number and voice . There are three voices: active, passive and middle (or medial), but it may be debated whether

7448-512: The northeast, producing two main lava fountains, and shortly after another adjoining fissure opened producing lava fountains to a height of 500 m (1,600 ft). At around midnight, another fissure opened northwest of the Lava Crater, later hurling an over 300 m (980 ft) long lava fountain, 200–300 m (660–980 ft) into the air. By midnight lava had already covered over 1 km (0.39 sq mi) and this extended to 7.5 km (2.9 sq mi) by next morning implying

7546-422: The number of active craters decreased, the most active of these built a cone 100 m (330 ft) higher than the level of the ridge. Lava flowed from its base until mid-June when the lava cut through the north crater wall. The larger cones produced more tephra, occasionally with lightning within the tephra cloud. By 5 July, the eruption had stopped. During eruptions of Hekla, fluorine is produced and sticks to

7644-438: The potential for pyroclastic flows . Other or the later part of eruptions come from thinner basalt tending magma which forms lava fields. The tephra produced by its eruptions is high in fluorine , which is poisonous to animals. Hekla's basaltic andesite lava generally has a SiO 2 content of over 54%, compared to the 45–50% of other nearby transitional alkaline basalt eruptions (see TAS classification ). It

7742-464: The sagas is Old Icelandic , a western dialect of Old Norse . The Dano-Norwegian , then later Danish rule of Iceland from 1536 to 1918 had little effect on the evolution of Icelandic (in contrast to the Norwegian language), which remained in daily use among the general population. Though more archaic than the other living Germanic languages, Icelandic changed markedly in pronunciation from the 12th to

7840-696: The same directions leading to many livestock deaths through fluorosis for the next two years. A small eruption (VEI-2) occurred between 27 February 1878 and April 1878, around 10 km (6.2 mi) east of Hekla, and produced 0.2 km (0.048 cu mi) of lava from two parallel fissures covering 15.5 km (6.0 sq mi). A small eruption (VEI-2) occurred between 25 April 1913 and 18 May 1913, around 10 km (6.2 mi) east of Hekla, and caused large fissures at Mundafell and Lambafit which produced 3.8 and 6.3 km (1.5 and 2.4 sq mi) of lava respectively. The VEI-4 eruption started on 29 March 1947 and ended on 21 April 1948. It

7938-467: The smoke. By the fourth, fifth, and sixth days, the eruption was greatly diminished, and only the shoulder and summit craters were erupting explosively. The explosive eruption increased in strength from 9–12 April and then from 28 April it reduced again. On 3 May, the volcano stopped throwing out lava in sudden explosions from its craters and changed to continuously ejecting tephra and ash for long periods, until early June when this reduced. On 2 September,

8036-469: The south-southeast, damaging Mýrdalur . A small (VEI-3) eruption began on 8 May 1636 and lasted for over a year. The 5 × 10  m (1.8 × 10  cu ft) of tephra from the eruption damaged pasture to the northeast causing death of livestock. Starting 13 January and lasting for over 7 months the eruption was one of Hekla's most destructive (VEI-4). Initially tephra was produced at 60,000 m ·s , 0.18 km (0.043 cu mi) during

8134-403: The south-southwest on 10 May and in Hlídargígar on 20 May, but a new fissure opened on the same day and lava flowed from this until 5 July. The lava was andesite containing olivine, similar to the lava produced later in the eruption of 1947. Before the eruption, a greater than normal amount of snow melting had occurred, indicating the volcano was heating up. Earth tremors began at 8:48 pm on

8232-470: The surfaces of the grains of tephra. Fine grains can have a fluorine content of 350 ppm, and fluorine poisoning can start in sheep at a diet with fluorine content of 25 ppm. At 250 ppm, death can occur within a few days. In 1783, 79% of the Icelandic sheep stock were killed, probably as a result of fluorosis caused by the eruption of Lakagígar . Some of the ash produced in this eruption had

8330-446: The time the ancient literature of Iceland was written. Later in the 18th century the purism movement grew and more works were translated into Icelandic, especially in areas that Icelandic had hardly ever been used in. Many neologisms were introduced, with many of them being loan-translations. In the early 19th century, due to the influence of romanticism , importance was put on the purity of spoken language as well. The written language

8428-533: The volcano since the year 1210. During the Middle Ages , the Icelandic Norse called the volcano the "Gateway to Hell " and the idea spread over much of Europe. The volcano's frequent large and often initially explosive eruptions have covered much of Iceland with tephra , and these layers can be used to date eruptions of Iceland's other volcanoes. Approximately 10% of the tephra created in Iceland in

8526-458: The word order is fairly flexible, and every combination may occur in poetry; SVO, SOV, VSO, VOS, OSV and OVS are all allowed for metrical purposes. However, as with most Germanic languages, Icelandic usually complies with the V2 word order restriction, so the conjugated verb in Icelandic usually appears as the second element in the clause, preceded by the word or phrase being emphasised. For example: In

8624-430: Was 0.5 m (1 ft 8 in) across and weighed 20 kg (44 lb). Between Vatnafjöll and Hekla, a layer of tephra up to 1 m (3 ft 3 in) thick was deposited, and this included bombs with a diameter larger than 0.5 m (1 ft 8 in). Bombs with surface areas of 50 m (540 sq ft) were dropped onto the slopes of Hekla, for up to 1 km (0.62 mi). 51 hours after

8722-479: Was also brought closer to the spoken language, as the sentence structure of literature had previously been influenced by Danish and German . The changes brought by the purism movement have had the most influence on the written language, as many speakers use foreign words freely in speech but try to avoid them in writing. The success of the many neologisms created from the movement has also been variable as some loanwords have not been replaced with native ones. There

8820-449: Was also expelled. The tephra caused significant damage to the settlements of Skagafjörður and Fljót, leading to over 500 deaths that winter. The material output from this eruption had SiO 2 levels of between 56% and 64%, and apart from a slight abundance of olivine the lava, was typical of Hekla eruptions. A small eruption (VEI-3) started on 19 May and deposited around 5 × 10  km (1.2 × 10  cu mi) of tephra over

8918-480: Was dormant for more than sixty years before 1845, when it suddenly burst forth on 2 September at 9 am: After a violent storm on the night of the 2nd of September in that year, the surface of the ground in the Orkney Islands was found strown with volcanic dust. There was thus conveyed to the inhabitants of Great Britain an intimation that Hecla had been again at work. Accordingly, tidings soon after arrived of

9016-481: Was opened in 1992 a few kilometers south of the first bridge. 63°57′5″N 19°21′31″W  /  63.95139°N 19.35861°W  / 63.95139; -19.35861 Hekla Hekla ( Icelandic pronunciation: [ˈhɛhkla] ), or Hecla , is an active stratovolcano in the south of Iceland with a height of 1,491 m (4,892 ft). Hekla is one of Iceland's most active volcanoes ; over 20 eruptions have occurred in and around

9114-562: Was produced at 20,000 m ·s . The tephra deposition of a total amount of 0.17 km (0.041 cu mi) was mainly to the east-southeast; immediately to the east of Hekla the layer was 20–40 cm (7.9–15.7 in) deep. Fine ash was carried to the Faroes , Shetland and Orkney. Lava flows to the west and north-west covered an area of 25 km (9.7 sq mi) with a volume of 0.63 km (0.15 cu mi) of lava. Large quantities of dark ash were deposited over pasture in

9212-480: Was produced from the fissure, dividing into various branches and covering 12–15 km (4.6–5.8 sq mi). On the second day, 8 distinct eruption columns were discernible. A crater formed at 860 m (2,820 ft) called the Lava Crater ( Hraungígur ), producing a constant flow of lava. Another crater named the Shoulder Crater ( Axlargígur ) produced a column of smoke every 10 seconds together with loud explosions that created visible compression waves in

9310-495: Was strewn with volcanic ash, which, where it did not smother the grass outright, gave it a poisonous taint. The cattle that ate of it were attacked by a murrain , of which great numbers died. The ice and snow, which had gathered about the mountain for a long period of time, were wholly melted by the heat. Masses of pumice weighing nearly half a ton were thrown to a distance of between four and five miles. The eruption ceased around 5 April 1846. Initially in this VEI-4 eruption tephra

9408-649: Was the Hekla 3 (or H 3 ) eruption c.  1000 BC , which threw about 7.3 km (1.8 cu mi) of volcanic rock into the atmosphere, placing its Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) at 5. This would have cooled temperatures in the northern parts of the globe for a few years afterwards. Traces of this eruption have been identified in Scottish peat bogs , and in Ireland a study of tree rings dating from this period has shown negligible tree ring growth for

9506-433: Was the gate to Hell persisted until the 19th century. There is still a legend that witches gather on Hekla during Easter . Hekla is part of a volcanic ridge, 40 km (25 mi) long. The most active part of this ridge, a fissure about 5.5 km (3.4 mi) long named Heklugjá [ˈhɛhklʏˌcauː] , is considered to be within Hekla proper. Hekla looks rather like an overturned boat, with its keel being

9604-528: Was the second largest tephra eruption in the country in historical times with a VEI of 5. Farms upwind of the volcano 15 km (9.3 mi) in Þjórsárdalur valley, 50 km (31 mi) at Hrunamannaafréttur and 70 km (43 mi) at Lake Hvítárvatn were abandoned because of the damage. The eruption caused Hekla to become famous throughout Europe. A VEI-4 eruption began on 19 January 1158 producing over 0.15 km (0.036 cu mi) of lava and 0.2 km (0.048 cu mi) of tephra. It

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