Misplaced Pages

#201798

134-688: 140 Broadway (formerly known as the Marine Midland Building or the HSBC Bank Building ) is a 51-story International Style office building on the east side of Broadway between Cedar and Liberty streets in the Financial District of Manhattan in New York City . The building was designed by Gordon Bunshaft , of the firm Skidmore, Owings & Merrill , and consists of a mostly smooth black facade on

268-653: A World Heritage Site , describing it as "a masterpiece of modern city planning, architecture and art, created by the Venezuelan architect Carlos Raúl Villanueva and a group of distinguished avant-garde artists". In June 2007 UNESCO proclaimed Ciudad Universitaria of the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), in Mexico City , a World Heritage Site due to its relevance and contribution in terms of international style movement. It

402-543: A circular economy . Draft versions of LEED v5 were released for public comment in 2024, and the final version of LEED v5 is expected to appear in 2025. It may address some of the previous criticisms. Despite concerns, LEED has been described as a "transformative force in the design and construction industry". LEED is credited with providing a framework for green building, expanding the use of green practices and products in buildings, encouraging sustainable forestry, and helping professionals to consider buildings in terms of

536-553: A $ 60 million renovation and leased out much of the remaining space. At the time, Silverstein harbored concerns that HSBC, which occupied 40% of the space, would move out once its lease expired in 2002. HSBC subsequently moved its primary headquarters to the HSBC Tower in Midtown Manhattan in 2001. Brown Brothers Harriman & Co. was then signed as 140 Broadway's major tenant, moving to 20 floors. The building

670-449: A 1973 law that mandated compliance with a new fire code, including upgrades to elevators that were activated by heat rather than automatically. The law had a deadline of September 1981, and after the fire at 140 Broadway, numerous landlords were given summonses for not complying with the new fire code. In 1984, a disgruntled maintenance worker removed parts of 140 Broadway's air-conditioning system and stored these components elsewhere. After

804-582: A 51-story tower, which occupied only two-fifths of the block and conformed to the 1961 Zoning Resolution. The building was erected between late 1964 and 1967 and was originally known for its main tenant, the Marine Midland Corporation (later part of HSBC ). Several early tenants were affiliated with the financial industry, including banking and accounting firms. In 1998, the building was sold to Silverstein Properties , which undertook

938-539: A Canadian provider organization and a green rater. The provider organization helps the project through the process while overseeing the green raters, individuals who conduct two mandatory site inspections: the thermal bypass inspection and the final inspection. The provider and rater assist in the certification process but do not themselves certify the project. In addition to certifying projects pursuing LEED, USGBC's Green Business Certification Inc. (GBCI) offers various accreditations to people who demonstrate knowledge of

1072-507: A LEED-certified building 20 miles (32 km) away in the suburb of Lenexa, Kansas . Kaid Benfield of the Natural Resources Defense Council estimated that the carbon emissions associated with the additional miles driven were almost three times higher than before, a change from 0.39 metric tons per person per month to 1.08 metric tons of carbon dioxide per person per month. Speck writes that "The carbon saved by

1206-488: A book-length critique of the International Style. Architectural historian Vincent Scully regarded Venturi's book as 'probably the most important writing on the making of architecture since Le Corbusier's Vers une Architecture . It helped to define postmodernism . Best-selling American author Tom Wolfe wrote a book-length critique, From Bauhaus to Our House , portraying the style as elitist. One of

1340-471: A building. Critics such as David Owen and Jeff Speck also point out that LEED certification focuses on the building itself, and does not take into account factors such as the location in which the building stands, or how employee commutes may be affected by a relocation. In Green Metropolis (2009), Owen discusses an environmentally-friendly building in San Bruno, California , built by Gap Inc. , which

1474-461: A common struggle between old and new. These architects were not considered part of the International Style because they practiced in an "individualistic manner" and seen as the last representatives of Romanticism . The International Style can be traced to buildings designed by a small group of modernists, the major figures of which include Ludwig Mies van der Rohe , Jacobus Oud , Le Corbusier , Richard Neutra and Philip Johnson . The founder of

SECTION 10

#1732798459202

1608-428: A comparison with emphasis on factors that heavily influence energy consumption. The number of points achieved in this credit is proportional to the predicted energy savings. This method has been criticized for inaccurately predicting actual energy usage. The USGBC admits that "current information indicates that most buildings do not perform as well as design metrics indicate. As a result, building owners might not obtain

1742-541: A complex reconstruction of the city which was inspired by functionalism and the Garden city movement . Tomas Bata Memorial is the most valuable monument of the Zlín functionalism . It is a modern paraphrase of the constructions of high gothic style period: the supporting system and colourful stained glass and the reinforced concrete skeleton and glass. With the rise of Nazism, a number of key European modern architects fled to

1876-499: A conglomeration of three glass skyscrapers in downtown Ottawa, where the plans of the property developer Robert Campeau in the mid-1960s and early 1970s—in the words of historian Robert W. Collier, were "forceful and abrasive[;] he was not well-loved at City Hall"—had no regard for existing city plans, and "built with contempt for the existing city and for city responsibilities in the key areas of transportation and land use". Architects attempted to put new twists into such towers, such as

2010-600: A dozen of his properties. The New York Times wrote that 140 Broadway had "attracted the most attention from prospective buyers": although the building was only 59% occupied and required renovations, real estate in the Financial District was highly sought. After several bids were received from six "serious finalists", the building was sold to Larry Silverstein 's company Silverstein Properties for $ 190 million in January 1998. Subsequently, Silverstein undertook

2144-581: A frame weighing 14,000 short tons (12,000 long tons; 13,000 t). Because of 140 Broadway's energy efficiency, the U.S. Green Building Council has certified 140 Broadway as a Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design Gold structure. The New York City Department of City Planning passed the 1961 Zoning Resolution in October 1960, and the new zoning rules became effective in December 1961, superseding

2278-431: A major building boom and few restrictions on massive building projects. International Style skyscrapers came to dominate many of Canada's major cities, especially Ottawa , Montreal , Vancouver , Calgary , Edmonton , Hamilton , and Toronto . While these glass boxes were at first unique and interesting, the idea was soon repeated to the point of ubiquity. A typical example is the development of so-called Place de Ville ,

2412-530: A major renovation. The primary tenant of the building since 2002 is Brown Brothers Harriman , filling a vacancy left after HSBC relocated in 2001. The building has been owned by Union Investment since 2004, and the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission designated the building as a city landmark in 2013. Reviews of the building among architecture critics have been largely positive, with several praising

2546-477: A minimum of $ 2,900 to over $ 1 million for a large project. "Soft" costs – i.e., added costs to the building project to qualify for LEED certification – may range from 1% to 6% of the total project cost. The average cost increase was about 2%, or an extra $ 3–$ 5 per square foot. The application review and certification process is conducted through LEED Online, USGBC's web-based service. The GBCI also utilizes LEED Online to conduct their reviews. Applicants have

2680-580: A model of a mid-rise housing development for Evanston , Illinois, by Chicago architect brothers Monroe Bengt Bowman and Irving Bowman , as well as a model and photos of Walter Gropius's Bauhaus building in Dessau. In the largest exhibition space, Room C, were works by Le Corbusier, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, J. J. P. Oud and Frank Lloyd Wright (including a project for a house on the Mesa in Denver, 1932). Room B

2814-587: A more organic and sensual International Style. He designed the political landmarks (headquarters of the three state powers) of the new, planned capital Brasilia . The masterplan for the city was proposed by Lúcio Costa . [REDACTED] Jakarta , Indonesia In 1930, Frank Lloyd Wright wrote: "Human houses should not be like boxes, blazing in the sun, nor should we outrage the Machine by trying to make dwelling-places too complementary to Machinery." In Elizabeth Gordon 's well-known 1953 essay, "The Threat to

SECTION 20

#1732798459202

2948-638: A new journal called L'Esprit Nouveau that advocated the use of modern industrial techniques and strategies to create a higher standard of living on all socio-economic levels. In 1927, one of the first and most defining manifestations of the International Style was the Weissenhof Estate in Stuttgart , overseen by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe. It was enormously popular, with thousands of daily visitors. The exhibition Modern Architecture: International Exhibition ran from February 9 to March 23, 1932, at

3082-533: A pedestrian plaza extending to 28 Liberty Street, as well as adding subway entrances. By June 1964, Wolfson's estate and Helmsley were about to submit plans for the building. Two months later, Wien withdrew from the project and Helmsley modified the building to have 49 floors, still occupying two-fifths of the block. The architects submitted a new-building application to the New York City Department of Buildings in early 1964, though minor changes to

3216-608: A poor relation." Another compared the new plan to contemporary graphic design and Ad Reinhardt 's "black" paintings. The design of 140 Broadway's facade was also patterned after the Equitable Life Assurance Building , designed by Pietro Belluschi in Portland, Oregon . 140 Broadway is set back 80 feet (24 m) from the curb on Broadway, 30 feet (9.1 m) from Cedar Street's curb, and 25 feet (7.6 m) from Liberty Street's curb. A public plaza

3350-538: A prototypical modern architect. After World War II, the International Style matured; Hellmuth, Obata & Kassabaum (later renamed HOK ) and Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (SOM) perfected the corporate practice, and it became the dominant approach for decades in the US and Canada. Beginning with the initial technical and formal inventions of 860-880 Lake Shore Drive Apartments in Chicago, its most famous examples include

3484-727: A series of spirited, cantankerous exchanges with the museum." The gradual rise of the Nazi regime in Weimar Germany in the 1930s, and the Nazis' rejection of modern architecture, meant that an entire generation of avant-gardist architects, many of them Jews, were forced out of continental Europe. Some, such as Mendelsohn, found shelter in England, while a considerable number of the Jewish architects made their way to Palestine , and others to

3618-622: A set of rating systems for the design, construction, operation, and maintenance of green buildings , homes, and neighborhoods, which aims to help building owners and operators be environmentally responsible and use resources efficiently. As of 2023 there were over 105,000 LEED-certified buildings and over 205,000 LEED-accredited professionals in 185 countries worldwide. In the US, the District of Columbia consistently leads in LEED-certified square footage per capita, followed in 2022 by

3752-428: A trapezoidal plot. It is approximately 688 feet (210 m) tall, with approximately 1.17 million rentable square feet (109,000 m). It is known for the distinctive sculpture at its entrance, Isamu Noguchi 's Cube . The developer Erwin S. Wolfson acquired the site in several stages between 1952 and 1961. Initial plans called for a 36-story monolith, but when Wolfson died, the architects modified their plans to

3886-481: A unity of approach and general principles: lightweight structures, skeletal frames, new materials, a modular system, an open plan, and the use of simple geometric shapes. The problem of the International Style is that it is not obvious what type of material the term should be applied to: at the same time, there are key monuments of the 20th century (Le Corbusier's Villa Savoye ; Wright's Fallingwater House ) and mass-produced architectural products of their time. Here it

4020-443: A weighted average for each rating scheme based upon actual impacts and the relative importance of those impacts to human health and environmental quality. The LEED council also appears to have assigned credit and measured weighting based upon the market implications of point allocation. From 2010, buildings can use carbon offsets to achieve green power credits for LEED-NC (new construction certification). For LEED BD+C v4 credit,

4154-585: A wider range of temperatures. On April 2, 2019, the USGBC released LEED v4.1, a new version of the LEED green building program, designed for use with cities, communities and homes. However, LEED v4.1 was never officially balloted. An update to v4, proposed as of November 22, 2022, took effect on March 1, 2024. Any projects that register under LEED v4 after March 1, 2024 must meet these updated guidelines. As of January 2023, USGBC began to develop LEED v5. LEED v5

140 Broadway - Misplaced Pages Continue

4288-423: Is a crime, truth to materials , form follows function ; and Le Corbusier 's description: "A house is a machine to live in". International style is sometimes understood as a general term associated with such architectural phenomena as Brutalist architecture , constructivism , functionalism , and rationalism . Phenomena similar in nature also existed in other artistic fields, for example in graphics, such as

4422-471: Is a design tool rather than a performance-measurement tool and has tended to focus on energy modeling rather than actual energy consumption. It has been criticized for a point system that can lead to inappropriate design choices and the prioritization of LEED certification points over actual energy conservation; for lacking climate specificity; for not sufficiently addressing issues of climate change and extreme weather; and for not incorporating principles of

4556-582: Is a model supported by CAGBC and the Canada Infrastructure Bank (CIB) for the verification of proposed retrofit projects. LEED certification is granted by the Green Building Certification Institute (GBCI), which arranges third-party verification of a project's compliance with the LEED requirements. The certification process for design teams consists of the design application, under the purview of

4690-470: Is appropriate to talk about the use of recognizable formal techniques and the creation of a standard architectural product, rather than iconic objects. Hitchcock and Johnson's 1932 MoMA exhibition catalog identified three principles of the style: volume of internal space (as opposed to mass and solidity), flexibility and regularity (liberation from classical symmetry). and the expulsion of applied ornamentation ('artificial accents'). Common characteristics of

4824-518: Is located in this intermediate space and is made of tiled white travertine . An entrance to the New York City Subway 's Broad Street station existed on the plaza's southeast corner but was removed by 1999. A granite monument to Harry Helmsley is located at the plaza's southwest corner. The sidewalks on all sides of 140 Broadway are 20 feet (6.1 m) wide and are maintained by the New York City Department of Transportation rather than

4958-491: Is the first version of the LEED rating system to be based on the June 2022 Future of LEED principles. The LEED v5 rating system will cover both new construction and existing buildings. An initial draft version was discussed at Greenbuild 2023. The beta draft of LEED v5 was released for an initial period of public comment on April 3, 2024. Changes were made in response to nearly 6,000 comments. A second public comment period

5092-407: The 1916 Zoning Resolution . Rather than the inclusion of setbacks that the old zoning laws had encouraged, the new zoning laws allowed skyscrapers to have a bulky massing with additional floor area , in exchange for the inclusion of ground-level open spaces. 140 Broadway's design strictly adhered to the 1961 law; according to Radford, the law "force[d] the mass of the building toward the center of

5226-587: The Bauhaus school, Walter Gropius , along with prominent Bauhaus instructor, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, became known for steel frame structures employing glass curtain walls.  One of the world's earliest modern buildings where this can be seen is a shoe factory designed by Gropius in 1911 in Alfeld , Germany, called the Fagus Works building. The first building built entirely on Bauhaus design principles

5360-667: The Canada Green Building Council (CAGBC) received permission to create LEED Canada-NC v1.0, which was based upon LEED-NC 2.0. As of 2021, Canada ranked second in the world (not including the USA) in its number of LEED-certified projects and square feet of space. Buildings in Canada such as Winnipeg's Canadian Museum for Human Rights are LEED certified due to practices including the use of rainwater harvesting , green roofs, and natural lighting. As of March 18, 2022,

5494-1006: The International Building Code , only members of the USGBC and specific "in-house" committees may add to, subtract from, or edit the standard, subject to an internal review process. Proposals to modify the LEED standards are offered and publicly reviewed by USGBC's member organizations, of which there were 4551 as of October 2023. LEED has evolved since 1998 to more accurately represent and incorporate emerging green building technologies. LEED has developed building programs specific to new construction (NC), core and shell (CS), commercial interiors (CI), existing buildings (EB), neighborhood development (ND), homes (LEED for Homes), retail, schools, and healthcare. The pilot version, LEED New Construction (NC) v1.0, led to LEED NCv2.0, LEED NCv2.2 in 2005, LEED 2009 ( a.k.a. LEED v3) in 2009, and LEED v4 in November ;2013. LEED 2009

140 Broadway - Misplaced Pages Continue

5628-552: The International Style , with Gordon Bunshaft as the lead on the project. It was erected by the Diesel Construction Company, co-founded by prolific real-estate developer Erwin S. Wolfson, and led by Carl Morse at the time of the building's construction. Roger N. Radford was the design team's leader; Allan Labie was the project manager; Bradley B. Sullivan was the job captain; and James Ruderman

5762-640: The International Typographic Style and Swiss Style . The Getty Research Institute defines it as "the style of architecture that emerged in The Netherlands, France, and Germany after World War I and spread throughout the world, becoming the dominant architectural style until the 1970s. The style is characterized by an emphasis on volume over mass, the use of lightweight, mass-produced, industrial materials, rejection of all ornament and colour, repetitive modular forms, and

5896-594: The Times , Paul Goldberger , said "the glass curtain wall is dark and refined, it is discreet", and ranked it as SOM's "best" New York City building. Goldberger later said that 140 Broadway probably had the "most beautiful glass 'skin' of any skyscraper in Manhattan". John Tauranac wrote that 140 Broadway was "Manhattan's most elegant tower", while John Morris Dixon, writing in Architectural Forum , said it

6030-590: The Toronto City Hall by Finnish architect Viljo Revell . By the late 1970s a backlash was under way against modernism—prominent anti-modernists such as Jane Jacobs and George Baird were partly based in Toronto. The typical International Style or "corporate architecture" high-rise usually consists of the following: In 2000 UNESCO proclaimed University City of Caracas in Caracas , Venezuela , as

6164-464: The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 's (EPA) Labs21 and LEED Canada. The Australian Green Star is based on both LEED and the UK's Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Methodology ( BREEAM ). LEED 2009 encompasses ten rating systems for the design, construction and operation of buildings, homes and neighborhoods. Five overarching categories correspond to the specialties available under

6298-918: The United Nations headquarters , the Lever House , the Seagram Building in New York City , and the campus of the United States Air Force Academy in Colorado Springs, Colorado, as well as the Toronto-Dominion Centre in Toronto . Further examples can be found in mid-century institutional buildings throughout North America and the "corporate architecture" spread from there, especially to Europe. In Canada , this period coincided with

6432-494: The modernism movement , the International Style is closely related to " Modern architecture " and likewise reflects several intersecting developments in culture, politics, and technology in the early 20th century. After being brought to the United States by European architects in the 1930s, it quickly became an "unofficial" North American style, particularly after World War II. The International Style reached its height in

6566-414: The "megalith" would have cost too much. Subsequently, Bunshaft had suggested combining Noguchi's "series of rocks" into a single block. Noguchi's final sculpture , titled The Cube , was installed in 1968. It is a vermilion -hued rhombohedron with a cylindrical hole through its center, standing upon one corner and measuring 28 feet (8.5 m) tall. The Cube is located off-center, on the north side of

6700-487: The 1932 exhibition and book, Hitchcock had concerned himself with the themes of modern architecture in his 1929 book Modern Architecture: Romanticism and Reintegration . According to Terence Riley : "Ironically the (exhibition) catalogue, and to some extent, the book The International Style , published at the same time of the exhibition, have supplanted the actual historical event." The following architects and buildings were selected by Hitchcock and Johnson for display at

6834-465: The 1950s and 1960s, when it was widely adopted worldwide for its practicality and as a symbol of industry, progress, and modernity. The style remained the prevailing design philosophy for urban development and reconstruction into the 1970s, especially in the Western world . The International Style was one of the first architectural movements to receive critical renown and global popularity. Regarded as

SECTION 50

#1732798459202

6968-735: The Americas . International Style (architecture) The International Style is sometimes called rationalist architecture and the modern movement , although the former is mostly used in English to refer specifically to either Italian rationalism or the style that developed in 1920s Europe more broadly. In continental Europe , this and related styles are variably called Functionalism , Neue Sachlichkeit ("New Objectivity"), De Stijl ("The Style"), and Rationalism , all of which are contemporaneous movements and styles that share similar principles, origins, and proponents. Rooted in

7102-649: The Bauhaus, who also pioneered the use of plywood and tubular steel in furniture design, and who after leaving the Bauhaus would later teach alongside Gropius at Harvard, is as well an important contributor to Modernism and the International Style. Prior to use of the term 'International Style', some American architects—such as Louis Sullivan , Frank Lloyd Wright , and Irving Gill —exemplified qualities of simplification, honesty and clarity. Frank Lloyd Wright's Wasmuth Portfolio had been exhibited in Europe and influenced

7236-497: The Canada Green Building Council took over direct oversight for LEED™ green building certification of projects in Canada, formerly done by GBCI Canada. CAGBC will continue to work with Green Business Certification Inc. (GBCI) and USGBC while consolidating certification and credentialing for CAGBC's Zero Carbon Building Standards, LEED, TRUE, and Investor Ready Energy Efficiency (IREE). IREE

7370-681: The EPA's Tools for the Reduction and Assessment of Chemical and Other Environmental Impacts (TRACI) and the environmental-impact weighting scheme developed by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). Prior to LEED 2009 evaluation and certification, a building must comply with minimum requirements including environmental laws and regulations, occupancy scenarios, building permanence and pre-rating completion, site boundaries and area-to-site ratios. Its owner must share data on

7504-464: The IEQ category addresses thermal , visual, and acoustic comfort as well as indoor air quality . Laboratory and field research have directly linked occupants' satisfaction and performance to the building's thermal conditions. Energy reduction goals can be supported while improving thermal satisfaction. For example, providing occupants control over the thermostat or operable windows allows for comfort across

7638-527: The International Style in the 1930s. Many Jewish architects who had studied at the German Bauhaus school designed significant buildings here. A large proportion of the buildings built in the International Style can be found in the area planned by Patrick Geddes , north of Tel Aviv's main historical commercial center. In 1994, UNESCO proclaimed the White City a World Heritage Site , describing

7772-450: The International Style include: a radical simplification of form, a rejection of superfluous ornamentation, bold repetition and embracement of sleek glass, steel and efficient concrete as preferred materials. Accents were found to be suitably derived from natural design irregularities, such as the position of doors and fire escapes, stair towers, ventilators and even electric signs. Further, the transparency of buildings, construction (called

7906-467: The International Style went to the Soviet Union in 1930 to undertake huge, ambitious, idealistic urban planning projects, building entire cities from scratch. In 1936, when Stalin ordered them out of the country, many of these architects became stateless and sought refuge elsewhere; for example, Ernst May moved to Kenya. The White City of Tel Aviv is a collection of over 4,000 buildings built in

8040-593: The International Style were endorsed, while other styles were classed less significant. In 1922, the competition for the Tribune Tower and its famous second-place entry by Eliel Saarinen gave some indication of what was to come, though these works would not have been accepted by Hitchcock and Johnson as representing the "International Style". Similarly, Johnson, writing about Joseph Urban's recently completed New School for Social Research in New York, stated: "In

8174-408: The International Style. But later he evolved to a more traditional local architecture. Other notable Mexican architects of the International Style or modern period are Carlos Obregón Santacilia , Augusto H. Alvarez , Mario Pani , Federico Mariscal  [ es ] , Vladimir Kaspé , Enrique del Moral , Juan Sordo Madaleno , Max Cetto , among many others. In Brazil Oscar Niemeyer proposed

SECTION 60

#1732798459202

8308-569: The LEED Pilot Committee from 1996–2001. Scot Horst chaired the LEED Steering Committee beginning in 2005 and was deeply involved in the development of LEED 2009. Joel Ann Todd took over as chair of the steering committee from 2009 to 2013, working to develop LEED v4, and introducing social equity credits. Other steering committee chairs include Chris Schaffner (2019) and Jennifer Sanguinetti (2020). Chairs of

8442-823: The LEED professional program. That suite consists of: LEED v3 aligned credits across all LEED rating systems, weighted by environmental priority. It reflects a continuous development process, with a revised third-party certification program and online resources. Under LEED 2009, an evaluated project scores points to a possible maximum of 100 across six categories: sustainable sites (SS), water efficiency (WE), energy and atmosphere (EA), materials and resources (MR), indoor environment quality (IEQ) and design innovation (INNO). Each of these categories also includes mandatory requirements, which receive no points. Up to 10 additional points may be earned: 4 for regional priority credits and 6 for innovation in design. Additional performance categories for residences (LEED for Homes) recognize

8576-449: The LEED rating system, including LEED Accredited Professional (LEED AP), LEED Green Associate, and LEED Fellow. The Green Building Certification Institute (GBCI) describes its LEED professional accreditation as "demonstrat[ing] current knowledge of green building technologies, best practices" and the LEED rating system, to assure the holder's competency as one of "the most qualified, educated, and influential green building professionals in

8710-836: The Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) green certification program was Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) senior scientist Robert K. Watson . It was Watson, sometimes referred to as the "Founding Father of LEED", who created the acronym. Over two decades, Watson led a broad-based consensus process, bringing together non-profit organizations, government agencies, architects, engineers, developers, builders, product manufacturers and other industry leaders. The original planning group consisted of Watson, Mike Italiano, architect Bill Reed (founding LEED Technical Committee co-chair 1994–2003), architect Sandy Mendler, builder Gerard Heiber and engineer Richard Bourne. Tom Paladino and Lynne Barker (formerly King) co-chaired

8844-521: The Museum of Modern Art (MoMA), in the Heckscher Building at Fifth Avenue and 56th Street in New York. Beyond a foyer and office, the exhibition was divided into six rooms: the "Modern Architects" section began in the entrance room, featuring a model of William Lescaze's Chrystie-Forsyth Street Housing Development in New York. From there visitors moved to the centrally placed Room A, featuring

8978-659: The New School we have an anomaly of a building supposed to be in a style of architecture based on the development of the plan from function and facade from plan but which is a formally and pretentiously conceived as a Renaissance palace. Urban's admiration for the New Style is more complete than his understanding." California architect Rudolph Schindler 's work was not a part of the exhibit, though Schindler had pleaded with Hitchcock and Johnson to be included. Then, "[f]or more than 20 years, Schindler had intermittently launched

9112-602: The Next America", she criticized the style as non-practical, citing many instances where "glass houses" are too hot in summer and too cold in winter, empty, take away private space, lack beauty and generally are not livable. Moreover, she accused this style's proponents of taking away a sense of beauty from people and thus covertly pushing for a totalitarian society. In 1966, architect Robert Venturi published Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture , essentially

9246-743: The State of New York and the Liberty Tower to the north; the Federal Reserve Bank of New York Building to the northeast; 28 Liberty Street to the east; the Equitable Building to the south; the Trinity and United States Realty Buildings to the southwest; and Zuccotti Park to the west. Trinity Church and Wall Street are located two blocks south. 140 Broadway was designed by Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (SOM) in

9380-484: The US. However, American anti-Communist politics after the war and Philip Johnson's influential rejection of functionalism have tended to mask the fact that many of the important architects, including contributors to the original Weissenhof project, fled to the Soviet Union . This group also tended to be far more concerned with functionalism and its social agenda. Bruno Taut , Mart Stam , the second Bauhaus director Hannes Meyer , Ernst May and other important figures of

9514-428: The US. When Walter Gropius and Marcel Breuer fled Germany they both arrived at the Harvard Graduate School of Design , in an excellent position to extend their influence and promote the Bauhaus as the primary source of architectural modernism. When Mies fled in 1938, he first fled to England, but on emigrating to the US he went to Chicago, founded the Second School of Chicago at IIT and solidified his reputation as

9648-576: The USGBC's Energy and Atmosphere Technical Advisory Group for LEED technology have included Gregory Kats . The LEED initiative has been strongly supported by the USGBC Board of Directors, including Chair of the Board of Directors Steven Winter (1999–2003). The current chair of the Board of Directors is Anyeley Hallová (2023). LEED has grown from one standard for new construction to a comprehensive system of interrelated standards covering aspects from

9782-567: The adjacent street. The bomb's force was equivalent to 40 sticks of dynamite and scattered debris for one and a half blocks. On October 20, 1981, a fire occurred at 140 Broadway's 47th floor. When an elevator with five workers inside opened its doors on the 47th floor, the occupants were injured and had to manually seal the door. This prompted an investigation, which found that hundreds of New York City buildings' elevators did not have keys that enabled firefighters to navigate to specific floors. The elevators were supposed to have been upgraded as part of

9916-592: The air-conditioning system had been taken apart for the winter, the worker, Robert Rodriguez, dumped some crucial components of the air-conditioning system into a tank on the 37th floor, which served the building's sprinkler system. Some 10,000 workers lost air-conditioning for several weeks, being "uncomfortably warm" until June 1984, when Rodriguez was arrested and the parts of the air-conditioning system were retrieved by scuba divers. Reviews among architecture critics were largely positive. In 1968, Ada Louise Huxtable of The New York Times described 140 Broadway as "one of

10050-466: The application of LEED guidelines in several southern states. In 2013, the states of Alabama, Georgia and Mississippi effectively banned the use of LEED in new public buildings, in favor of other industry standards that the USGBC considers too lax. LEED is considered a target of a type of disinformation attack known as astroturfing , involving "fake grassroots organizations usually sponsored by large corporations". Unlike model building codes, such as

10184-401: The architect and the engineer and documented in the official construction drawings, and the construction application, under the purview of the building contractor and documented during the construction and commissioning of the building. A fee is required to register the building, and to submit the design and construction applications. Total fees are assessed based on building area, ranging from

10318-404: The bank naming rights to the building. According to the bank's annual report for that year, 140 Broadway was to be the new headquarters of the bank. The second floor contained the main banking hall. By March 1967, the building was 90% rented. The Department of Buildings gave a temporary occupancy certificate that April, and certified the building as complete in October 1967. Other original tenants at

10452-484: The benefits promised." The LEED for Homes rating system was first piloted in 2005. It has been available in countries including the U.S., Canada, Sweden, and India. LEED for Homes projects are low-rise residential . The process of the LEED for Homes rating system differs significantly from the LEED rating system for new construction. Unlike LEED, LEED for Homes requires an on-site inspection. LEED for Homes projects are required to work with either an American or

10586-459: The block, with dimensions of between 87 and 209 feet (27 and 64 m). Its footprint is rhomboid, matching the shape of the block. Roger N. Radford, the leader of the team that designed 140 Broadway, stated that many of the tenants he knew were unaware of the building's "funny shape". Within 140 Broadway's immediate surroundings are One Liberty Plaza to the northwest; the Chamber of Commerce of

10720-407: The bomb to be the equivalent of 25 sticks of dynamite, making it among the city's strongest bomb blasts to date. The explosive was placed in a hallway just off the elevators some time during the evening and it exploded at around 10:30 pm. The injured were working on the night shift in the bank's stock bookkeeping department and were working on the other side of the corridor wall. The inside of this wall

10854-424: The building frame commenced, with 600 workers being employed. Keeping with the noise-reduction policy of the foundation's excavation, the building utilized a "butt-welded structural frame", which necessitated less time on the noisy processes of bolting and riveting. One floor was built every two days, and 140 Broadway topped out during June 1966. One person working nearby stated that his lawnmower made more noise than

10988-609: The building included Clarke, Dodge Company; Delafield Delafield; Laird Company Corporation; and Control Data Corporation . Later tenants included Morgan Stanley , Paine Webber , Ernest & Ernest, the City Midday Club, Puerto Rico 's government, and Helmsley's company Helmsley-Spear . In 1980, HSBC acquired a 51% controlling interest in the Marine Midland Corporation. After Helmsley died in January 1997, his widow Leona Helmsley sold off over

11122-502: The building industry to support green building and develop a green building rating system. Also influential early on was architect Bob Berkebile. Fedrizzi served as the volunteer founding chair of USGBC from 1993 to 2004, and became its CEO as of 2004. As of November 4, 2016, he was succeeded as president and CEO of USGBC by Mahesh Ramanujam. Ramanujam served as CEO until 2021. Peter Templeton became interim president and CEO of USGBC as of November 1, 2021. A key player in developing

11256-467: The building's "most memorable aspects". The 2010 version of the AIA Guide to New York City characterized 140 Broadway as "a taut skin stretched over bare bones". 140 Broadway's design was widely imitated. In New York City, subsequent buildings that used a similar style included SOM's Solow Building and Emery Roth 's 450 Park Avenue , as well as SOM's designs for 919 Third Avenue and 1166 Avenue of

11390-437: The building's construction. Bunshaft recalled that the building's cost was higher than average "due to the wisdom of Wolfson initially, Helmsley waking up, and Carl Morse urging that it not be the cheapest building in the world but the most economical one...." In October 1965, Marine Midland Bank leased the two basements and the first 20 floors. Because the bank was the largest tenant at 140 Broadway, Helmsley's corporation gave

11524-571: The building's energy and water use for five years after occupancy (for new construction) or date of certification (for existing buildings). The credit weighting process has the following steps: First, a collection of reference buildings are assessed to estimate the environmental impacts of similar buildings. NIST weightings are then applied to judge the relative importance of these impacts in each category. Data regarding actual impacts on environmental and human health are then used to assign points to individual categories and measures. This system results in

11658-405: The building's owners, but are sometimes considered part of the plaza. According to Radford, Bunshaft suggested that Isamu Noguchi be involved with the project. During the building's construction, Noguchi was commissioned to create a sculpture for the portion of the plaza facing Broadway. He had originally proposed a "megalith" or a "cluster of primitivisitic monoliths". However, Helmsley felt that

11792-459: The building. Initial plans called for a rectangular building with a light-gray, grid-like facade made of concrete or aluminum. The building had been redesigned by 1965 to have a smooth facade that harmonized with the surrounding masonry buildings while standing out from its surroundings. One critic wrote that the previous design had 140 Broadway as "a little brother to [28 Liberty Street] in the same shiny finish", which he said "would have looked like

11926-474: The building’s form, as opposed to a solid mass"; (2) "Regularity in the facade, as opposed to building symmetry"; and (3) "No applied ornament". International style is an ambiguous term; the unity and integrity of this direction is deceptive. Its formal features were revealed differently in different countries. Despite the unconditional commonality, the international style has never been a single phenomenon. However, International Style architecture demonstrates

12060-430: The certification points), quality of life (25%) and conservation and ecological restoration (25%) in terms of five principles: decarbonization, ecosystems, equity, health and resilience. One of the reponses to public comments was to emphasize a data-driven approach to Operations and Maintenance by more clearly identifying performance-based credits (80% of points) and decoupling them from strategic credits (20%). In 2003,

12194-624: The city as "a synthesis of outstanding significance of the various trends of the Modern Movement in architecture and town planning in the early part of the 20th century". In 1996, Tel Aviv's White City was listed as a World Monuments Fund endangered site. The residential area of Södra Ängby in western Stockholm , Sweden, blended an international or functionalist style with garden city ideals. Encompassing more than 500 buildings, most of them designed by Edvin Engström, it remains

12328-710: The city block bounded by Cedar, Liberty, and Nassau Streets, and Broadway. The six plots on the block had been owned by different entities immediately prior to Wolfson's purchase, including The Clearing House , the National Bank of Commerce, and the Guaranty Trust Company (later part of J.P. Morgan & Co. ), and had five buildings between nine and nineteen stories tall. These entities eventually sold all of their properties to J.P. Morgan, and in August 1961, Wolfson bought all six plots from J.P. Morgan. At

12462-563: The design and construction to the maintenance and operation of buildings. LEED has also grown from six committee volunteers to an organization of 122,626 volunteers, professionals and staff. As of 2023 , more than 185,000 LEED projects representing over 28 billion square feet (2.6 × 10 ^  m ) have been proposed worldwide, and more than 105,000 projects representing over 12 billion square feet (1.1 × 10 ^  m ) have been certified in 185 countries. However, lumber, chemical and plastics trade groups have lobbied to weaken

12596-528: The eastern facade has four bays of six windows. The northern and southern facades each have seven bays of six windows. Little else was attached to the facade, except for signs with the number 140 on both faces of either southern corner, as well as the name of the Marine Midland Bank on the Broadway and Cedar Street sides. There are numerous revolving doors on all four sides that provide access to

12730-465: The example of debating whether to add a reflective roof, used to can counter "heat island" effects in urban areas, to a building high in the Rocky Mountains. A 2012 USA Today review of 7,100 LEED-certified commercial buildings found that designers tended to choose easier points such as using recycled materials, rather than more challenging ones that could increase the energy efficiency of

12864-400: The exhibition Modern Architecture: International Exhibition : The exhibition excluded other contemporary styles that were exploring the boundaries of architecture at the time, including: Art Deco ; German Expressionism, for instance the works of Hermann Finsterlin ; and the organicist movement, popularized in the work of Antoni Gaudí . As a result of the 1932 exhibition, the principles of

12998-483: The handsomest [skyscrapers] in the city", enhanced by the inclusion of The Cube, and two years later, said that it was the "epitome of nineteen sixties sophisticated architectural elegance" contrasting with the Chamber of Commerce and One Liberty Plaza. Huxtable further stated in 1974 that 140 Broadway was "not only one of [the] buildings I admire most in New York, but that I admire most anywhere". Huxtable's successor at

13132-424: The high point of modernist architecture, it is sometimes described as the "architecture of the modern movement" and credited with "single-handedly transforming the skylines of every major city in the world with its simple cubic forms". The International Style's emphasis on transcending historical and cultural influences, while favoring utility and mass-production methods, made it uniquely versatile in its application;

13266-486: The honest expression of structure), and acceptance of industrialized mass-production techniques contributed to the international style's design philosophy. Finally, the machine aesthetic , and logical design decisions leading to support building function were used by the International architect to create buildings reaching beyond historicism . The ideals of the style are commonly summed up in three slogans: ornament

13400-401: The importance of transportation access, open space, and outdoor physical activity, and the need for buildings and settlements to educate occupants. Buildings can qualify for four levels of certification: The aim of LEED 2009 is to allocate points "based on the potential environmental impacts and human benefits of each credit". These are weighed using the environmental impact categories of

13534-563: The largest coherent functionalist or "International Style" villa area in Sweden and possibly the world, still well-preserved more than a half-century after its construction in 1933–40 and protected as a national cultural heritage . Zlín is a city in the Czech Republic which was in the 1930s completely reconstructed on principles of functionalism. In that time the city was a headquarters of Bata Shoes company and Tomáš Baťa initiated

13668-586: The leading five states (after the District of Columbia ) were Massachusetts, Illinois, New York, California, and Maryland. Incentives can include tax credits, zoning allowances, reduced fees, and expedited permitting. Offices, healthcare-, and education-related buildings are the most frequent LEED-certified buildings in the US (over 60%), followed by warehouses, distribution centers, retail projects and multifamily dwellings (another 20%). Studies have found that for-rent LEED office spaces generally have higher rents and occupancy rates and lower capitalization rates. LEED

13802-440: The marketplace." Critics of LEED certification such as Auden Schendler and Randy Udall have pointed out that the process is slow, complicated, and expensive. In 2005, they published an article titled "LEED is Broken; Let's Fix It", in which they argued that the certification process "makes green building more difficult than it needs to be" and called for changes "to make LEED easier to use and more popular" to better accelerate

13936-414: The museum's first architectural exhibition. The three of them toured Europe together in 1929 and had also discussed Hitchcock's book about modern art. By December 1930, the first written proposal for an exhibition of the "new architecture" was set down, yet the first draft of the book was not complete until some months later. The 1932 exhibition led to two publications by Hitchcock and Johnson: Previous to

14070-425: The option of achieving credit points by building energy models. One model represents the building as designed, and a second model represents a baseline building in the same location, with the same geometry and occupancy. Depending on location (climate) and building size, the standard provides requirements for heating, ventilation and air-conditioning (HVAC) system type, and wall and window definitions. This allows for

14204-400: The plans were made in subsequent months. Demolition of existing buildings on the site started in June 1964. The builders endeavored to reduce noise as much as possible: demolition took place only during off-peak hours, and heavy blankets were used to muffle the sound of blasting as well as contain the debris. Site excavation was completed in the middle of the following year, and construction of

14338-541: The plans, the Landmarks Preservation Commission approved the changes in March 2018. The designs for the renovated plaza call for planters to be installed on the section of the plaza on Liberty Street. By 2021, the building's owners were marketing Brown Brothers Harriman's space for rent. A bombing occurred on 140 Broadway's eighth floor on August 20, 1969, injuring 20 people. Police estimated

14472-438: The plaza, contrasting with 140 Broadway's dark facade while turning viewers' attention toward the surrounding plaza. Like 140 Broadway, it was detailed by SOM and has an aluminum frame. Bunshaft praised The Cube as "work[ing] beautifully with the building [in] every way", while Metropolitan Museum of Art director Thomas Hoving said that the cube was a sign of "change in public taste". In 1952, Wolfson began purchasing land on

14606-485: The proposed building. Wolfson died suddenly in June 1962. Upon Morse's request, developer Harry Helmsley agreed to collaborate on the project, and Helmsley created the 140 Broadway Corporation. Lawrence A. Wien also became a sponsor of the project. The plans were modified in May 1963 to provide for a 40-story skyscraper occupying two-fifths of the block. The modified plans also provided for closing Cedar Street, thereby forming

14740-434: The site". Harry Helmsley , who took over the building's development after Wolfson's death, sought to emphasize the building's vertical axis. As a result, Radford decided to emphasize the vertical window-washing tracks along the black-aluminum facade . The facade is otherwise smooth, with dark glass panels as well as slightly textured aluminum window trim. The western facade has three vertical bays of six windows each, while

14874-536: The structure's smooth black facade. 140 Broadway is located on an entire city block bounded to the west by Broadway , to the north by Liberty Street , to the east by Nassau Street , and to the south by Cedar Street. The block is an irregular trapezoid, with all of its frontages being of different lengths. The block measures 144 feet (44 m) along Broadway, 318 feet (97 m) along Liberty Street, 184 feet (56 m) along Nassau Street, and 301 feet (92 m) along Cedar Street. The building occupies two-fifths of

15008-451: The style today are simply "another species of revivalist ", noting the irony. The negative reaction to internationalist modernism has been linked to public antipathy to overall development. Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design ( LEED ) is a green building certification program used worldwide. Developed by the non-profit U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC), it includes

15142-462: The style was ubiquitous in a wide range of purposes, ranging from social housing and governmental buildings to corporate parks and skyscrapers . Nevertheless, these same qualities provoked negative reactions against the style as monotonous, austere, and incongruent with existing landscapes; these critiques are conveyed through various movements such as postmodernism , new classical architecture , and deconstructivism . Postmodern architecture

15276-498: The supposed strengths of the International Style has been said to be that the design solutions were indifferent to location, site, and climate; the solutions were supposed to be universally applicable; the style made no reference to local history or national vernacular. This was soon identified as one of the style's primary weaknesses. In 2006, Hugh Pearman , the British architectural critic of The Times , observed that those using

15410-422: The time, Wolfson was planning a 32-story building on the site, a bulky mass that would conform with the 1961 Zoning Resolution, as well as allow for the widening of Liberty Street in conjunction with the construction of 28 Liberty Street, then known as One Chase Manhattan Plaza. Wolfson's building would have had masonry canopies protruding from the floor plates. Also in 1961, SOM was hired as the architecture firm for

15544-514: The top-ranking states of Massachusetts, Illinois, New York, California, and Maryland. Outside the United States, the top-ranking countries for 2022 were Mainland China, India, Canada, Brazil, and Sweden. LEED Canada has developed a separate rating system adapted to the Canadian climate and regulations. Many U.S. federal agencies, state and local governments require or reward LEED certification. As of 2022 , based on certified square feet per capita,

15678-431: The transition to green building. Schendler and Udall also identified a pattern which they call "LEED brain", in which participants may become focused on "point mongering" and pick and choose design elements that don't actually go well together or don't fit local conditions, to gain points. The public relations value of LEED certification begins to drive the development of buildings rather than focusing on design. They give

15812-824: The use of flat surfaces, typically alternating with areas of glass." Some researchers consider the International Style as one of the attempts to create an ideal and utilitarian form. Around the start of the 20th century, a number of architects around the world began developing new architectural solutions to integrate traditional precedents with new social demands and technological possibilities. The work of Victor Horta and Henry van de Velde in Brussels , Antoni Gaudí in Barcelona , Otto Wagner in Vienna and Charles Rennie Mackintosh in Glasgow , among many others, can be seen as

15946-476: The well-being of their occupants and as part of larger systems. In April 1993, the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC) was founded by Rick Fedrizzi , the head of environmental marketing at Carrier, real estate developer David Gottfried , and environmental lawyer Michael Italiano. Representatives from 60 firms and nonprofits met at the American Institute of Architects to discuss organizing within

16080-457: The work of European modernists, and his travels there probably influenced his own work, although he refused to be categorized with them. His buildings of the 1920s and 1930s clearly showed a change in the style of the architect, but in a different direction than the International Style. In Europe the modern movement in architecture had been called Functionalism or Neue Sachlichkeit ( New Objectivity ), L'Esprit Nouveau , or simply Modernism and

16214-547: The works of Europeans of the 1920s. Among these works was shown Alvar Aalto's Turun Sanomat newspaper offices building in Turku , Finland. After a six-week run in New York City, the exhibition then toured the US – the first such "traveling-exhibition" of architecture in the US – for six years. MoMA director Alfred H. Barr hired architectural historian and critic Henry-Russell Hitchcock and Philip Johnson to curate

16348-623: Was a section titled "Housing", presenting "the need for a new domestic environment" as it had been identified by historian and critic Lewis Mumford . In Room D were works by Raymond Hood (including "Apartment Tower in the Country" and the McGraw-Hill Building ) and Richard Neutra. In Room E was a section titled "The extent of modern architecture", added at the last minute, which included the works of thirty-seven modern architects from fifteen countries who were said to be influenced by

16482-467: Was among "the handsomest office buildings in the U.S.A." Eric Nash said that the building was "one of the last, best expressions of modernist unity". As early as 1996, architect Robert A. M. Stern had suggested that 140 Broadway was a viable candidate for official landmark status. Stern, in his book New York 1960 had said, "Its sleekly Modernist exteriors were an appropriate extension of the building's exterior minimalism", and had called The Cube one of

16616-434: Was depreciated for new projects registered from October 31, 2016. LEED v4.1 was released on April 2, 2019. Draft versions of LEED v5 have been released and revised in response to public comment during 2024. The official final version of LEED v5 is expected to be released in 2025. Future updates to the standard are planned to occur every five years. LEED forms the basis for other sustainability rating systems such as

16750-480: Was designed in the late 1940s and built in the mid-1950s based upon a masterplan created by architect Enrique del Moral . His original idea was enriched by other students, teachers, and diverse professionals of several disciplines. The university houses murals by Diego Rivera , Juan O'Gorman and others. The university also features Olympic Stadium (1968). In his first years of practice, Pritzker Prize winner and Mexican architect Luis Barragán designed buildings in

16884-417: Was developed in the 1960s in reaction to the International Style, becoming dominant in the 1980s and 1990s. The term "International Style" was first used in 1932 by the historian Henry-Russell Hitchcock and architect Philip Johnson to describe a movement among European architects in the 1920s that was distinguished by three key design principles: (1) "Architecture as volume – thin planes or surfaces create

17018-597: Was killed by a state sharpshooter during the Attica Prison riot in September 1971. As a result of the bombing, the Marine Midland Company increased security. In 1972, Ronald Kaufman made an unsuccessful attempt to bomb the building by hiding an explosive in a bank vault. The building was again damaged in 1974, when Fuerzas Armadas de Liberación Nacional Puertorriqueña detonated a car bomb on

17152-424: Was lined with floor-to-ceiling automated file units that weighed 3 tons each and which absorbed most of the blast. Still, the blast moved the file units about a foot, blew out all the windows on that side of the building, and opened a 5-foot (1.5 m) hole in the reinforced concrete floor. The bomber, Sam Melville , was convicted of this and seven other 1969 Manhattan bombings and sentenced to 18 years in prison. He

17286-669: Was located 16 miles (26 km) from the company's corporate headquarters in downtown San Francisco , and 15 miles (24 km) from Gap's corporate campus in Mission Bay . Although the company added shuttle buses between buildings, "no bus is as green as an elevator". Similarly, in Walkable City (2013), Jeff Speck describes the relocation of the Environmental Protection Agency ' s Region 7 Headquarters from downtown Kansas City, Missouri , to

17420-433: Was opened for the revised version, from September 27 to October 28, 2024. The official release of the final version of LEED v5 is expected to occur in 2025. Future updates of the certification system are planned to occur every five years. LEED v5 reorganizes the credits system and prerequisites, and has a greater focus on decarbonization of buildings. The scorecard expresses three global goals of climate action (worth 50% of

17554-487: Was purchased in 2004 by German firm Union Investment . On June 25, 2013, the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission designated the Marine Midland Building as a New York City landmark. In January 2018, the building's owners proposed adding circular planters to the plaza, as well as adding "street furniture" on the sidewalk, which would potentially displace street vendors. Despite controversy over

17688-759: Was the concrete and steel Haus am Horn , built in 1923 in Weimar , Germany, designed by Georg Muche . The Gropius-designed Bauhaus school building in Dessau , built 1925–26 and the Harvard Graduate Center (Cambridge, Massachusetts; 1949–50) also known as the Gropius Complex, exhibit clean lines and a "concern for uncluttered interior spaces". Marcel Breuer , a recognized leader in Béton Brut (Brutalist) architecture and notable alumnus of

17822-399: Was the structural engineer. Thomas Crimmins Construction Company were hired to excavate the site, and U.S. Steel provided the steel. 140 Broadway contains 51 stories and measures either 677 feet (206 m) or 688 feet (210 m) tall. It has about 21,000 to 24,000 square feet (2,000 to 2,200 m) on each floor, or 1.2 million square feet (110,000 m) total. The structure uses

17956-655: Was very much concerned with the coming together of a new architectural form and social reform, creating a more open and transparent society. The "International Style", as defined by Hitchcock and Johnson, had developed in 1920s Western Europe, shaped by the activities of the Dutch De Stijl movement, Le Corbusier , and the Deutscher Werkbund and the Bauhaus . Le Corbusier had embraced Taylorist and Fordist strategies adopted from American industrial models in order to reorganize society. He contributed to

#201798