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182-615: Dona Maria Leopoldina of Austria (22 January 1797 – 11 December 1826) was the first Empress of Brazil as the wife of Emperor Dom Pedro I from 12 October 1822 until her death. She was also Queen of Portugal during her husband's brief reign as King Dom Pedro IV from 10 March to 2 May 1826. She was born in Vienna , Austria , the daughter of Holy Roman Emperor Francis II , and his second wife, Maria Theresa of Naples and Sicily . Among her many siblings were Emperor Ferdinand I of Austria and Marie Louise, Duchess of Parma ,

364-743: A central political issue into the 20th century. Bishops were much less powerful than before, and had no political voice. However, the Catholic Church reinvented itself with a new emphasis on personal piety that gave it a hold on the psychology of the faithful. Education: Public education was centralised, with the Grand Master of the University of France controlling every element of the national educational system from Paris. New technical universities were opened in Paris which to this day have

546-415: A chambermaid, a butler, six ladies-in-waiting, four pages, six Hungarian nobles, six Austrian guards, six chamberlains, a chief Almoner , a chaplain, a private secretary, a doctor, a performer, a mineralogist and her painting teacher. The Archduchess definitively parted for Brazil two days later, on 15 August. The differences in habits and customs, already noticed in the period since she embarked, foreshadowed

728-579: A chief minister, Polignac, in November 1829 who was repellent to the liberals and, worse, Chateaubriand. Though Charles remained nonchalant, the deadlock led some royalists to call for a coup , and prominent liberals for a tax strike. At the opening of the session in March 1830, the King delivered a speech that contained veiled threats to the opposition; in response, 221 deputies (an absolute majority) condemned

910-438: A coach and fled with them to Santa Cruz, in a perilous twelve-hour journey. The political situation soon calmed down and she was able to return with her children to Boa Vista. However, the young Prince João Carlos never recovered from the strain and died on 4 February 1822. At the end of 1821, a letter of Maria Leopoldina addressed to her secretary Schäffer makes it clear that she was, since that time, more decided by Brazil and by

1092-794: A coalition of European powers defeated him in the War of the Sixth Coalition , ended the First Empire in 1814, and restored the monarchy to the brothers of Louis XVI. The First Bourbon Restoration lasted from about 6 April 1814. In July 1815 the First French Empire was succeeded by the Kingdom of France. This Kingdom existed until the popular uprisings of the July Revolution of 1830. At the peace Congress of Vienna ,

1274-514: A common interest in the sciences. Although after only six weeks Maria Graham was dismissed from her post by Dom Pedro, to Maria Leopoldina's dismay, both women's common interest allowed them to stay close to each other up until Maria Leopoldina's death: they wanted to get information that they were not privileged to because they were living in a male dominated world. The year 1821 was decisive in Maria Leopoldina's life. Belonging to one of

1456-730: A considerable uproar, particularly among the Doctrinaires . Much more controversial was the introduction of the Jesuits , who set up a network of colleges for elite youth outside the official university system. The Jesuits were noted for their loyalty to the Pope and gave much less support to Gallican traditions. Inside and outside the Church they had enemies, and the king ended their institutional role in 1828. New legislation paid an indemnity to royalists whose lands had been confiscated during

1638-400: A critical role in training the elite. The aristocracy: Conservatism was bitterly split into the returning old aristocracy and the new elites arising under Napoleon after 1796. The old aristocracy was eager to regain its land, but felt no loyalty to the new regime. The newer elite, the " noblesse d'empire ", ridiculed the older group as an outdated remnant of a discredited regime that had led

1820-525: A first sentimental flush of popularity, Louis' gestures towards reversing the results of the French Revolution quickly lost him support among the disenfranchised majority. Symbolic acts such as the replacement of the tricolore flag with the white flag , the titling of Louis as the "XVIII" (as successor to Louis XVII , who never ruled) and as "King of France" rather than "King of the French", and

2002-557: A form using the last name (e.g. "Don de la Vega") is not considered correct and rarely would be used by Spanish speakers ("señor de la Vega" would be used instead). Historically, don was used to address members of the nobility, e.g. hidalgos , as well as members of the secular clergy . The treatment gradually came to be reserved for persons of the blood royal , e.g. Don John of Austria , and those of such acknowledged high or ancient aristocratic birth as to be noble de Juro e Herdade , that is, "by right and heredity" rather than by

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2184-642: A generic honorific, similar to Sir and Madam in the United States. In Spanish, don and doña convey a higher degree of reverence. Unlike The Honourable in English (but like the English Sir for a knight or baronet ), Don may be used when speaking directly to a person, and unlike Lord it must be used with a given name. For example, "Don Diego de la Vega" or simply "Don Diego" (the secret identity of Zorro ) are typical forms. But

2366-624: A greater inclination towards the disciplines of natural sciences, being mainly interested in botany and mineralogy. The Archduchess also inherited the habit of collecting from her father: she began collections of coins, plants, flowers, minerals and shells. Between October and December 1816, she was successful in quickly learning the Portuguese language; by December, the Archduchess was already speaking fluently with Portuguese diplomats, and lived "surrounded by maps of Brazil and books containing

2548-563: A mark of esteem for an individual of personal, social or official distinction, such as a community leader of long-standing, a person of significant wealth, a noble , or the member of an order of merit . As a style , rather than a title or rank , it is used with, rather than in place of, a person's name. The feminine equivalents are Doña ( Spanish: [ˈdoɲa] ), Donna ( Italian: [ˈdɔnna] ), Doamnă (Romanian) and Dona ( Portuguese: [ˈdonɐ] ) abbreviated 'D.ª', 'Da.', or simply 'D.' It

2730-545: A minimum. The ultras broadened their support, and put a stop to growing military dissent in 1823, when intervention in Spain, in favour of Spanish Bourbon King Ferdinand VII , and against the Liberal Spanish Government , fomented popular patriotic fervour. Despite British backing for the military action, the intervention was widely seen as an attempt to win back influence in Spain, which had been lost to

2912-534: A mission with notable scientists who would accompany the Archduchess's entourage. Among the scientists were: Johann Christof Mikan , a botanist and entomologist; Johann Emanuel Pohl , physician, mineralogist and botanist; Johann Buchberger , flora painter; Johann Natterer , zoologist; Thomas Ender , painter; Heinrich Schott , gardener; and the Italian naturalist Giuseppe Raddi , this group aimed to collect specimens and make illustrations of people and landscapes for

3094-474: A month later the country would become independent. As a woman was not well regarded in the political environment, Maria Leopoldina acted by means of "specific advice and influencing others to her husband, [so] she was achieving her conquests". Dom Pedro, at first, avoided contact with the Brazilian idea of freedom, trying to maintain neutrality, aiming to avoid the probable punishment of losing his inheritance to

3276-745: A museum to be founded in Vienna. The greatest interest was to trace the New World by researching plants, animals and Indians. All this fascination was due to the publication of the first volume of the book by the German geographer Alexander von Humboldt , Le voyage aux régions equinoxiales du Nouveau Continent, fait en 1799–1804 ("The voyage to the equinoctial regions of the New Continent, made in 1799–1804") and Aimé Bonpland . Humboldt influenced several artists, for example Johann Moritz Rugendas , and

3458-493: A prefect appointed by Paris. The thicket of overlapping legal jurisdictions of the old regime had all been abolished, and there was now one standardised legal code, administered by judges appointed by Paris, and supported by police under national control. The church: The Revolutionary governments had confiscated all the lands and buildings of the Catholic Church , selling them to innumerable middle-class buyers, and it

3640-548: A relatively powerful liberal bloc into the Chamber of Deputies. The 17-strong liberal bloc of 1824 grew to 180 in 1827, and 274 in 1830. This liberal majority grew increasingly dissatisfied with the policies of the centrist Martignac and the ultra-royalist Polignac, seeking to protect the limited protections of the Charter of 1814. They sought both the expansion of the franchise, and more liberal economic policies. They also demanded

3822-603: A result of the Liberal Revolution that took place in Portugal in 1820, on 25 April 1821 the court was forced to return to Portugal. A squadron of eleven ships took King John VI, the court, the royal house and the royal treasury back to the continent, and only Dom Pedro remained in Brazil as regent of the country, with ample powers counterbalanced by a regency council. At first, the new Regent was incapable of dominating

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4004-530: A series of bad harvests 1827–1830. Workers living on the margin were very hard-pressed, and angry that the government paid little attention to their urgent needs. Charles abdicated in favor of his grandson, the Comte de Chambord , and left for England. However, the liberal, bourgeois-controlled Chamber of Deputies refused to confirm the Comte de Chambord as Henry V. In a vote largely boycotted by conservative deputies,

4186-445: A significant group of collaborators, among which we can mention Willem Piso , a doctor who came to study tropical diseases; Frans Post, famous painter, then in his early twenties; Albert Eckhout, also a painter; cartographer Cornelius Golijath; the astronomer Georg Marggraf , who, with Piso, would be the author of Historia Naturalis Brasiliae (Amsterdam, 1648), the first scientific work on Brazilian nature. The Prince of Nassau-Siegen

4368-409: A similar fashion to the 1816 chamber, and fears over the charbonnerie , the French equivalent of the carbonari . In the 1824 election , another large majority was secured. Louis XVIII died on 16 September 1824 and was succeeded by his brother, the Comte d'Artois, who took the title of Charles X . The accession to the throne of Charles X, the leader of the ultra-royalist faction, coincided with

4550-407: A special interest in the natural sciences, especially in geology and botany. This fact did not go unnoticed by her teachers and by her father, Emperor Francis I of Austria, who surprised the young Archduchess's interests (they thought it would be more natural for such inclinations to arise in one of her brothers), but did nothing to hinder the young Maria Leopoldina's studies. Therefore, in 1817, when

4732-467: A woman who does not hold an academic title. It is commonly used to refer to First Ladies , although it is less common for female politicians. Within the Catholic Church, the prefix Don is usually used for the diocesan priests with their first name, as well as velečasni ( The Reverend ). Dom is used as a title in English for certain Benedictine (including some communities which follow

4914-474: A year in direct taxes. The king was the supreme head of the state. He commanded the land and sea forces, declared war, made treaties of peace, alliance and commerce, appointed all public officials, and made the necessary regulations and ordinances for the execution of the laws and the security of the state. Louis was relatively liberal, choosing many centrist cabinets. Louis XVIII died in September 1824 and

5096-528: Is " Dame " (e.g. Dame Laurentia McLachlan , late Abbess of Stanbrook , or Dame Felicitas Corrigan , author). In the United States , Don has also been made popular by films depicting the Italian mafia , such as The Godfather trilogy, where the crime boss is given by his associates the same signs of respect that were traditionally granted in Italy to nobility. However, the honorific followed by

5278-486: Is a common honorific reserved for women, especially mature women. In Portuguese Dona tends to be less restricted in use to women than Dom is to men. Today in the Spanish language, Doña is used to respectfully refer to a mature woman. In present-day Hispanic America, the title Don or Doña is sometimes used in honorific form when addressing a senior citizen. In some countries, Don or Doña may be used as

5460-479: Is an M.D. Additionally the honorific is usually used with people of older age. The same happens in other Hispanic American countries. For example, despite having a doctoral degree in theology , the Paraguayan dictator José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia was usually styled as "Don". Likewise, despite being a respected military commander with the rank of Brigade General , Argentine Ruler Juan Manuel de Rosas

5642-431: Is eloquently stamped in the letter he wrote to Dom Pedro, on the occasion of Brazil's independence: "You need to come back as soon as possible. Be persuaded that it is not only love that makes me want your immediate presence more than ever, but the circumstances in which the beloved Brazil is. Only your presence, a lot of energy and rigor can save you from ruin". In Rio de Janeiro, thousands of signatures collected required

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5824-651: Is no longer a right under Italian law. In practice, however, the style Don/Donna (or Latin Dominus/Domina) was used more loosely in church, civil and notarial records. The honorific was often accorded to the untitled gentry (e.g., knights or younger sons of noblemen), priests, or other people of distinction. It was, over time, adopted by organized criminal societies in Southern Italy (including Naples, Sicily, and Calabria) to refer to members who held considerable sway within their hierarchies. In modern Italy,

6006-412: Is similar among Basque speakers in Spain using don and doña . The honorific is sometimes adapted as on as in the priest and scholar on Joxemiel Barandiaran ( Spanish : Don José Miguel Barandiarán ) or fictional knight On Kixote ( Don Quixote ). The honorific was also used among Ladino -speaking Sephardi Jews , as part of the Spanish culture which they took with them after

6188-736: Is still common in Southern Italy, mostly as an honorific form to address the elderly, but it is rarely, if ever, used in Central Italy or Northern Italy . It can be used satirically or ironically to lampoon a person's sense of self-importance. Don is prefixed either to the full name or to the person's given name . The form "Don Lastname" for crime bosses (as in Don Corleone ) is an American custom. In Southern Italy, mafia bosses are addressed as "Don Firstname" by other mafiosi and sometimes their victims as well, while

6370-567: Is the variant used in Portuguese, which in Brazil is reserved for bishops . The title is also used among Benedictine monks for those members of the community who have professed perpetual religious vows . The equivalent of Doña or Dame is used by nuns of the Order. In Spanish, although originally a title reserved for royalty, select nobles, and church hierarchs, it is now often used as

6552-585: Is used for certain higher members hierarchs , such as superiors , of the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches. In Catholic religious orders , such as the Order of Saint Benedict , it is also associated with the status of Dom Frater . Dom is similarly used as an honorific for Benedictine monks within the Benedictine Order throughout France and the English speaking world, such as

6734-528: The Aide-toi, which backed liberals, constitutionnels , and the contre-opposition (constitutional monarchists). The new chamber did not result in a clear majority for any side. Villèle's successor, the vicomte de Martignac , who began his term in January 1828, tried to steer a middle course, appeasing liberals by loosening press controls, expelling Jesuits, modifying electoral registration, and restricting

6916-524: The Chamber of Deputies affirmed Louis Phillipe d'Orleans as King of the French, ushering in the July Monarchy . Louis XVIII's restoration to the throne in 1814 was effected largely through the support of Napoleon's former foreign minister, Talleyrand , who convinced the victorious Allied Powers of the desirability of a Bourbon Restoration. The Allies had initially split on the best candidate for

7098-548: The Chilean television personality Don Francisco , and the Puerto Rican industrialist and politician Don Luis Ferré , among many other figures. Although Puerto Rican politician Pedro Albizu Campos had a doctoral degree, he has been titled Don . Likewise, Puerto Rican Governor Luis Muñoz Marín has often been called Don Luís Muñoz Marin instead of Governor Muñoz Marin. In the same manner, Don Miguel Ángel Ruiz

7280-479: The Cortes (the elected parliamentary representatives of the Brazilian people, who wanted that the whole royal family leave the country, after which Brazil would have been divided up into separate regions): government offices and buildings were burned—a revolution broke out. Dom Pedro and Maria Leopoldina were at the theatre at that moment; while he rode out with his troops against the Cortes , Maria Leopoldina went onto

7462-557: The French Artistic Mission . King John VI did everything to include the Infanta Dona Isabel Maria (who would be regent of the Kingdom of Portugal from 1826 to 1828 and would die unmarried) in the negotiations. The Marquis of Marialva made a guarantee that the Portuguese royal family was determined to return to the continent as soon as Brazil demonstrated that it had surely "escaped the flames of

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7644-542: The French conquest of Algeria ; victory was announced over the Dey of Algiers in early July. Plans were drawn up to invade Belgium, which was shortly to undergo its own revolution . However, foreign policy did not prove sufficient to divert attention from domestic problems. Charles's dissolution of the Chamber of Deputies, his July Ordinances which set up rigid control of the press, and his restriction of suffrage resulted in

7826-676: The House of Bourbon (a royal dynasty who at the time of her birth reigned over Spain, Naples , Sicily and Parma ; the main branch of the family, who reigned in France since 1589, was dethroned after the French Revolution in 1792 but briefly restored during 1814–1830). She was given the name Caroline Josepha Leopoldine Franziska Ferdinanda , according to her main biographer Carlos H. Oberacker Júnior in his work "A Imperatriz Leopoldina: Sua Vida e Sua Época", and confirmed by Bettina Kann in her work "Cartas de uma Imperatriz" and other authors. In one of

8008-425: The July Revolution of 1830. The major cause of the regime's downfall, however, was that, while it managed to keep the support of the aristocracy, the Catholic Church and even much of the peasantry, the ultras' cause was deeply unpopular outside of parliament and with those who did not hold the franchise, especially the industrial workers and the bourgeoisie. A major reason was a sharp rise in food prices , caused by

8190-560: The Palace of São Cristóvão . The inner courtyard and path to the stables were unpaved and the tropical rainfall quickly turned everything to mud. There were insects everywhere, including in their clothing, for the uniforms and court regalia made of velvet and plush rotted and turned mouldy in the heat and humidity. The Prince von Metternich would intercept a letter from the Baron von Eschwege to his partner in Vienna in which he said: "Speaking of

8372-615: The Rule of St. Benedict ) and Carthusian monks , and for members of certain communities of canons regular . Examples include Benedictine monks of the English Benedictine Congregation (e.g. Dom John Chapman , late Abbot of Downside ). Since the Second Vatican Council , the title can be given to any monk ( lay or ordained ) who has made a solemn profession . The equivalent title for a nun

8554-654: The Société des amis de la liberté de la presse ; Choiseul-Stainville , Salvandy and Villemain were among the contributors. Another influential society was the Société Aide-toi, le ciel t'aidera , which worked within the confines of legislation banning the unauthorized meetings of more than 20 members. The group, emboldened by the rising tide of opposition, was of a more liberal composition (associated with Le Globe ) and included members such as Guizot , Rémusat , and Barrot . Pamphlets were sent out which evaded

8736-477: The duc de Reichstadt , remained interned in Austrian hands. Literary figures, most notably Chateaubriand , but also Hugo , Lamartine , Vigny , and Nodier , rallied to the ultras' cause. Both Hugo and Lamartine later became republicans, whilst Nodier was formerly. Soon, however, Villèle proved himself to be nearly as cautious as his master, and, so long as Louis lived, overtly reactionary policies were kept to

8918-698: The expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1492. The honorific title Don was widely used in Crown documents throughout Hispanic America by those in nobility or landed gentry. It can be found in the many 'Padrones' and "Aguas y Tierras" records in Mexican archives. The honorific in modern times is also widely used throughout the Americas. This is the case of the Mexican New Age author Don Miguel Ángel Ruiz ,

9100-483: The 18-year-old Dom Pedro not only had a string of amorous adventures behind him and was principally interested in horse racing and love affairs, but by the time of his marriage he was living as if in wedlock with French dancer Noemie Thierry, who was finally removed from the court by his father a month after Maria Leopoldina's arrival in Rio de Janeiro. The young married couple took up residence in six relatively small rooms in

9282-485: The Archduchess compiled and wrote a vade mecum , a unique document the like of which has never been produced by any other Habsburg princess. The marriage per procuram (by proxy) between Maria Leopoldina and Dom Pedro took place on 13 May 1817 at the Augustinian Church in Vienna. The groom was represented by the bride's uncle, Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen . "The culmination of the wedding ceremonies

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9464-415: The Archduchess had the chance of meeting Goethe in 1810 and 1812, when she went to Carlsbad with her stepmother. Maria Leopoldina was raised according to the three Habsburg principles: discipline, piety and sense of duty. Her childhood was marked by a strict education, diverse cultural stimulation and successive wars that threatened her father's domains. She and her siblings were raised in accordance with

9646-637: The Archduchess started using it already on his trip to Brazil, when dealing with some private businesses. In Brazil, she started to sign only Leopoldina, or using the first name Maria, as can be seen in her oath to the Constitution of Brazil in 1822. According to another theory presented by Oberacker Júnior, the Archduchess probably began to use the name "Maria" due to her great devotion to the Virgin Mary and to invoke her protection, and also because all her sisters-in-law used this name. Maria Leopoldina

9828-622: The Army and foreign affairs. In April 1814, the Armies of the Sixth Coalition restored Louis XVIII of France to the throne, the brother and heir of the executed Louis XVI. A constitution was drafted: the Charter of 1814 . It presented all Frenchmen as equal before the law, but retained substantial prerogatives for the king and nobility and limited voting to those paying at least 300 Francs

10010-475: The Bourbon Restoration did not reverse. Administration: First, France was now highly centralised, with all important decisions made in Paris. The political geography was completely reorganised and made uniform, dividing the nation into more than 80 départements which have endured into the 21st century. Each department had an identical administrative structure, and was tightly controlled by

10192-542: The Bourbons were treated politely by the victorious monarchies, but had to give up nearly all the territorial gains made by revolutionary and Napoleonic France since 1789. Unlike the absolutist Ancien Régime , the Restoration Bourbon regime was a constitutional monarchy , with some limits on its power. The new king, Louis XVIII, accepted the vast majority of reforms instituted from 1792 to 1814. Continuity

10374-524: The Brazilians saw them as allies for the first time, and not as tyrants who should be defeated to give up power". Prepared to maintain fidelity to the absolutist monarchy, Maria Leopoldina did not imagine that she would be Regent in the troubled moments that preceded the break with Portugal, nor that she would defend the Independence of Brazil even before Dom Pedro, in a clear attitude contrary to

10556-584: The Brazilians than Dom Pedro: it was necessary to stay in Brazil and go against the demands of the Portuguese court. Her Dia do Fico was earlier than that of her husband. In the Manifesto to the Friendly Nations, signed by Dom Pedro on 6 August 1822, the despotism of the courts of Lisbon was denounced in relation to Brazilian affairs and called upon the friendly nations of Brazil to deal directly with matters with Rio de Janeiro and no longer with

10738-436: The British under Napoleon. The French expeditionary army, called the Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis , was led by the duc d'Angoulême , the comte d'Artois's son. The French troops marched to Madrid and then to Cádiz , ousting the Liberals with little fighting (April to September 1823), and would remain in Spain for five years. Support for the ultras amongst the voting rich was further strengthened by doling out favours in

10920-404: The Catholic monopoly of public primary education. Decazes purged a number of ultra-royalist prefects and sub-prefects, and in by-elections, an unusually high proportion of Bonapartists and republicans were elected, some of whom were backed by ultras resorting to tactical voting . The ultras were strongly critical of the practice of giving civil service employment or promotions to deputies, as

11102-441: The Crown Prince, since he is not without natural intelligence, he is lacking in formal education. He was raised among horses, and the princess sooner or later you will realize that he is not able to coexist in harmony. Furthermore, the court of Rio is very boring and insignificant, compared to the courts of Europe". In the wake of Maria Leopoldina's arrival, the first wave of immigrants arrived in Brazil; Swiss settlers who settled in

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11284-407: The Guard was disbanded. Pamphlets continued to proliferate, which included accusations in September that Charles, on a trip to Saint-Omer , was colluding with the Pope and planned to reinstate the tithe, and had suspended the Charter under the protection of a loyal garrison army. By the time of the election, the moderate royalists (constitutionalists) were also beginning to turn against Charles, as

11466-507: The History of this Kingdom, or Memories related to it". Language learning was part of the family formation, and Leopoldina became a notorious polyglot , speaking 7 languages: her native German, as well as Portuguese, French, Italian, English, Greek and Latin . Leopoldina and her siblings were taken on frequent visits to museums, botanical gardens, factories and agricultural fields. And, not infrequently, they participated in dances, performed in plays and played instruments for an audience, with

11648-422: The Hundred Days. This Second Restoration saw the beginning of the Second White Terror , largely in the south, when unofficial groups supporting the monarchy sought revenge against those who had aided Napoleon's return: about 200–300 were killed, while thousands fled. About 70,000 government officials were dismissed. The pro-Bourbon perpetrators were often known as the Verdets because of their green cockets, which

11830-401: The Independence of Brazil, with the warning: "The fruit is ripe, pick it up, otherwise it will rot" ( O pomo está maduro, colha-o já, senão apodrece ). Dom Pedro declared the Independence of Brazil upon receiving the letter of his wife on 7 September 1822 at São Paulo. Maria Leopoldina had also sent papers received from Lisbon , and comments from Antônio Carlos Ribeiro de Andrada , deputy to

12012-413: The Philippines . Don is derived from the Latin dominus : a master of a household, a title with background from the Roman Republic in classical antiquity . With the abbreviated form having emerged as such in the Middle Ages , traditionally it is reserved for Catholic clergy and nobles , in addition to certain educational authorities and persons of high distinction. The older form of Dom

12194-553: The Portuguese Royal Prince initially appeared to his new wife as a perfect, well-educated gentleman, but the reality was very different. Dom Pedro was a year younger than Maria Leopoldina and rarely measured up to the descriptions she had been given by the matchmakers. His temperament was impulsive and choleric, and his education modest. Even spoken communication between the young married couple proved difficult, as Pedro spoke very little French and his Portuguese could only be described as vulgar. In addition, keeping with Portuguese tradition,

12376-418: The Portuguese government, explaining its cause and events from the point of view of Brazilians. In the same document, however, it is possible to observe that, even on the eve of the Proclamation of Independence, the prince regent did not wish to dissolve the ties between Portugal and Brazil, but did not promise to defend the links between the two countries. That would be an ineffective measure of neutrality, since

12558-437: The Portuguese throne if he disobeyed the courts. Maria Leopoldina realized that Portugal, dominated by the courts, was already lost and that Brazil still lay like a blank canvas, which could become a future power, much more relevant than the old metropolis: the court orders, if enforced, would eventually shatter Brazil into dozens of republics, as had happened with the Spanish colonies in South America. According to Ezekiel Ramirez,

12740-464: The Restoration was in doubt, but the allure of peace to a war-weary French public, and demonstrations of support for the Bourbons in Paris, Bordeaux , Marseille , and Lyon , helped reassure the Allies. Louis, in accordance with the Declaration of Saint-Ouen , granted a written constitution, the Charter of 1814 , which guaranteed a bicameral legislature with a hereditary/appointive Chamber of Peers and an elected Chamber of Deputies – their role

12922-457: The Revolution. Although this law had been engineered by Louis, Charles was influential in seeing that it was passed. A bill to finance this compensation, by converting government debt (the rente ) from 5% to 3% bonds, which would save the state 30 million francs a year in interest payments, was also put before the chambers. Villèle's government argued that rentiers had seen their returns grow disproportionately to their original investment, and that

13104-535: The Two Sicilies) and Archduchess Maria Carolina of Austria . Through both parents (who are double first-cousins), Maria Leopoldina was descended from the House of Habsburg-Lorraine (one of the oldest and most powerful dynasties in Europe, which reigned over Austria from 1282 to 1918, among other territories that reigned and was the oldest reigning house in Europe at the time of Maria Leopoldina's birth) and from

13286-416: The actions of préfects , who began removing certain voters who had failed to provide up-to-date documents since the 1824 election. 18,000 voters were added to the 60,000 on the first list; despite préfect attempts to register those who met the franchise and were supporters of the government, this can mainly be attributed to opposition activity. Organization was mainly divided behind Chateaubriand's Friends and

13468-583: The appointment and tenure of mayors was at the pleasure of the president of the Philippines , pursuant to Commonwealth Act No. 158 amending Commonwealth Act No. 57., Section 8 of Commonwealth Act No. 158, as amended by Republic Act No. 276. The 1987 Constitution , meanwhile, explicitly prohibits recognition of titles of nobility, thus the terms Don and Doña are now courtesy titles with no requirements for their attainment other than common usage for socially prominent and rich persons. Officially, Don

13650-441: The army, non-Catholics, and workers hit by a post-war slump and British imports. Napoleon's emissaries informed him of this brewing discontent, and, on 20 March 1815, he returned to Paris from Elba . On his Route Napoléon , most troops sent to stop his march, including some that were nominally royalist, felt more inclined to join the former Emperor than to stop him. Louis fled from Paris to Ghent on 19 March. After Napoleon

13832-404: The body declared the French throne vacant, and elevated Louis-Philippe, Duke of Orléans , to power. There is still considerable debate among historians as to the actual cause of the downfall of Charles X. What is generally conceded, though, is that between 1820 and 1830, a series of economic downturns combined with the rise of a liberal opposition within the Chamber of Deputies, ultimately felled

14014-662: The censorship laws, and the group provided organizational assistance to liberal candidates against pro-government state officials in the November 1827 election . In April 1827, the King and Villèle were confronted by an unruly National Guard . The garrison which Charles reviewed, under orders to express deference to the king but disapproval of his government, instead shouted derogatory anti-Jesuit remarks at his devoutly Catholic niece and daughter in law, Marie Thérèse, Madame la Dauphine . Villèle suffered worse treatment, as liberal officers led troops to protest at his office. In response,

14196-429: The chamber was dissolved by Louis for its reactionary measures, and electoral manipulation resulted in a more liberal chamber in 1816 . Richelieu served until 29 December 1818, followed by Jean-Joseph, Marquis Dessolles until 19 November 1819, and then Decazes (in reality the dominant minister from 1818 to 1820) until 20 February 1820. This was the era in which the Doctrinaires dominated policy, hoping to reconcile

14378-453: The chaos: the situation was dominated by the Portuguese troops, in anarchic conditions. The opposition between Portuguese and Brazilians became increasingly evident. It can be clearly seen in Maria Leopoldina's correspondence that she warmly espoused the cause of the Brazilian people and came to desire the country's Independence, which is why she is loved and venerated by the Brazilians. Maria Leopoldina grew up fearing popular revolutions due to

14560-427: The city. Upon her arrival, the physical appearance of Maria Leopoldina surprised the Portuguese royal family, who were awaiting a beautiful Archduchess. Instead, she was overweight, though with a beautiful face. However, she was also extraordinarily cultured for her time, with a keen interest in botany. The arrival provided Jean-Baptiste Debret with an occasion for his first commission, where he had 12 days to decorate

14742-463: The city. He had a studio in the Catumbi neighborhood, where as a naturalist, he later made drawings of plants and flowers for Maria Leopoldina. He would say: "I was in charge of graciously executing some drawings for her that she dared to ask for", he said, "in the name of his sister, former Empress of the French ". In his atelier, Debret designed the great gala uniforms of the court, in green and gold,

14924-482: The community. In Spanish colonial Philippines , this honorific was reserved to the nobility , the prehispanic datu that became the principalía , whose right to rule was recognised by Philip II on 11 June 1594. Similar to Latin America, the title Don is considered highly honoured, more so than academic titles such as "Doctor", political titles such as "Governor", and even knights titled " Sir ". Usage

15106-552: The conservative Bourbons. Between 1827 and 1830, France faced an economic downturn, industrial and agricultural, that was possibly worse than the one that sparked the revolution. A series of progressively worsening grain harvests in the late 1820s pushed up the prices on various staple foods and cash crops . In response, the rural peasantry throughout France lobbied for the relaxation of protective tariffs on grain to lower prices and ease their economic situation. However, Charles X, bowing to pressure from wealthier landowners , kept

15288-522: The couple's return to Portugal. Consequently, for governing the country on Dom Pedro's trips through the Brazilian provinces, she is considered the first woman to become head of state in an independent American country. Maria Leopoldina was born on 22 January 1797 at the Hofburg Palace in Vienna , Archduchy of Austria . She was the sixth (but third surviving) child of Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor (who from 1804, became Emperor of Austria with

15470-637: The courts, for which the Prince-Regent learned of criticism of him in the metropolis. The position of John VI and all his ministry, dominated by the courts, was difficult. Don (honorific) The term Don ( Spanish: [don] , literally ' Lord ') abbreviated as D. , is an honorific prefix primarily used in Spain and Hispanic America , and with different connotations also in Italy , Portugal and its former colonies, and formerly in

15652-741: The decorations of the new state, and previously designed the crown created by Napoleon in 1806 for the Kingdom of Italy . Debret also designed the insignia of the Order of the Southern Cross , comparable to the Medal of the Legion of Honor, and years later he also designed the Imperial Order of the Rose , instituted in honor of Dom Pedro's second wife, Amélie of Leuchtenberg . From a distance,

15834-492: The desire to make people happy". With a deep Christian faith and a solid scientific and cultural background (which included international politics and notions of government) the Archduchess had been prepared from an early age to being a proper royal consort. In the 21st century, it has been proposed by some historians that she was one of the main articulators of the process of Independence of Brazil that took place in 1822. Her biographer, historian Paulo Rezzutti, maintains that it

16016-551: The difficulties that she would face in Rio de Janeiro . The first time she set foot on Portuguese territory, however, it was not on Brazilian land, but on Madeira Island , on 11 September. On 5 November 1817, Maria Leopoldina arrived to Rio de Janeiro, where she finally met her husband and his family. The next day, the official marriage ceremony took place at the Capela Real of Rio de Janeiro Cathedral amidst celebrations all over

16198-459: The education she received. The Austrian Archduchess was always on the side of the Brazilian cause and, in several letters written to her friends in Europe, began to distinguish between Portuguese and Brazilians, making it clear what she thought about Portuguese domination over the colony. With the return of the court to Portugal and the appointment of Dom Pedro as Prince Regent of Brazil (25 April 1821), Maria Leopoldina conceived that staying in America

16380-903: The educational principles laid down by their grandfather, Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor , who preached equality between men, treating everyone with courtesy, the need to practise charity, and above all, the sacrifice of their own desires for the needs of the State. Among these principles was the habit of exercising their handwriting by writing the following text: "Do not oppress the poor. Be charitable. Do not complain about what God has given you, but improve your habits. We must strive earnestly to be good". The study program for Maria Leopoldina and her siblings included subjects such as reading, writing, dance, drawing, painting, piano, riding, hunting, history, geography and music; and in an advanced module, mathematics (arithmetic and geometry), literature, physics, singing and crafts. From an early age, Maria Leopoldina showed

16562-427: The equipment for a scientific expedition to the interior of Brazil and numerous exhibitions of Austrian commercial products". Through this marriage, King John VI saw the opportunity to counteract the excessive influence of England in its domains by forging new alliances with traditional dynasties. Austria, on the other hand, saw the new Portuguese-Brazilian Empire as an important transatlantic ally that fit perfectly with

16744-408: The essays presented in his work, Oberacker Júnior showed an excerpt of the publication made by the Austrian newspaper Wiener Zeitung on 25 January 1797, who gave the news of the birth of the Archduchess three days before with her full name; he also mentioned that the name "Maria" wasn't present in the preserved baptismal record of the Archduchess, which is in fact true. According to Oberacker Júnior,

16926-481: The example of her great-aunt Marie Antoinette , the last Queen of France , guillotined during the French Revolution . However, the fear of revolutions that would diminish the powers of the monarchs by popular revolt as happened in France in 1789 and recently in Portugal in 1820 was not seen in Brazil: "As soon as the autonomist movement and then the independence movement won Dom Pedro and Dona Leopoldina as protagonists,

17108-611: The expedition was not carried out. So when in 1817 Maria Leopoldina embarked to Brazil for her wedding with Dom Pedro, the Bavarian sovereign took the opportunity and sent two of his subjects: Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius , doctor and botanist, and Johann Baptist von Spix , zoologist, with the retinue of the Archduchess. In addition to these, Karl von Schreibers , Director of the Natural History Museum , under orders from Chancellor Prince von Metternich, prepared

17290-507: The famous Dom Pérignon . In France, it is also used within the male branch of the Carthusian Order. It is also employed for laymen who belong to the royal and imperial families (for example the House of Aviz in Portugal and the House of Braganza in Portugal and Brazil). It was also accorded to members of families of the titled Portuguese nobility . Unless ennobling letters patent specifically authorised its use, Dom

17472-608: The formation of Catholic schools. Charles, unhappy with the new government, surrounded himself with men from the Chevaliers de la Foi and other ultras, such as the Prince de Polignac and La Bourdonnaye . Martignac was deposed when his government lost a bill on local government. Charles and his advisers believed a new government could be formed with the support of the Villèle, Chateaubriand, and Decazes monarchist factions, but chose

17654-442: The forthcoming announcement of the wedding of Maria Leopoldina and Dom Pedro, immediately was organized, under the auspices of the Austrian court, (but also integrated by Bavarian scientists) what would become the main scientific expedition into the unknown (for science) Brazilian lands. In 1815 King Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria was already planning a great scientific expedition through South America, but some setbacks occurred and

17836-460: The future Charles X, triggered Decazes' fall from power and the triumph of the Ultras. Richelieu returned to power for a short interval, from 1820 to 1821. The press was more strongly censored, detention without trial was reintroduced, and Doctrinaire leaders, such as François Guizot , were banned from teaching at the École Normale Supérieure . Under Richelieu, the franchise was changed to give

18018-498: The government continued to consolidate its position. By 1820, the opposition liberals —who, with the ultras, made up half the chamber—proved unmanageable, and Decazes and the king were looking for ways to revise the electoral laws again, to ensure a more tractable conservative majority. In February 1820, the assassination by a Bonapartist of the Duc de Berry , the ultrareactionary son of Louis' ultrareactionary brother and heir-presumptive,

18200-626: The government to introduce a bill to restrict the press in December, having largely withdrawn censorship in 1824. This only inflamed the opposition even more, and the bill was withdrawn. The Villèle cabinet faced increasing pressure in 1827 from the liberal press, including the Journal des débats , which sponsored Chateaubriand's articles. Chateaubriand, the most prominent of the anti-Villèle ultras, had combined with other opponents of press censorship (a new law had reimposed it on 24 July 1827) to form

18382-543: The government, and Charles subsequently prorogued and then dissolved parliament. Charles retained a belief that he was popular amongst the unenfranchised mass of the people, and he and Polignac chose to pursue an ambitious foreign policy of colonialism and expansionism, with the assistance of Russia . France had intervened in the Mediterranean a number of times after Villèle's resignation, and expeditions were now sent to Greece and Madagascar . Polignac also initiated

18564-472: The honorific Don / Doña prefixed to the names. Juan Carlos' successor is S. M. el Rey Felipe VI . Spanish citizens who are Knights and Dames of the Order of Civil Merit , the Order of Charles III , and the Order of Isabella the Catholic are addressed as Don (for Knights) or Doña (for Dames), in the same style as Sir or Dame for knighted British nationals. [2] [3] [4] The Spanish usage

18746-636: The institutions, of the Ancien régime . Exiled supporters of the monarchy returned to France but were unable to reverse most of the changes made by the French Revolution . Exhausted by the Napoleonic Wars , the nation experienced a period of internal and external peace, stable economic prosperity and the preliminaries of industrialization. Following the French Revolution (1789–1799), Napoleon Bonaparte became ruler of France. After years of expansion of his French Empire by successive military victories,

18928-458: The intention of getting the children used to ceremonies and public exposure. The Habsburg Archudukes and Archduchesses were encouraged to attend the theatre in order to develop public speaking abilities, greater articulation and oratory skills. For centuries, royal marriages in Europe served primarily as political alliances. Through marriage, the geopolitical cartography of the European continent

19110-652: The king retained extensive power over policy-making, as well as the sole power of the Executive, he was, nonetheless, reliant upon the Parliament to accept and pass his legal decrees. The Charter also fixed the method of election of the Deputies, their rights within the Chamber of Deputies, and the rights of the majority bloc. Thus, in 1830, Charles X faced a significant problem. He could not overstep his constitutional bounds, and yet, he could not pursue his policies with

19292-462: The king's grace. However, there were rare exemptions to the rule, such as the mulatto Miguel Enríquez who received the distinction from Philip V due to his privateering work in the Caribbean . It is now often used as a more formal version of Señor , a term which itself was also once used to address someone with the quality of nobility (not necessarily holding a nobiliary title). During

19474-739: The last name (e.g. Don Corleone) would be used in Italy for priests only: the proper Italian respectful form is similar to the Spanish-language form in that it is applied only to the first name (e.g. "Don Vito "). This title has in turn been applied by the media to real-world mafia figures, such as the nickname "Teflon Don" for John Gotti . It is also used in American TV series Breaking bad and Better call Saul . Bourbon Restoration in France Defunct The Second Bourbon Restoration

19656-490: The militia in July 1816. Owing to tension between the King's government and the ultra-royalist Chamber of Deputies, the latter began to assert their rights. After they attempted to obstruct the 1816 budget, the government conceded that the chamber had the right to approve state expenditure. However, they were unable to gain a guarantee from the King that his cabinets would represent the majority in parliament. In September 1816,

19838-558: The monarchy with the French Revolution and power with liberty . The following year, the government changed the electoral laws, resorting to gerrymandering , and altering the franchise to allow some rich men of trade and industry to vote, in an attempt to prevent the ultras from winning a majority in future elections. Press censorship was clarified and relaxed, some positions in the military hierarchy were made open to competition, and mutual schools were set up that encroached on

20020-409: The monarchy's recognition of the anniversaries of the deaths of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette were significant. A more tangible source of antagonism was the pressure applied to possessors of biens nationaux (the lands confiscated by the revolution) by the Catholic Church and the returning émigrés' attempts to repossess their former lands. Other groups bearing ill-feeling towards Louis included

20202-573: The morning of 2 September 1822 with the Council of State and signed the Decree of Independence, declaring Brazil separate from Portugal. Maria Leopoldina send Dom Pedro a letter, along with another letter from José Bonifácio, as well as comments from Portugal criticizing the actions of her husband and King John VI. In her letter to her husband, the Princess-Regent suggests her husband to proclaim

20384-491: The most conservative and enduring families in Europe (the House of Habsburg-Lorraine ) she came from a careful education based on the molds of the absolutist monarchies of the time. In June 1821, a frightened Maria Leopoldina wrote to her father "My husband, God help us, loves the new ideas", suspicious of the new constitutional and liberal political values; she personally witnessed the events that took place in Europe years before, in which Napoleon Bonaparte systematically altered

20566-412: The nation to disaster. Both groups shared a fear of social disorder, but the level of distrust as well as the cultural differences were too great, and the monarchy too inconsistent in its policies, for political cooperation to be possible. The returning old aristocracy recovered much of the land they had owned directly. However, they lost all their old seigneurial rights to the rest of the farmland, and

20748-601: The new Empress was well-educated and surpassed her predecessor in culture and intellectual brilliance. Muse and personal friend of the poet Johann Wolfgang von Goethe , she was responsible for the intellectual formation of her stepdaughter, developing in Maria Leopoldina a taste for literature, nature and music by Joseph Haydn and Ludwig van Beethoven . Because she had no children of her own, she willingly adopted those of her predecessor; Maria Leopoldina always considered her stepmother to be her mother and she grew up with Empress Maria Ludovika as her "spiritual mother". Thanks to her,

20930-506: The new law, leading to a sharp rise in its value. On 29 May 1825 the Coronation of Charles X took place at Reims Cathedral , the traditional site of French coronations . In 1826, Villèle introduced a bill reestablishing the law of primogeniture , at least for owners of large estates, unless they chose otherwise. The liberals and the press rebelled, as did some dissident ultras, such as Chateaubriand. Their vociferous criticism prompted

21112-466: The official government newspaper indicated a general shift in Parisian politics towards the left. And yet, Charles' base of power was certainly toward the right of the political spectrum, as were his own views. He simply could not yield to the growing demands from within the Chamber of Deputies. The situation would soon come to a head. The Charter of 1814 had made France a constitutional monarchy. While

21294-660: The old European royal institutions, and fierce battles began through the Holy Roman Empire . Her older sister, Archduchess Maria Ludovika , married Napoleon in 1810, seeking to strengthen the ties between France and Austria. This union was undoubtedly one of the most serious defeats of the House of Habsburg; their maternal grandmother, Queen Maria Carolina of Naples and Sicily (who deeply hated everything about France after execution of her beloved sister Queen Marie Antoinette in 1793), grunted with her son-in-law's attitude: "It

21476-530: The peasants were no longer under their control. The pre-Revolutionary aristocracy had dallied with the ideas of the Enlightenment and rationalism. Now the aristocracy was much more conservative and supportive of the Catholic Church. For the best jobs, meritocracy was the new policy, and aristocrats had to compete directly with the growing business and professional class. Citizens' rights: Public anti-clerical sentiment became stronger than ever before, but

21658-531: The peasants' biens nationaux , and the new system of dividing the country into départments were not undone by the new king. Relations between church and state remained regulated by the Concordat of 1801 . However, in spite of the fact that the Charter was a condition of the Restoration, the preamble declared it to be a "concession and grant", given "by the free exercise of our royal authority". After

21840-508: The place of the monarchy and the church, and called for more commemorations for historical royal figures. Over the course of the parliamentary term, the ultra-royalists increasingly began to fuse their brand of politics with state ceremony, much to Louis' chagrin. Decazes, perhaps the most moderate minister, moved to stop the politicisation of the National Guard (many Verdets had been drafted in) by banning political demonstrations by

22022-646: The policy of the State to prohibit the access of its overseas possessions to any and all foreigners, even prohibiting the publication of any news or reference to American lands. This State policy was effectively followed by several generations, from the middle of the 17th century until the arrival of the royal family to Brazil and the consequent opening of Brazil to the world, symbolized by the Decree of Opening Ports to Friendly Nations ( Decreto de Abertura dos Portos às Nações Amigas ), first act signed by Prince Regent John, during his stay in Salvador, in 1808. The opening of

22204-424: The political establishment was relatively stable until the subsequent reign of Charles X. It also saw the reestablishment of the Catholic Church as a major power in French politics. Throughout the Bourbon Restoration, France experienced a period of stable economic prosperity and the preliminaries of industrialisation. The eras of the French Revolution and Napoleon brought a series of major changes to France which

22386-457: The political power of the continent, having a certain influence on his way of seeing these new political concepts. The conservative and traditional education of which the Archduchess had been disciplined also adds to this aspect. Maria Leopoldina, previously lacking in affection and approval, quickly gives way to the adult woman who faces life without illusions. As the friction between Portugal and Brazil unfolded, she became increasingly involved in

22568-439: The political situation to the Parisian public, and can thus be seen as a crucial link between the rise of the liberals and the increasingly agitated and economically suffering French masses. By 1830, the Restoration government of Charles X faced difficulties on all sides. The new liberal majority clearly had no intention of budging in the face of Polignac's aggressive policies. The rise of a liberal press within Paris which outsold

22750-495: The ports and the consequent revocation of the ban on the landing of foreigners in Brazilian lands, which coincided with a difficult time for European naturalists, as their transit through Europe was significantly hampered by the Napoleonic Wars , coupled with the lack of knowledge about this immense portion of the globe's territory, aroused enormous scientific interest in Europe. Parallel to this world context, Maria Leopoldina, since her first youth (around 14 years old), started to show

22932-398: The press usually refers to them as "Firstname Lastname", without the honorific. Priests are the only ones to be referred as "Don" plus the last name (e.g. Don Marioni), although when talking directly to them they are usually addressed as "Don" plus the first name (e.g. Don Francesco), which is also the most common form used by parishioners when referring to their priest. The usage of Dom

23114-576: The reactionary, absolutist ideals of the Holy Alliance . In this way, the marriage was a purely political act, not a sentimental one. Maria Leopoldina's trip to Brazil was difficult and time-consuming. The Archduchess left Vienna for Florence on 2 June 1817, where she awaited further instructions from the Portuguese court, since monarchical authority remained tenuous in Brazil since the Pernambucan revolt . On 13 August 1817, Maria Leopoldina

23296-426: The redistribution was just. The final law allocated state funds of 988 million francs for compensation ( le milliard des émigrés ), financed by government bonds at a value of 600 million francs at 3% interest. Around 18 million francs were paid per year. Unexpected beneficiaries of the law were some one million owners of biens nationaux , the old confiscated lands, whose property rights were now confirmed by

23478-517: The regents to remain in Brazil. " José Bonifácio de Andrada 's courageous attitude toward Portuguese arrogance greatly encouraged the aspirations for unity that existed in the southern provinces, especially in São Paulo. A highly educated men led this movement." After the Dia do Fico a new ministry was organized under the leadership of José Bonifácio, "a strictly monarchist", and the Prince-Regent soon won

23660-506: The reign of King Juan Carlos of Spain from 1975 until his abdication as monarch on 19 June 2014, he was titled Su Majestad [S. M.] el Rey Juan Carlos (His Majesty King Juan Carlos). Following the abdication, Juan Carlos and his wife are titled, according to the Royal Household website, S. M. el Rey Don Juan Carlos (H.M. King Juan Carlos) and S. M. la Reina Doña Sofía (H.M. Queen Sofía)—the same as during his reign, with

23842-673: The reputation of being "more royalist than the king". The legislature threw out the Talleyrand-Fouché government and sought to legitimize the White Terror, passing judgement against enemies of the state, sacking 50,000–80,000 civil servants, and dismissing 15,000 army officers. Richelieu, an émigré who had left in October 1789, who " had nothing at all to do with the new France", was appointed Prime Minister . The chambre introuvable , meanwhile, continued to aggressively uphold

24024-521: The rest of her life from living near her father, siblings and other family members. Just as her sister Marie Louise married Napoleon Bonaparte with the intention of bringing political relations between the Austrian and the French Empires closer through this wedding, for Maria Leopoldina a role was kept in history much more relevant than that of her sister. Two days later, the decision of the Prince-Regent to remain in Brazil caused outraged among

24206-552: The right, as the majority bloc, to appoint the Prime Minister and the Cabinet. Also, the growth of the liberal bloc within the Chamber of Deputies corresponded roughly with the rise of a liberal press within France. Generally centered around Paris, this press provided a counterpoint to the government's journalistic services, and to the newspapers of the right. It grew increasingly important in conveying political opinions and

24388-404: The same time, international pressures, combined with weakened purchasing power from the provinces, led to decreased economic activity in urban centers . This industrial downturn contributed to the rising poverty levels among Parisian artisans. Thus, by 1830, multiple demographics had suffered from the economic policies of Charles X. While the French economy faltered, a series of elections brought

24570-635: The signs of a nascent Brazilian unit as an independent nation in the southern provinces were visible, but the north supported the Lisbon Cortes and called for regional independence. If the Prince Regent had left the country at that moment, Brazil would be lost to Portugal because the courts of Lisbon repeated the same error that led the Spanish courts to lose the colonies, seeking to establish direct contacts with each province in particular. Maria Leopoldina's attitude, defending Brazilian interests,

24752-434: The stage and announced: "Remain calm, my husband has everything under control!". With this announcement (who was greeted with jubilation) she placed herself firmly on the side of the Brazilian people. However, Maria Leopoldina's knew that her life was in danger; she hurriedly back to Boa Vista. Seven months pregnant at that moment, she took both her children, three-year-old Maria da Glória and eleven-month-old João Carlos, into

24934-504: The status of a simple colony rather than a kingdom united to that of Portugal. There were fears that a civil war would separate the Province of São Paulo from the rest of Brazil. The Princess-Regent received a new decree with demands from Lisbon arrived in Rio de Janeiro and, without time to wait for Dom Pedro's return, Maria Leopoldina, advised by José Bonifácio de Andrada, and using her attributes as interim head of government, met in

25116-470: The striking feature of his research, as well as that of Humboldtian artists, was to represent everything he saw in an encyclopedic way, that is, explaining in detail everything they saw. Maria Leopoldina's well-known interest in sciences was noted in 1818 when she influenced her father-in-law to create the Royal Museum (the now National Museum of Brazil ). Just a few months after her arrival in Brazil,

25298-446: The support of José Bonifácio de Andrada , and educated man from São Paulo; with his help, she decisively convinced her husband that maintaining the territorial integrity of Brazil was only possible if they both remained there. Finally, on 9 January 1822 Dom Pedro solemnly declared: "Fico!" ( I am staying ). At the age of 24, Maria Leopoldina made a political decision that sentenced her to indefinite stay in America and would deprive her for

25480-482: The tariffs in place. He did so based upon the Bourbon response to the " Year Without a Summer " in 1816, during which Louis XVIII relaxed tariffs during a series of famines, caused a downturn in prices, and incurred the ire of wealthy landowners, who were the traditional source of Bourbon legitimacy. Thus, between 1827 and 1830, peasants throughout France faced a period of relative economic hardship and rising prices. At

25662-730: The throne: Britain favoured the Bourbons, the Austrians considered a regency for Napoleon's son, the King of Rome , and the Russians were open to either the duc d'Orléans , Louis Philippe , or Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte , Napoleon's former Marshal , who was heir-presumptive to the Swedish throne. Napoleon was offered to keep the throne in February 1814, on the condition that France return to its 1792 frontiers, but he refused. The feasibility of

25844-430: The title is usually only given to Roman Catholic diocesan priests (never to prelates, who bear higher honorifics such as monsignore , eminenza , and so on). In Sardinia , until recently it was commonly used for nobility (whether titled or not), but it is being presently used mainly when the speaker wants to show that he knows the don 's condition of nobility. Outside of the priesthood or old nobility, usage

26026-444: The title itself had been granted. A well-known exception is the descent of Dom Vasco da Gama . There were many cases, both in Portugal and Brazil, in which the title of Dom (or Dona ) was conceded to, and even bought by, people who were not from royalty. In any case, when the title was officially recognized by the proper authority, it became part of the name. In Portugal and Brazil, Dom ( pronounced [ˈdõ] )

26208-529: The title of Francis I, because Napoleon Bonaparte demanded that he renounce the title of Holy Roman Emperor when he was crowned Emperor of the French ) but the fifth (third surviving) child and fourth (second surviving) daughter born from his second marriage with Maria Theresa of Naples and Sicily . Her paternal grandparents were Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor and Maria Luisa of Bourbon, Infanta of Spain and her maternal grandparents were King Ferdinand IV & III of Naples and Sicily (later King Ferdinand I of

26390-577: The trust of the people. On 15 February 1822 the Portuguese troops left Rio de Janeiro, and their departure represented the dissolution of the ties between Brazil and the metropolis. Dom Pedro was triumphantly received in Minas Gerais . When her husband traveled to São Paulo in August 1822 to pacify politics (which culminated in the proclamation of Brazil's Independence in September), Maria Leopoldina

26572-475: The turmoil of political events that preceded the Independence of Brazil. Her involvement with Brazilian politics would lead her to play a fundamental role in the later Independence, alongside José Bonifácio de Andrada . In this phase, she distances herself from the conservative ( absolutist ) ideas of the Vienna court and adopts a more liberal ( constitutional ) discourse in favor of the Brazilian cause. As

26754-475: The ultras' control of power in the Chamber of Deputies; thus, the ministry of the comte de Villèle was able to continue. The restraint Louis had exercised on the ultra-royalists was removed. As the country underwent a Christian revival in the post-revolutionary years, the ultras worked to raise the status of the Roman Catholic Church once more. The Church and State Concordat of 11 June 1817

26936-535: The vicinity of the court, founding Nova Friburgo and settling in the future Petrópolis , the later Imperial summer residence. From 1824, due to the Brazilian campaign in Europe organized by Major Georg Anton Schäffer , the Germans arrived more numerous and settled again in Nova Friburgo and in the temperate regions of the provinces of Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul , where the colony of São Leopoldo

27118-541: The wars of independence that were advancing in the Spanish colonies", thus obtaining Austrian consent to marriage. Once this was secured, the contract was signed in Vienna on 29 November 1816. Two ships were prepared, and in April 1817, scientists, painters, gardeners and a taxidermist, all with assistants, travelled to Rio de Janeiro ahead of Maria Leopoldina, who, in the meantime, studied the history and geography of her future home and learned Portuguese . During these weeks,

27300-465: The wealthiest electors a double vote, in time for the November 1820 election . After a resounding victory, a new Ultra ministry was formed, headed by Jean-Baptiste de Villèle , a leading Ultra who served for six years. The ultras found themselves back in power in favourable circumstances: Berry's wife, the duchesse de Berry , gave birth to a "miracle child", Henri , seven months after the duc's death; Napoleon died on Saint Helena in 1821, and his son,

27482-556: The wife of Napoleon Bonaparte . The education Maria Leopoldina had received in childhood and adolescence was broad and eclectic, with a higher cultural level and more consistent political training. Such education of the little princes and princesses of the Habsburg family was based on the educational belief initiated by their grandfather Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II , who believed "that children should be inspired from an early age to have high qualities, such as humanity, compassion and

27664-416: Was a prerogative of princes of royal blood and also of other individuals to whom it had been granted by the sovereign. In most cases, the title was passed on through the male line. Strictly speaking, only females born of a nobleman bearing the title Dom would be addressed as Dona ('D.ª'), but the style was not heritable through daughters. The few exceptions depended solely on the conditions upon which

27846-503: Was also concerned with perpetuating the political events of his administration, entrusting Caspar Barlaeus with a history of his government in Brazil. Once the Dutch were expelled, the Portuguese became aware that the recovery of the territory was the result of a series of happy circumstances, which could no longer be repeated, in the event of a new invasion of the territory of Portuguese America. In view of this situation, Portugal has taken

28028-611: Was also created the first Brazilian Natural History Museum, which promoted scientists to explore Brazil. In September 1824, the British well-travelled and published writer Maria Graham arrived to Boa Vista and was given a friendly reception by Dom Pedro and Maria Leopoldina and granted full authority over the upbringing of their eldest daughter Maria da Glória, whose education at that time was widely neglected; soon Maria Leopoldina and her daughter's governess relationship quickly grew into an affectionate friendship, moreover because both shared

28210-448: Was an important factor in their calculations. The working class in the cities was a small element, and had been freed of many restrictions imposed by medieval guilds. However, France was very slow to industrialise, and much of the work remained drudgery without machinery or technology to help. France was still split into localities, especially in terms of language, but now there was an emerging French nationalism that focused national pride in

28392-422: Was announced by Emperor Francis I that Dom Pedro de Alcântara, wished to take a Habsburg Archduchess as his wife. Prince Klemens von Metternich suggested that it should be Maria Leopoldina to go get married, as it was "her turn" to become a wife. The Marquis of Marialva played an enormous role in the wedding negotiations, the same one who had negotiated, advised by Alexander von Humboldt , the coming to Brazil of

28574-529: Was appointed as his official representative, that is, as Regent in his absence. Her status was confirmed with a document of investiture dated 13 August 1822 in which Dom Pedro appointing her head of the Council of State and Acting Princess-Regent of the Kingdom of Brazil, giving her complete authority to take any necessary political decisions during his absence. Great was her influence in the process of independence. The Brazilians were already aware that Portugal intended to call Dom Pedro back, relegating Brazil again to

28756-485: Was born during a turbulent period in European history. In 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte became First Consul of France, and later became Emperor. He then began a series of conflicts and established systems of alliances known as "Coalitions" over Europe that frequently redefined the continent's borders. Austria was an active participant in all of the Napoleonic Wars, against France, her historical enemy. Napoleon shook

28938-482: Was consultative (except on taxation), as only the King had the power to propose or sanction laws, and appoint or recall ministers. The franchise was limited to men with considerable property holdings, and just 1% of people could vote. Many of the legal, administrative, and economic reforms of the revolutionary period were left intact; the Napoleonic Code , which guaranteed legal equality and civil liberties,

29120-535: Was created in the new Royal Princess's honour. Some from Pomerania went to Espírito Santo , living until the 1880s in such complete isolation that they didn't even speak Portuguese. Brazil had the privilege of being portrayed and studied by European artists and scientists of the first order long before other American countries. Still in the 17th century, in the context of the Dutch occupation of northeastern Brazil , Prince John Maurice of Nassau-Siegen brought to Brazil

29302-497: Was defeated in the Battle of Waterloo and sent again into exile, Louis returned. During his absence a small revolt in the traditionally pro-royalist Vendée was put down but there were otherwise few subversive acts favouring the Restoration, even though Napoleon's popularity began to flag. Talleyrand was again influential in seeing that the Bourbons were restored to power, as was Joseph Fouché , Napoleon's minister of police during

29484-467: Was finally allowed to embark on her journey from Livorno , Italy, on the Portuguese fleet composed of the ships D. João VI and São Sebastião . With her luggage and a large entourage, she faced 86 days of crossing the waters of the Atlantic . Forty boxes the height of a man contained her trousseau, books, collections and gifts for the future family. She brought also an impressive household: court ladies,

29666-542: Was formally and informally styled "Don" as a more important title. Prior to the American ownership of the Southwest, a number of Americans immigrated to California , where they often became Mexican citizens and changed their given names to Spanish equivalents, for example " Juan Temple " for Jonathan Temple. It was common for them to assume the honorific "don" once they had attained a significant degree of distinction in

29848-569: Was his basic policy. He did not try to recover land and property taken from the royalist exiles. He continued in peaceful fashion the main objectives of Napoleon's foreign policy, such as the limitation of Austrian influence. He reversed Napoleon regarding Spain and the Ottoman Empire , restoring the friendships that had prevailed until 1792. Politically, the period was characterized by a sharp conservative reaction, and consequent minor but persistent civil unrest and disturbances. Otherwise,

30030-471: Was how the style was used in the Almanach de Gotha for extant families in its third section focused on the 200 non sovereign princely and ducal families of Europe. The last official Italian nobility law (abrogated 1948) stated that the style belonged to members of the following groups: Genealogical databases and dynastic works still reserve the title for this class of noble by tradition, although it

30212-465: Was impracticable because of these payments. The legacy of this, and the White Terror, left Louis with a formidable opposition. Louis's chief ministers were at first moderate, including Talleyrand, the Duc de Richelieu , and Élie, duc Decazes ; Louis himself followed a cautious policy. The chambre introuvable , elected in 1815 , given the nickname "unobtainable" by Louis, was dominated by an overwhelming ultra-royalist majority which quickly acquired

30394-449: Was largely thanks to her that Brazil became a nation. According to him, the wife of Dom Pedro "embraced Brazil as her country, Brazilians as her people and Independence as her cause". She was also adviser to Dom Pedro on important political decisions that reflected the future of the nation, such as the Dia do Fico and the subsequent opposition and disobedience to the Portuguese courts regarding

30576-421: Was not attributed to members of Portugal's untitled nobility: Since hereditary titles in Portugal descended according to primogeniture , the right to the style of Dom was the only apparent distinction between cadets of titled families and members of untitled noble families. In the Portuguese language, the feminine form, Dona (or, more politely, Senhora Dona ), has become common when referring to

30758-479: Was now based in certain elements of the middle class and even the peasantry. The great masses of French people were peasants in the countryside or impoverished workers in the cities. They gained new rights and a new sense of possibilities. Although relieved of many of the old burdens, controls, and taxes, the peasantry was still highly traditional in its social and economic behaviour. Many eagerly took on mortgages to buy as much land as possible for their children, so debt

30940-496: Was ordered to pay 700 million francs in indemnities, and the country's borders were reduced to their 1790 status, rather than 1792 as in the previous treaty. Until 1818, France was occupied by 1.2 million foreign soldiers, including around 200,000 under the command of the Duke of Wellington , and France was made to pay the costs of their accommodation and rations, on top of the reparations. The promise of tax cuts, prominent in 1814,

31122-504: Was politically impossible to restore them. The bishop still ruled his diocese (which was aligned with the new department boundaries) and communicated with the pope through the government in Paris. Bishops, priests, nuns and other religious were paid state salaries. All the old religious rites and ceremonies were retained, and the government maintained the religious buildings. The Church was allowed to operate its own seminaries and to some extent local schools as well, although this became

31304-439: Was precisely what I lacked, to now become the devil's grandmother". On 13 April 1807, the 10-year-old Archduchess lost her mother after she suffered complications due to childbirth. A year later (6 January 1808), her father remarried to the woman Maria Leopoldina would later describe as the most important person in her life, Maria Ludovika of Austria-Este . First-cousin of her husband and granddaughter of Empress Maria Theresa ,

31486-413: Was reached in Vienna's Augarten where, on 1 June, Marialva, who had had few opportunities to reveal his nation's splendor, wealth and hospitality, gave a sumptuous reception for which she had made preparations during all winter. Shortly before the wedding, two Austrian frigates, Austria and Augusta , left for Rio de Janeiro , with furniture and decorations for the newly installed Austrian embassy there,

31668-475: Was retained during the American period , although traditional official positions of the principalía (e.g., gobernadorcillo and cabeza de barangay ) were replaced by American political positions such as the municipal president. The practise slowly faded after World War II , as heirs of the principalía often did not inherit the title, and as civic leaders were chosen by popular election. Prior to 1954,

31850-399: Was set to replace the Concordat of 1801 , but, despite being signed, it was never validated. The Villèle government, under pressure from the Chevaliers de la Foi including many deputies, voted in the Anti-Sacrilege Act in January 1825, which punished by death the theft of consecrated hosts . The law was unenforceable and only enacted for symbolic purposes, though the act's passing caused

32032-505: Was shaped by a complex web of shared interests and solidarity between royal houses. The marriage between Maria Leopoldina and Dom Pedro de Alcântara , Prince Royal of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves, was a strategic alliance between the monarchies of Portugal and Austria . With this union, the House of Habsburg-Lorraine fulfilled the famous motto: Bella gerant alii, tu, felix Austria, nube ("Let others wage war, thou, happy Austria, marry"). On 24 September 1816, it

32214-455: Was succeeded by his brother, who reigned as Charles X . The new king pursued a more conservative form of governance than Louis. His more reactionary laws included the Anti-Sacrilege Act (1825–1830). Exasperated by public resistance and disrespect, the king and his ministers attempted to manipulate the general election of 1830 through their July Ordinances . This sparked a revolution in the streets of Paris, Charles abdicated, and on 9 August 1830

32396-400: Was the honorific title exclusively reserved for a member of a high noble family such a principe or a duca , excluding a marchese or a conte (and any legitimate, male-line descendant thereof). A reigning prince or duke would also be entitled to some form of the higher style of Altezza (eg Sua Altezza Serenissima , Sua Altezza Reale ) in addition to the Don. This

32578-432: Was the business community, in part due to a financial crisis in 1825, which they blamed on the government's law of indemnification. Hugo and a number of other writers, dissatisfied with the reality of life under Charles X, also began to criticize the regime. In preparation for the 30 September registration cut-off for the election, opposition committees worked furiously to get as many voters as possible signed up, countering

32760-416: Was the colour of the comte d'Artois – this being the title of Charles X at the time, who was associated with the hardline ultra-royalists , or Ultras. After a period in which local authorities looked on helplessly at the violence, the King and his ministers sent out officials to restore order. A new Treaty of Paris was signed on 20 November 1815, which had more punitive terms than the 1814 treaty . France

32942-404: Was the period of French history during which the House of Bourbon returned to power after the fall of Napoleon in 1815. The Second Bourbon Restoration lasted until the July Revolution of 26 July 1830. Louis XVIII and Charles X , brothers of the executed King Louis XVI , successively mounted the throne and instituted a conservative government intended to restore the proprieties, if not all

33124-612: Was the solution for the defense of dynastic legitimacy against the liberal excesses that threatened the power of the Houses of Habsburg and Bragança in Brazil. Dom Pedro, by the other hand, without any political experience and overwhelmed by the current unstable situation, constantly asked his father to release him from the regency and allow him and his family to return to Portugal—in September 1821, six months after King John VI's departure, he wrote: "I beg Your Majesty most urgently to release me from this onerous task". Maria Leopoldina's determination to stay became even more staunch thanks to

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