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123-569: Carlos Marighella ( Brazilian  Portuguese:  [ ˈ k a ʁ l u z   ˌ m a ɾ i ˈ ɡ ɛ l ɐ ] ; 5 December 1911 – 4 November 1969) was a Brazilian politician, writer, and militant of Marxist–Leninist orientation. Critical of nonviolent resistance to the Brazilian military dictatorship , he founded the Ação Libertadora Nacional , a Marxist–Leninist urban guerrilla group , which

246-716: A Marxist revolution . Written shortly before his death in late 1969 in São Paulo, Minimanual was first published in North America by the Berkeley Tribe in Berkeley, California in July 1970 in an English edition. In the 2006 biographical drama film Baptism of Blood , Marighella was portrayed by Brazilian actor and musician Marku Ribas. In the 2019 drama Marighella , Marighella was portrayed by Seu Jorge ;

369-477: A koiné formed by several regional European Portuguese varieties brought to Brazil, modified by natural drift. The written language taught in Brazilian schools has historically been based by law on the standard of Portugal and until the 19th century, Portuguese writers often were regarded as models by some Brazilian authors and university professors. However, this aspiration to unity was severely weakened in

492-415: A Portuguese presence lasting into the second half of the 20th century). On the other hand, the spoken language was not subject to any of the constraints that applied to the written language, and consequently Brazilian Portuguese sounds different from any of the other varieties of the language. Brazilians, when concerned with pronunciation, look to what is considered the national standard variety, and never to

615-433: A case of diglossia , considering that informal BP has developed, both in phonetics and grammar , in its own particular way. Accordingly, the formal register of Brazilian Portuguese has a written and spoken form. The written formal register (FW) is used in almost all printed media and written communication, is uniform throughout the country and is the "Portuguese" officially taught at school. The spoken formal register (FS)

738-880: A comment (topicalization), thus emphasizing it, as in Esses assuntos eu não conheço bem, literally, "These subjects I don't know [them] well" (although this sentence would be perfectly acceptable in Portugal as well). In fact, in the Portuguese language, the anticipation of the verb or object at the beginning of the sentence, repeating it or using the respective pronoun referring to it, is also quite common, e.g. in Essa menina, eu não sei o que fazer com ela ("This girl, I don't know what to do with her") or Com essa menina eu não sei o que fazer ("With this girl I don't know what to do"). The use of redundant pronouns for means of topicalization

861-457: A dictatorship and ending up in power for two decades? Why did they not hand over power to civilians after the "threat" had been defeated? Instead, Motta argued that the assertion of a "Communist threat" was fabricated to unify the Brazilian armed forces and increase their support among the general population. ...the big press and other institutions made a strong discursive dam in favor of the fall of Goulart, in which they mobilized to exhaustion

984-490: A few generations, except for some areas of the three southernmost states ( Paraná , Santa Catarina , and Rio Grande do Sul ), in the case of Germans, Italians and Slavics, and in rural areas of the state of São Paulo (Italians and Japanese). Nowadays the overwhelming majority of Brazilians speak Portuguese as their mother tongue, with the exception of small, insular communities of descendants of European (German, Polish, Ukrainian, and Italian) and Japanese immigrants, mostly in

1107-637: A few terms such as tai chi chuan and chá ("tea"), also in European Portuguese. The loan vocabulary includes several calques , such as arranha-céu ("skyscraper," from French gratte-ciel ) and cachorro-quente (from English hot dog ) in Portuguese worldwide. Use of the reflexive me , especially in São Paulo and the South , is thought to be an Italianism, attributed to the large Italian immigrant population, as are certain prosodic features, including patterns of intonation and stress, also in

1230-490: A formula based on a strategy of reconciling the conflicting interests of the middle class, foreign capital, the working class, and the landed oligarchy. Essentially, this was the epic of the rise and fall of Brazilian populism from 1930 to 1964: Brazil witnessed over the course of this time period the change from export-orientation of the First Brazilian Republic (1889–1930) to the import substitution of

1353-493: A fraction of the atrocities committed by the government. The military government murdered hundreds of others, although this was done mostly in secret and the cause of death often falsely reported as accidental. The government occasionally dismembered and hid the bodies. French general Paul Aussaresses , a veteran of the Algerian War , came to Brazil in 1973. Aussaresses used " counter-revolutionary warfare " methods during

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1476-719: A guerrilla leader, two months after Elbrick's kidnapping. This marked the beginning of the decline of armed opposition. In 1970, Nobuo Okuchi, the Japanese consul general in Sāo Paulo , was kidnapped, while Curtis C. Cutter, the U.S. consul in Porto Alegre , was wounded in the shoulder but escaped being kidnapped. Also in 1970, Ehrenfried von Holleben, the West German ambassador, was kidnapped in Rio de Janeiro and one of his bodyguards

1599-540: A legalist bastion. São Paulo's and Rio de Janeiro's generals were convinced to join the coup. In order to prevent a civil war and knowing that the United States would openly support the rebels, Goulart fled to Rio Grande do Sul , and then went to exile in Uruguay , where his family owned large estates. The U.S. ambassador Lincoln Gordon later admitted that the embassy had given money to anti-Goulart candidates in

1722-475: A series of successful robberies and kidnappings, the police force was determined to eliminate him. He was shot by police at an ambush at 8:00 pm on 4 November 1969 at 800 Alameda Casa Branca, São Paulo . This ambush was organized by police deputy Sérgio Paranhos Fleury , known for his work inside DOPS. Marighella was buried at Cemitério Público da Quinta dos Lázaros, a cemetery in Salvador, Bahia. His tombstone

1845-415: A short metapoema (a metapoem , i. e., a poem about poetry, a specialty for which he was renowned) treating the concept of anacoluto : [...] O homem, chamar-lhe mito não passa de anacoluto (The man, calling him myth is nothing more than an anacoluthon). In colloquial language, this kind of anacoluto may even be used when the subject itself is the topic, only to add more emphasis to this fact, e.g.

1968-483: A successor. The Brazilian Army could not find an acceptable civilian politician to all of the factions that supported the ouster of João Goulart. On 9 April 1964, coup leaders published the First Institutional Act, which greatly limited the civil liberties of the 1946 constitution. The act granted the president the authority to remove elected officials, dismiss civil servants, and revoke for 10 years

2091-448: A time of crisis, creating an intellectual basis upon which other military regimes relied. In 2014, nearly 30 years after the regime collapsed, the Brazilian military recognized for the first time the excesses committed by its agents during the dictatorship, including the torture and murder of political dissidents. In May 2018, the United States government released a memorandum, written by Henry Kissinger , dating back to April 1974 (when he

2214-462: A walk"). This happens because the traditional syntax ( Eu e ela fomos passear ) places a plural-conjugated verb immediately following an argument in the singular, which may sound unnatural to Brazilian ears. The redundant pronoun thus clarifies the verbal inflection in such cases. Portuguese makes extensive use of verbs in the progressive aspect, almost as in English. Brazilian Portuguese seldom has

2337-3399: Is a limited set of vocabulary from Japanese . Portuguese has borrowed a large number of words from English. In Brazil, these are especially related to the following fields (note that some of these words are used in other Portuguese-speaking countries): Many of these words are used throughout the Lusosphere . French has contributed to Portuguese words for foods, furniture, and luxurious fabrics, as well as for various abstract concepts. Examples include hors-concours , chic , metrô , batom , soutien , buquê , abajur , guichê , içar , chalé , cavanhaque (from Louis-Eugène Cavaignac ), calibre , habitué , clichê , jargão , manchete , jaqueta , boîte de nuit or boate , cofre , rouge , frufru , chuchu , purê , petit gâteau , pot-pourri , ménage , enfant gâté , enfant terrible , garçonnière , patati-patata , parvenu , détraqué , enquête , equipe , malha , fila , burocracia , birô , affair , grife , gafe , croquette , crocante , croquis , femme fatale , noir , marchand , paletó , gabinete , grã-fino , blasé , de bom tom , bon-vivant , guindaste , guiar , flanar , bonbonnière , calembour , jeu de mots , vis-à-vis , tête-à-tête , mecha , blusa , conhaque , mélange , bric-brac , broche , pâtisserie , peignoir , négliglé , robe de chambre , déshabillé , lingerie , corset , corselet , corpete , pantufas , salopette , cachecol , cachenez , cachepot , colete , colher , prato , costume , serviette , garde-nappe , avant-première , avant-garde , debut , crepe , frappé (including slang), canapé , paetê , tutu , mignon , pince-nez , grand prix , parlamento , patim , camuflagem , blindar (from German), guilhotina , à gogo , pastel , filé , silhueta , menu , maître d'hôtel , bistrô , chef , coq au vin , rôtisserie , maiô , bustiê , collant , fuseau , cigarette , crochê , tricô , tricot ("pullover, sweater"), calção , culotte , botina , bota , galocha , scarpin (ultimately Italian), sorvete , glacê , boutique , vitrine , manequim (ultimately Dutch), machê , tailleur , echarpe , fraque , laquê , gravata , chapéu , boné , edredom , gabardine , fondue , buffet , toalete , pantalon , calça Saint-Tropez , manicure , pedicure , balayage , limusine , caminhão , guidão , cabriolê , capilé , garfo , nicho , garçonete , chenille , chiffon , chemise , chamois , plissê , balonê , frisê , chaminé , guilhochê , château , bidê , redingote , chéri(e) , flambado , bufante , pierrot , torniquete , molinete , canivete , guerra (Occitan), escamotear , escroque , flamboyant , maquilagem , visagismo , topete , coiffeur , tênis , cabine , concièrge , chauffeur , hangar , garagem , haras , calandragem , cabaré , coqueluche , coquine , coquette ( cocotinha ), galã , bas-fond (used as slang), mascote , estampa , sabotagem , RSVP , rendez-vous , chez... , à la carte , à la ... , forró, forrobodó (from 19th-century faux-bourdon ). Brazilian Portuguese tends to adopt French suffixes as in aterrissagem (Fr. atterrissage "landing [aviation]"), differently from European Portuguese (cf. Eur.Port. aterragem ). Brazilian Portuguese (BP) also tends to adopt culture-bound concepts from French. That

2460-546: Is considered grammatically incorrect, because the topicalized noun phrase, according to traditional European analysis, has no syntactic function. This kind of construction, however, is often used in European Portuguese. Brazilian grammars traditionally treat this structure similarly, rarely mentioning such a thing as topic . Nevertheless, the so-called anacoluthon has taken on a new dimension in Brazilian Portuguese. The poet Carlos Drummond de Andrade once wrote

2583-412: Is essentially a phonetic rendering of the written form. (FS) is used in very formal situations, such as speeches or ceremonies or when reading directly out of a text. While (FS) is necessarily uniform in lexicon and grammar, it shows noticeable regional variations in pronunciation. The main and most general (i.e. not considering various regional variations) characteristics of the informal variant of BP are

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2706-503: Is evident in the Brazilian lexicon, which today includes, for example, hundreds of words of Tupi–Guarani origin referring to local flora and fauna; numerous West African Yoruba words related to foods, religious concepts, and musical expressions; and English terms from the fields of modern technology and commerce. Although some of these words are more predominant in Brazil, they are also used in Portugal and other countries where Portuguese

2829-523: Is no military dictatorship. If it were, Carlos Lacerda would never be allowed to say the things he says. Everything in Brazil is free — but controlled. Through the Institutional Acts, Castelo Branco gave the executive the unchecked ability to change the constitution and remove anyone from office as well as to have the president elected by Congress. A two-party system was created: the ruling government-backed National Renewal Alliance (ARENA) and

2952-409: Is not a "decreolized" form, but rather the " nativization " of a "radical Romanic" form. They assert that the phenomena found in Brazilian Portuguese are inherited from Classical Latin and Old Portuguese. According to another linguist, vernacular Brazilian Portuguese is continuous with European Portuguese, while its phonetics are more conservative in several aspects, characterizing the nativization of

3075-608: Is often regarded as the equivalent of the Nobel Prize in Literature for works in Portuguese. Joaquim Maria Machado de Assis , João Guimarães Rosa , Carlos Drummond de Andrade , Graciliano Ramos , João Cabral de Melo Neto , Cecília Meireles , Clarice Lispector , José de Alencar , Rachel de Queiroz , Jorge Amado , Castro Alves , Antonio Candido , Autran Dourado , Rubem Fonseca , Lygia Fagundes Telles and Euclides da Cunha are Brazilian writers recognized for writing

3198-762: Is spoken. Words derived from the Tupi language are particularly prevalent in place names ( Itaquaquecetuba , Pindamonhangaba , Caruaru , Ipanema , Paraíba ). The native languages also contributed the names of most of the plants and animals found in Brazil (and most of these are the official names of the animals in other Portuguese-speaking countries as well), including arara (" macaw "), jacaré ("South American caiman "), tucano (" toucan "), mandioca (" cassava "), abacaxi (" pineapple "), and many more. However, many Tupi–Guarani toponyms did not derive directly from Amerindian expressions, but were in fact coined by European settlers and Jesuit missionaries , who used

3321-426: Is the difference between BP estação ("station") and EP gare ("train station," Portugal also uses estação ). BP trem is from English train (ultimately from French), while EP comboio is from Fr. convoi . An evident example of the dichotomy between English and French influences can be noted in the use of the expressions know-how , used in a technical context, and savoir-faire in a social context. Portugal uses

3444-543: Is the spelling of the [ʒ] sound before e and i . By Portuguese spelling rules, that sound can be written either as j (favored in BP for certain words) or g (favored in EP). Thus, for example, we have BP berinjela / EP beringela ("eggplant"). The linguistic situation of the BP informal speech in relation to the standard language is controversial. There are authors (Bortoni, Kato, Mattos e Silva, Bagno, Perini) who describe it as

3567-606: The Língua Geral extensively in the first centuries of colonization. Many of the Amerindian words entered the Portuguese lexicon as early as in the 16th century, and some of them were eventually borrowed into other European languages. African languages provided hundreds of words as well, especially in certain semantic domains, as in the following examples, which are also present in Portuguese: Although

3690-464: The Battle of Algiers , including the systemic use of torture, executions and death flights . He later trained U.S. officers and taught military courses for Brazil's military intelligence. He later acknowledged maintaining close links with the military. Despite the dictatorship's fall, no individual has been punished for the human rights violations, due to the 1979 Amnesty Law written by the members of

3813-610: The Chinese Communist Revolution . In May 1964, after the military coup , he was shot and arrested by agents of the Department of Political and Social Order (Departamento de Ordem Política e Social - DOPS), the political police, at a movie theater in Rio. He was released in the following year by a court order. In 1966, he wrote The Brazilian Crisis , opting for the armed struggle against the military dictatorship . Later that year, he renounced his office in

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3936-479: The Fifth Institutional Act that gave the president dictatorial powers, dissolved Congress and state legislatures, suspended the constitution, and imposed censorship. On 31 August 1969 Costa e Silva suffered a stroke. Instead of his vice president, all state power was assumed by military junta , which then chose general Emílio Garrastazu Médici as the new president. A hardliner, Médici sponsored

4059-674: The French in Rio de Janeiro during the 16th century and the Dutch in Recife during the 17th century, had negligible effects on Portuguese. The substantial waves of non-Portuguese-speaking immigrants in the late 19th and early 20th centuries (mostly from Italy , Spain , Germany , Poland , Japan and Lebanon ) were linguistically integrated into the Portuguese-speaking majority within

4182-822: The Legality Campaign in support of Goulart. The crisis was solved by the " parliamentary solution ", a political compromise in which Goulart would take office, but with reduced powers by turning Brazil into a parliamentary republic with a prime minister , which was filled by Tancredo Neves . Brazil returned to presidential government in 1963 after a referendum , and, as Goulart's powers grew, it became evident that he would seek to implement his "base reforms" such as land reform and nationalization of enterprises in various economic sectors. The reforms were considered Communist and Goulart sought to implement them regardless of assent from established institutions such as Congress. Goulart had low parliamentarian support, due to

4305-611: The National Liberation Action and the 8th October Revolutionary Movement were suppressed, and military operations undertaken to finish the Araguaia Guerrilla War . The "ideological frontiers" of Brazilian foreign policy were reinforced. By the end of 1970, the official minimum wage went down to US$ 40 a month, and the more than one-third of Brazilian workforce which had their wages tied to it lost about 50% of its purchasing power in relation to

4428-611: The United States government, against president João Goulart . The Brazilian dictatorship lasted for 21 years, until 15 March 1985. The coup was planned and executed by the most senior commanders of the Brazilian Army and received the support of almost all high-ranking members of the military, along with conservative sectors in society, like the Catholic Church and anti-communist civilian movements among

4551-485: The crumbling economy , chronic inflation and concurrent fall of other military dictatorships in South America. Amid massive popular demonstrations on the streets of the main cities of the country, the first free elections in 20 years were held for the national legislature in 1982. In 1985, another election was held, this time to indirectly elect a new president, being contested between civilian candidates for

4674-627: The 1960 levels of the Juscelino Kubitschek administration. Nevertheless, Médici was popular, as his term was met with the largest economic growth of any Brazilian president as the Brazilian Miracle unfolded and the country won the 1970 World Cup . In 1971 Médici presented the First National Development Plan aimed at increasing the rate of economic growth, especially in remote Northeast and

4797-470: The 1962 municipal elections, and had encouraged the plotters; many extra U.S. military and intelligence personnel were operating in four U.S. Navy oil tankers and the aircraft carrier USS Forrestal , in an operation code-named Brother Sam . These ships had positioned off the coast of Rio de Janeiro in case rebel Brazilian troops required military assistance during the 1964 coup. A document from Gordon in 1963 to U.S. president John F. Kennedy also describes

4920-454: The 20th century by nationalist movements in literature and the arts , which awakened in many Brazilians a desire for a national style uninfluenced by the standards of Portugal. Later, agreements were reached to preserve at least an orthographic unity throughout the Portuguese-speaking world, including the African and Asian variants of the language (which are typically more similar to EP, due to

5043-726: The African slaves had various ethnic origins, by far most of the borrowings were contributed (1) by Bantu languages (above all, Kimbundu , from Angola , and Kikongo from Angola and the area that is now the Republic of the Congo and the Democratic Republic of the Congo ), and (2) by Niger-Congo languages , notably Yoruba /Nagô, from what is now Nigeria , and Jeje/ Ewe , from what is now Benin . There are also many loanwords from other European languages, including English , French , German , and Italian . In addition, there

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5166-460: The Amazon. The results of his economic policy consolidated the option for the national-development model. Because of these results, the country's foreign economic connections were transformed, allowing its international presence to be broadened. In November 1970 federal, state, and municipal elections were held. Most of the seats were won by ARENA candidates. In 1973, an electoral college system

5289-1219: The Armed Forces was evidenced by the Proclamation of the Republic , which overthrew the Brazilian Empire , or within tenentism (lieutenants' movement) and the Revolution of 1930 . Tensions escalated again in the 1950s, as important military circles (the "hard-liners", old positivists whose origins could be traced back to the Brazilian Integralist Action and the Estado Novo ) joined the elite and middle classes, and right-wing activists in attempts to prevent presidents Juscelino Kubitschek and João Goulart from taking office due to their supposed support for Communism. While Kubitschek proved to be friendly to capitalist institutions, Goulart promised far-reaching reforms, expropriated business interests, and promoted economical-political neutrality with

5412-505: The Brazilian Army, 97 military and civilians were killed by terrorist and guerrilla actions made by leftist groups during the same period. In a 2014 report by Brazil's National Truth Commission, which documented the human rights abuses of the military government, it was noted that the United States "had spent years teaching the torture techniques to the Brazilian military during that period". Retired general Ernesto Geisel (1974–79)

5535-654: The Brazilian middle and upper classes. The military regime, particularly after the Institutional Act No. 5 in 1968, practiced extensive censorship and committed human rights abuses . Those abuses included institutionalized torture , extrajudicial killings and forced disappearances . Despite initial pledges to the contrary, the military regime enacted a new, restrictive Constitution in 1967, and stifled freedom of speech and political opposition . The regime adopted nationalism , economic development , and anti-communism as its guidelines. The military coup

5658-537: The Church, landowners, businessmen, and the middle class called for a coup d'état by the Armed Forces to remove the government. The old "hard-line" army officers, seeing a chance to impose their economic program, convinced the loyalists that Goulart was a Communist menace. After the presidency of Juscelino Kubitschek, the right wing opposition elected Jânio Quadros , who based his electoral campaign on criticizing Kubitschek and government corruption. Quadros' campaign symbol

5781-682: The European one. This linguistic independence was fostered by the tension between Portugal and the settlers (immigrants) in Brazil from the time of the country's de facto settlement, as immigrants were forbidden to speak freely in their native languages in Brazil for fear of severe punishment by the Portuguese authorities. Lately, Brazilians in general have had some exposure to European speech, through TV and music. Often one will see Brazilian actors working in Portugal and Portuguese actors working in Brazil. Modern Brazilian Portuguese has been highly influenced by other languages introduced by immigrants through

5904-495: The Inter-American Court of Human Rights. The National Truth Commission was created in 2011 attempting to help the nation face its past and honor those who fought for democracy, and to compensate the family members of those killed or disappeared. Its work was concluded in 2014. It reported that under military regime at least 191 people were killed and 243 "disappeared". The total number of deaths probably measures in

6027-1386: The Japanese words being said before the start), saquê , sashimi , tempurá (a lexical "loan repayment" from a Portuguese loanword in Japanese), hashi , wasabi , johrei (religious philosophy), nikkei , gaijin ("non-Japanese"), issei ("Japanese immigrant"), as well as the different descending generations nisei , sansei , yonsei , gossei , rokussei and shichissei . Other Japanese loanwords include racial terms, such as ainoko ("Eurasian") and hafu (from English half ); work-related, socioeconomic, historical, and ethnic terms limited to some spheres of society, including koseki ("genealogical research"), dekassegui (" dekasegi "), arubaito , kaizen , seiketsu , karoshi ("death by work excess"), burakumin , kamikaze , seppuku , harakiri , jisatsu , jigai , and ainu ; martial arts terms such as karatê , aikidô , bushidô , katana , judô , jiu-jítsu , kyudô , nunchaku , and sumô ; terms related to writing, such as kanji , kana , katakana , hiragana , and romaji ; and terms for art concepts such as kabuki and ikebana . Other culture-bound terms from Japanese include ofurô ("Japanese bathtub"), Nihong ("target news niche and websites"), kabocha (type of pumpkin introduced in Japan by

6150-495: The Portuguese), reiki , and shiatsu . Some words have popular usage while others are known for a specific context in specific circles. Terms used among Nikkei descendants include oba-chan ("grandma"); onee-san , onee-chan , onii-san , and onii-chan ; toasts and salutations such as kampai and banzai ; and some honorific suffixes of address such as chan , kun , sama , san , and senpai . Chinese contributed

6273-626: The Portuguese-speaking countries. However, BP has retained those silent consonants in a few cases, such as detectar ("to detect"). In particular, BP generally distinguishes in sound and writing between secção ("section" as in anatomy or drafting ) and seção ("section" of an organization); whereas EP uses secção for both senses. Another major set of differences is the BP usage of ô or ê in many words where EP has ó or é , such as BP neurônio / EP neurónio ("neuron") and BP arsênico / EP arsénico ("arsenic"). These spelling differences are due to genuinely different pronunciations. In EP,

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6396-517: The Second Institutional act which purged Congress, removed objectionable state governors and expanded president's arbitrary powers at the expense of the legislative and judiciary branches. This gave him the latitude to repress the populist left but also provided the subsequent governments of Artur da Costa e Silva (1967–69) and Emílio Garrastazu Médici (1969–74) with a "legal" basis for their hard-line authoritarian rule. But this

6519-581: The South and Southeast . Other scholars, however, notably Naro & Scherre, have noted that the same or similar processes can be observed in the European variant, as well as in many varieties of Spanish, and that the main features of Brazilian Portuguese can be traced directly from 16th-century European Portuguese. In fact, they find many of the same phenomena in other Romance languages, including Aranese Occitan , French , Italian and Romanian ; they explain these phenomena as due to natural Romance drift . Naro and Scherre affirm that Brazilian Portuguese

6642-434: The South and Southeast as well as villages and reservations inhabited by Amerindians . And even these populations make use of Portuguese to communicate with outsiders and to understand television and radio broadcasts, for example. Moreover, there is a community of Brazilian Sign Language users whose number is estimated by Ethnologue to be as high as 3 million. The development of Portuguese in Brazil (and consequently in

6765-657: The United States. After Goulart suddenly assumed power in 1961, society became deeply polarized, with the elites fearing that Brazil would, like Cuba , join the Communist Bloc , while many thought that the reforms would greatly boost Brazil's growth and end its economical subservience with the U.S., or even that Goulart could be used to increase the popularity of the Communist agenda. Influential politicians, such as Carlos Lacerda and even Kubitschek, media moguls ( Roberto Marinho , Octávio Frias , Júlio de Mesquita Filho),

6888-531: The United States. The United States as bastion of anticommunism during the Cold War provided the ideology that the authoritarians used to justify their hold on power. Washington also preached liberal democracy, which forced the authoritarians to assume the contradictory position of defending democracy, while destroying it. Their concern for appearances caused them to abstain from personal dictatorship by requiring each successive general-president to hand over power to

7011-436: The armed forces were nothing more than fantasy, and that the 1964 coup occurred without resistance, since "there was no resistance." Moreover, the Communist armed struggles only appeared after the implementation of the dictatorship, and not before it, and in fact never put Brazilian democracy at risk. The armed forces' officer corps was divided between those who believed that they should confine themselves to their barracks, and

7134-547: The assassination of Charles Rodney Chandler to Marighella and nine others according to the Folha da Tarde    [ pt ] at the time. In September 1969, ALN members kidnapped the U.S. ambassador Charles Burke Elbrick in a coordinated move with the Revolutionary Movement 8th October (Movimento Revolucionário 8 de Outubro – MR-8). The group was responsible for several executions as well. After

7257-500: The beginning of a phrase in informal BP when it precedes an imperative, for example, Me olha ("Look at me"), Me avisa quando vocês chegarem em casa ("Let me know when you (pl.) get home"). History of Brazil (1964%E2%80%931985) The military dictatorship in Brazil ( Portuguese : ditadura militar ) was established on 1 April 1964, after a coup d'état by the Brazilian Armed Forces , with support from

7380-1208: The brewing process was brought by German immigrants. Italian loan words and expressions, in addition to those that are related to food or music, include tchau ( " ciao " ), nonna , nonnino , imbróglio , bisonho , entrevero , panetone , colomba , è vero , cicerone , male male , capisce , mezzo , va bene , ecco , ecco fatto , ecco qui , caspita , schifoso , gelateria , cavolo , incavolarsi , pivete , engambelar , andiamo via , tiramisu , tarantella , grappa , stratoria . Terms of endearment of Italian origin include amore , bambino/a , ragazzo/a , caro/a mio/a , tesoro , and bello/a ; also babo , mamma , baderna (from Marietta Baderna ), carcamano , torcicolo , casanova , noccia , noja , che me ne frega , io ti voglio tanto bene , and ti voglio bene assai . Fewer words have been borrowed from Japanese . The latter borrowings are also mostly related to food and drink or culture-bound concepts, such as quimono , from Japanese kimono , karaokê , yakisoba , temakeria , sushi bar , mangá , biombo (from Portugal) (from byó bu sukurín , "folding screen"), jó ken pô or jankenpon (" rock-paper-scissors ," played with

7503-478: The consonant was silent both in BP and EP, but the words were spelled differently. Only in a small number of words is the consonant silent in Brazil and pronounced elsewhere or vice versa, as in the case of BP fato , but EP facto . However, the new Portuguese language orthographic reform led to the elimination of the writing of the silent consonants also in the EP, making now the writing system virtually identical in all of

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7626-409: The country, in self-proclaimed exile. In 1969 the 8th October Revolutionary Movement kidnapped Charles Burke Elbrick , the U.S. ambassador to Brazil. The resistance fighters demanded the release of imprisoned dissidents who were being tortured in exchange for Elbrick. The government responded by adopting more brutal measures of counter-insurgency , leading to the assassination of Carlos Marighella ,

7749-518: The coup, thousands of people were detained, while thousands of others were removed from their civil service or university positions. In 1968 there was a brief relaxation of the nation's repressive policies. Experimental artists and musicians formed the Tropicália movement during this time. However, some of the major popular musicians such as Gilberto Gil and Caetano Veloso , for instance, were arrested, imprisoned, and exiled. Chico Buarque left

7872-672: The democratization process of the country benefited all political prisoners. The following year, Marighella was elected constituent federal deputy by the Bahian branch of PCB, but he lost his office in 1948 under the new proscription of the party. Back in clandestinity, he occupied several offices in the leadership of the party. Invited by the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party , Marighella visited China between 1953 and 1954 in order to learn more about

7995-442: The dialects that gave rise to Portuguese had quite a flexible use of the object pronouns in the proclitic or enclitic positions. In Classical Portuguese, the use of proclisis was very extensive, while, on the contrary, in modern European Portuguese the use of enclisis has become indisputably predominant. BP normally places the object pronoun before the verb ( proclitic position), as in ele me viu ("he saw me"). In many such cases,

8118-557: The dissolution of political parties and salary controls at the beginning of Castelo Branco's term. According to Vincent Bevins , the military dictatorship established in Brazil, the fifth most populous nation in the world, "played a crucial role in pushing the rest of South America into the pro-Washington, anticommunist group of nations." Brazil actively participated in the CIA -backed state terror campaign against left-wing dissidents known as Operation Condor . The argument used to justify

8241-412: The establishment of a military dictatorship in Brazil was the imminence of a "Communist threat" in 1964. The historian Rodrigo Patto Sá Motta  [ pt ] disputes the assertion that communism was of sufficient strength in Brazil to threaten the democratic system in 1964. In an interview, Motta stated that: If the political regime established in 1964 was popular and had the majority support of

8364-1318: The expression hora de ponta , from French l'heure de pointe , to refer to the "rush hour," while Brazil has horário de pico, horário de pique and hora do rush . Both bilhar , from French billiard , and the phonetic adaptation sinuca are used interchangeably for "snooker." Contributions from German and Italian include terms for foods, music, the arts, and architecture. From German, besides strudel , pretzel , bratwurst , kuchen (also bolo cuca ), sauerkraut (also spelled chucrute from French choucroute and pronounced [ʃuˈkɾutʃi] ), wurstsalat , sauerbraten , Oktoberfest , biergarten , zelt , Osterbaum, Bauernfest , Schützenfest , hinterland , Kindergarten , bock , fassbier and chope (from Schoppen ), there are also abstract terms from German such as Prost , zum wohl , doppelgänger (also sósia ), über , brinde , kitsch , ersatz , blitz ("police action"), and possibly encrenca ("difficult situation," perhaps from Ger. ein Kranker , "a sick person"). Xumbergar , brega (from marshal Friedrich Hermann Von Schönberg ), and xote (musical style and dance) from schottisch . A significant number of beer brands in Brazil are named after German culture-bound concepts and place names because

8487-457: The fact that his centrist attempts to win support from both sides of the spectrum gradually came to alienate both. Over time, the president was forced to shift to the left of his mentor Getúlio Vargas and was forced to mobilize the working class and even the peasantry amid falling urban bourgeois support. On 1 April 1964, after a night of conspiracy, rebel troops led by general Olímpio Mourão Filho made their way to Rio de Janeiro , considered

8610-676: The film was accomplished actor Wagner Moura 's directorial debut. The movie was exhibited at international film festivals, but Brazil's Agência Nacional do Cinema (National Agency of Cinema), during Bolsonaro's government, barred it from distribution in Brazil, citing "subversive elements"; it finally appeared on Brazilian screens in November, 2021. Brazilian Portuguese Brazilian Portuguese differs, particularly in phonology and prosody , from varieties spoken in Portugal and Portuguese-speaking African countries . In these latter countries,

8733-488: The first time since the 1960s and won by the opposition. In 1988, a new Constitution was passed and Brazil officially returned to democracy. Brazil's military government provided a model for other military regimes and dictatorships throughout Latin America , being systematized by the so-called "National Security Doctrine", which was used to justify the military's actions as operating in the interest of national security in

8856-631: The following. While these characteristics are typical of Brazilian speech, some may also be present to varying degrees in other Lusophone areas, particular in Angola, Mozambique and Cabo Verde, which frequently incorporate certain features common to both the South American and European varieties. Although these characteristics would be readily understood in Portugal due to exposure to Brazilian media (and because they are observable in Portugal to some extent as well), other forms are preferred there (except

8979-530: The gerund: BP uses ficamos conversando ("we kept on talking") and ele trabalha cantando ("he sings while he works"), but rarely ficamos a conversar and ele trabalha a cantar as is the case in most varieties of EP. BP retains the combination a + infinitive for uses that are not related to continued action, such as voltamos a correr ("we went back to running"). Some varieties of EP [namely from Alentejo , Algarve, Açores (Azores), and Madeira] also tend to feature estar + gerund , as in Brazil. In general,

9102-537: The government while famous newspapers would fill in empty spaces left blank due to censored articles with random cake recipes, a way to indicate to the population that the content had been censored by the government. As early as 1964, the military government was already using the various forms of torture it devised systematically not only to gain information it used to crush opposition groups, but also to intimidate and silence any further potential opponents. This radically increased after 1968. While other dictatorships in

9225-478: The government who stayed in place during the transition to democracy. The law granted amnesty and impunity to any government official or citizen accused of political crimes during the dictatorship. Because of a certain "cultural amnesia" in Brazil, the victims have never garnered much sympathy, respect, or acknowledgement of their suffering. Work is underway to alter the Amnesty Law, which has been condemned by

9348-421: The greatest human rights abuses of the regime. During his government, persecution and torture of dissidents, harassment against journalists and press censorship became ubiquitous. The succession of kidnappings of foreign ambassadors in Brazil embarrassed the military government. The anti-government demonstrations and the action of guerrilla movements generated an increase in repressive measures. Urban guerrillas from

9471-560: The hard-liners who regarded politicians as willing to turn Brazil to Communism. The victory of the hard-liners dragged Brazil into what political scientist Juan J. Linz called "an authoritarian situation". However, because the hard-liners could not ignore the counterweight opinions of their colleagues or resistance IN society, they were unable to institutionalize their agenda politically. In addition, they did not attempt to eliminate liberal constitutionalism because they feared disapproval of international opinion and damage to their alignment with

9594-566: The height of its popularity in the early 1970s with the so-called " Brazilian Miracle ", even as the regime censored all media, and tortured, killed and exiled dissidents. João Figueiredo became president in March 1979; in the same year he passed the Amnesty Law for political crimes committed for and against the regime. While combating the "hardliners" inside the government and supporting a redemocratization policy , Figueiredo could not control

9717-557: The hundreds, not reaching but could be nearing one thousand, while more than 50,000 people were detained and 10,000 forced to go into exile. According to the Comissão de Direitos Humanos e Assistência Jurídica da Ordem dos Advogados do Brasil , the "Brazilian death toll from government torture, assassination and 'disappearances' for 1964–81 was [...] 333, which included 67 killed in the Araguaia guerrilla front in 1972–74". According to

9840-622: The lands in dispute with Spain (according to various treaties signed in the 18th century, those lands would be ceded to the people who effectively occupied them). Under the administration of the Marquis of Pombal (1750–1777), Brazilians started to favour the use of Portuguese, as the Marquis expelled the Jesuit missionaries (who had taught Língua Geral ) and prohibited the use of Nhengatu , or Lingua Franca . The failed colonization attempts, by

9963-440: The language tends to have a closer connection to contemporary European Portuguese, partly because Portuguese colonial rule ended much more recently there than in Brazil, and partly due to the heavy indigenous and diasporic African influence on Brazilian Portuguese. Despite this difference between the spoken varieties, Brazilian and European Portuguese barely differ in formal writing and remain mutually intelligible . However, due to

10086-557: The letters c or p in syllable-final position have become silent in all varieties of Portuguese, a common phonetic change in Romance languages (cf. Spanish objeto , French objet ). Accordingly, they stopped being written in BP (compare Italian spelling standards), but continued to be written in other Portuguese-speaking countries. For example, the word acção ("action") in European Portuguese became ação in Brazil, European óptimo ("optimum") became ótimo in Brazil, and so on, where

10209-503: The main contributions to that swift change were the expansion of colonization to the Brazilian interior, and the growing numbers of Portuguese settlers, who brought their language and became the most important ethnic group in Brazil . Beginning in the early 18th century, Portugal 's government made efforts to expand the use of Portuguese throughout the colony, particularly because its consolidation in Brazil would help guarantee to Portugal

10332-399: The mild not-leftist opposition Brazilian Democratic Movement (MDB) party. In the new Constitution of 1967 the name of the country was changed from United States of Brazil to the current Federative Republic of Brazil. Castelo Branco was succeeded to the presidency by general Artur da Costa e Silva who was a representative of the hard-line elements of the regime. On 13 December 1968 he signed

10455-615: The military intervention on the eve of the coup, later opposed the government and thus fell under heavy censorship. The management of all sectors of the country's communication was overseen by the Special Counsel of Public Relations ( Assessoria Especial de Relações Públicas ) created in the beginning of 1968, while censorship was institutionalized through the Higher Counsel of Censorship ( Conselho Superior de Censura ) later on that same year. The Higher Counsel of Censorship

10578-464: The most outstanding work in the Portuguese language. The Brazilian spellings of certain words differ from those used in Portugal and the other Portuguese-speaking countries. Some of these differences are merely orthographic, but others reflect true differences in pronunciation. Until the implementation of the 1990 orthographic reform, a major subset of the differences related to the consonant clusters cc , cç , ct , pc , pç , and pt . In many cases,

10701-756: The national leadership of PCB. In August 1967, he participated at the 1st Conference of Latin American Solidarity in Havana , contradicting what party had determined. In Havana, he wrote Some Questions About the Guerrillas in Brazil , dedicated to the memory of Che Guevara and made public by Jornal do Brasil on 5 September 1968. That same year he was expelled from PCB, and founded the Ação Libertadora Nacional (ALN) in February 1968. The Department of Political and Social Order (DOPS) attributed

10824-519: The new orthography. Regional varieties of Brazilian Portuguese, while remaining mutually intelligible , may diverge from each other in matters such as vowel pronunciation and speech intonation. The existence of Portuguese in Brazil is a legacy of the Portuguese colonization of the Americas . The first wave of Portuguese-speaking immigrants settled in Brazil in the 16th century, but the language

10947-480: The past century, specifically by German, Italian and Japanese immigrants. This high intake of immigrants not only caused the incorporation and/or adaptation of many words and expressions from their native language into local language, but also created specific dialects, such as the German Hunsrückisch dialect in the South of Brazil. The written Brazilian standard differs from the European one to about

11070-418: The points concerning "estar" and "dar"). Modern linguistic studies have shown that Brazilian Portuguese is a topic -prominent or topic- and subject-prominent language. Sentences with topic are extensively used in Portuguese, perhaps more in Brazilian Portuguese most often by means of turning an element (object or verb) in the sentence into an introductory phrase, on which the body of the sentence constitutes

11193-478: The political rights of those found guilty of subversion or misuse of public funds. On 11 April 1964, Congress elected the Army Chief of Staff, marshal Humberto de Alencar Castelo Branco as president for the remainder of Goulart's term. Castelo Branco had intentions of overseeing a radical reform of the political-economic system and then returning power to elected officials. He refused to remain in power beyond

11316-406: The population, why the hell did it need authoritarian mechanisms to stay in power?". And he adds: "Let us consider for a moment, just to construct hypothetical reasoning, that there was a serious communist threat and the military intervention aimed at defending democracy against totalitarianism (I reiterate that I consider such arguments unfounded). If so, what justification, then, for having installed

11439-493: The populist era (1930–1964) and then to a moderate structuralism of 1964–80. Each of these structural changes forced a realignment in society and caused a period of political crisis. A period of right-wing military dictatorship marked the transition between the populist era and the current period of democratization. The Brazilian Armed Forces acquired great political clout after the Paraguayan War . The politicization of

11562-479: The present continuous construct estar a + infinitive , which, in contrast, has become quite common in European over the last few centuries. BP maintains the Classical Portuguese form of continuous expression, which is made by estar + gerund . Thus, Brazilians will always write ela está dançando ("she is dancing"), not ela está a dançar . The same restriction applies to several other uses of

11685-513: The proclisis would be considered awkward or even grammatically incorrect in EP, in which the pronoun is generally placed after the verb ( enclitic position), namely ele viu-me . However, formal BP still follows EP in avoiding starting a sentence with a proclitic pronoun, so both will have Deram-lhe o livro ("They gave him/her the book") instead of Lhe deram o livro , though it will seldom be spoken in BP (but would be clearly understood). The first-person singular proclitic pronoun frequently occurs at

11808-431: The regime's efforts to censor any and all pieces of media that could hurt the government, the population found ways to get around it as much as possible. Even though artists and journalists needed permission from the counsel to publish any piece of communication, they sometimes were able to surpass censorship barriers through unconventional ways. Musicians would rely on word play to publish songs with veiled criticisms towards

11931-650: The regime's negligence, the armed forces have always disputed this. Brazil's political crisis stemmed from the way in which the political tensions had been controlled in the 1930s and 1940s during the Vargas Era . Vargas' dictatorship and the presidencies of his democratic successors marked different stages of Brazilian populism (1930–1964), an era of economic nationalism, state-guided modernization , and import substitution trade policies. Vargas' policies were intended to foster an autonomous capitalist development in Brazil, by linking industrialization to nationalism ,

12054-634: The region at the time killed more people, Brazil saw the widespread use of torture, as it also had during the Estado Novo of Getúlio Vargas. Vargas's enforcer Filinto Müller has been named the "patron of torturers" in Brazil. Advisors from the United States and United Kingdom trained Brazilian forces in interrogation and torture. To extinguish its left-wing opponents, the dictatorship used arbitrary arrests, imprisonment without trials, kidnapping, and most of all, torture, which included rape and castration. The book Torture in Brazil provides accounts of only

12177-481: The remainder of Goulart's term or to institutionalize the military in power. However, competing demands radicalized the situation. Military hard-liners wanted a complete purge of left-wing and populist influences while civilian politicians obstructed Castelo Branco's reforms. The latter accused him of hard-line actions to achieve his objectives, and the former accused him of leniency. On 27 October 1965, after victory of opposition candidates in two state elections, he signed

12300-477: The rest of the areas where Portuguese is spoken) has been influenced by other languages with which it has come into contact, mainly in the lexicon: first the Amerindian languages of the original inhabitants, then the various African languages spoken by the slaves, and finally those of later European and Asian immigrants. Although the vocabulary is still predominantly Portuguese, the influence of other languages

12423-469: The restructuring of PCB. Son of an Italian Roman Catholic father and a mother of African Muslim background, Carlos was raised in a Catholic household, eventually becoming atheist in his early 20s. Marighella was first arrested in 1932, after he wrote an offensive poem about the administration of Bahia intervener Juracy Magalhães. On 1 May 1936, during the Getúlio Vargas time in presidency, he

12546-535: The same extent that written American English differs from written British English . The differences extend to spelling, lexicon, and grammar. However, with the entry into force of the Orthographic Agreement of 1990 in Portugal and in Brazil since 2009, these differences were drastically reduced. Several Brazilian writers have been awarded with the highest prize of the Portuguese language. The Camões Prize awarded annually by Portuguese and Brazilians

12669-423: The sentence Essa menina, ela costuma tomar conta de cachorros abandonados ("This girl, she usually takes care of abandoned dogs"). This structure highlights the topic, and could be more accurately translated as "As for this girl, she usually takes care of abandoned dogs." The use of this construction is particularly common with compound subjects , as in, e.g., Eu e ela, nós fomos passear ("She and I, we went for

12792-517: The theme of red danger (communists) to increase the climate of panic. What is certain is that on leaving the HQs the Armed Forces unbalanced the situation and promoted the overthrow of Goulart, so their role was essential in the coup. The Intercept reported that the asserted threat of Jango's "guerrillas", the weapons in possession of the Peasant Leagues , and the communist infiltrations into

12915-459: The two reasons mentioned above, the gap between the written, formal language and the spoken language is much wider in Brazilian Portuguese than in European Portuguese. In 1990, the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP), which included representatives from all countries with Portuguese as the official language, reached an agreement on the reform of the Portuguese orthography to unify

13038-635: The two standards then in use by Brazil on one side and the remaining Portuguese-speaking countries on the other. This spelling reform went into effect in Brazil on 1 January 2009. In Portugal, the reform was signed into law by the President on 21 July 2008 allowing for a six-year adaptation period, during which both orthographies co-existed. All of the CPLP countries have signed the reform. In Brazil, this reform has been in force since January 2016. Portugal and other Portuguese-speaking countries have since begun using

13161-439: The vowels e and o may be open ( é or ó ) or closed ( ê or ô ) when they are stressed before one of the nasal consonants m , n followed by a vowel, but in BP they are always closed in this environment. The variant spellings are necessary in those cases because the general Portuguese spelling rules mandate a stress diacritic in those words, and the Portuguese diacritics also encode vowel quality. Another source of variation

13284-467: The ways João Goulart should be put down, and his fears of a communist intervention supported by the Soviets or by Cuba . Washington immediately recognized the new government in 1964, and hailed the coup as one of the "democratic forces" that had allegedly staved off the hand of international communism. American mass media outlets such as Henry Luce 's Time magazine also gave positive remarks about

13407-507: Was elected to the presidency with Médici's approval in 1974, a year after the oil crisis . Geisel was a well-connected army general and former president of Petrobras . There had been intense behind-the-scenes maneuvering by the hard-liners against him, but also by the more moderate supporters of Castelo Branco in his support. Geisel's older brother, Orlando Geisel, was the Minister of Army, and his close ally, general João Batista Figueiredo,

13530-488: Was a broom, with which he would "sweep away the corruption". In his brief tenure as president, Quadros made moves to resume relations with Socialist countries and approved controversial laws, but without legislative support, he could not follow his agenda. In the last days of August 1961, Quadros tried to break his impasse with Congress by resigning from the presidency, apparently with the intention of being reinstated by popular demand. Quadros' vice president, João Goulart,

13653-766: Was a descendant of enslaved Africans, brought from the Sudan ( Hausa blacks ). He spent his young life at a house in Rua do Desterro, at the Baixa do Sapateiro neighbourhood, where he would graduate from primary and secondary education. In 1934, he left the Polytechnic School of Bahia, where he was pursuing a degree in civil engineering , in order to become an active member of the Brazilian Communist Party (PCB). He then moved to Rio de Janeiro to work in

13776-543: Was a member of the Brazilian Labour Party and had been active in politics since the Vargas Era. At that time, Brazil's president and vice president were elected from different party tickets. With Quadros' resignation, the high ranking military ministers tried to prevent Goulart, who was on a trip to China, from assuming the presidency, accusing him of being a Communist. The military's actions triggered

13899-442: Was chief of Médici's military staff. Once in power, Geisel adopted a more moderate stance with regard to political opposition than his predecessor Médici. Although not immediately understood by civilians, Ernesto Geisel's accession signaled a move toward a less oppressive rule. He replaced several regional commanders with trusted officers and labeled his political programs " abertura " (opening) and distensão (decompression), meaning

14022-442: Was dependent on and alternated between the so-called "moderates" (" moderados" ) and "hard-liners" (" linha dura" ) in power. The most aggressive set of repressive measures took place during the period between 1968 and 1978, called the "Years of Lead" ( Anos de Chumbo ). The repressive characteristic of the regime, however, was present in Brazilian society throughout the military rule. The mainstream media, initially cooperating with

14145-531: Was designed by architect Oscar Niemeyer , and is the only grave monument designed by the architect. It bears a quote from Marighella: "I didn't have time to be afraid" ( Não tive tempo para ter medo ). Marighella's most famous contribution to revolutionary struggle literature was the Minimanual of the Urban Guerrilla , consisting of advice on how to disrupt and overthrow a military regime as part of

14268-465: Was established and in January 1974 general Ernesto Geisel was elected to be the next president. João Goulart's fall worried many citizens. Many students, Marxists, and workers formed groups that opposed military rule. A minority of these adopted direct armed struggle, while most supported political solutions to reverse the mass suspension of human rights in the country. In the first few months after

14391-496: Was fomented by José de Magalhães Pinto , Adhemar de Barros , and Carlos Lacerda (who had already participated in the conspiracy to depose Getúlio Vargas in 1945), then governors of the states of Minas Gerais , São Paulo , and Guanabara , respectively. The U.S. State Department supported the coup through Operation Brother Sam and thereafter supported the regime through its embassy in Brasília . The dictatorship reached

14514-411: Was killed. After the military coup, the new government put forward a series of measures to strengthen its rule and weaken the opposition. The complex structure of the state's repression reached several areas of Brazilian society, and involved the implementation of measures of censorship, persecutions, and violations of human rights. The systematic repression during this period in the Brazilian history

14637-463: Was not widely used then. For a time Portuguese coexisted with Língua Geral , a lingua franca based on Amerindian languages that was used by the Jesuit missionaries, as well as with various African languages spoken by the millions of slaves brought into the country between the 16th and 19th centuries. By the end of the 18th century, Portuguese had affirmed itself as the national language. Some of

14760-426: Was once again arrested for subversion. He was arrested again by the political police led by Filinto Müller . He remained in jail for a year. He was released by "macedada" (the measure which freed political prisoners without pressing charges against them). After his release, he once again entered clandestinity, along with all members of PCB. He was recaptured in 1939. He was not released until 1945, when an amnesty during

14883-620: Was overseen by the Ministry of Justice, which was in charge of analyzing and revising decisions put forward by the director of the Federal Police department. The ministry was also responsible for establishing guidelines and norms to implement censorship at local levels. Institutionalized censorship affected all areas of communication in Brazilian society: newspaper, television, music, theater, and all industries related to mass communication activities, including marketing companies. Despite

15006-510: Was responsible for a series of bank robberies and high-profile kidnappings . He was killed by police in 1969 in an ambush. Marighella's most famous contribution to revolutionary literature was the Minimanual of the Urban Guerrilla . Marighella was born in Salvador , Bahia , to Italian immigrant Augusto Marighella and Afro-Brazilian Maria Rita do Nascimento. His father was a blue-collar worker originally from Emilia , while his mother

15129-467: Was serving as Secretary of State ), confirming that the leadership of the Brazilian military regime was fully aware of the killing of dissidents. It is estimated that 434 people were either confirmed killed or went missing and 20,000 people were tortured during the military dictatorship in Brazil. While some human rights activists and others assert that the true figure could be much higher, and should include thousands of indigenous people who died because of

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