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116-706: The community trace their ancestry to marriages between early Arab Muslim traders of the high seas and indigenous Paravar coastal women on the Gulf of Mannar coast and with Mukkuvar coastal women. Arab traders have also married other South Asian women in India and Sri Lanka, but their descendants are not necessarily members of the Marakkar community. The Islamized Arabs who arrived on the Coromandel and Malabar Coast brought Islamic values and customs and inter-married with

232-559: A Jesuit priest, had been working in Goa prior to his journey to Kanyakumari, where he arrived in October 1542. He took with him some interpreters with the intention of spreading the Gospel and bringing about further religious conversions. Maynard claims that a further 10,000 Paravars were baptised during the first month of his mission, and 30,000 in total by its end; and that "His conversion of

348-669: A close relationship between Marakkars of India and Marrakkar and Moors of Sri Lanka. The Marakkars of Sri Lanka falls under the ' Sri Lankan Moors group, defined by the Sri Lankan government as a separate ethnic group. There are also words derived from Sinhala , such as Mattapa for the terrace. There are also words from the Purananuru era, such as Aanam for Kulambu and Puliaanam for rasam or soup. Susan Bayly states in her book Saints Goddesses and Kings that Tamil Marakkayars have always looked down upon converted Muslims and had

464-603: A cloth factory in Tuticorin and this was a much appreciated venture — at some point the Paravars had also become traders in cloth. The British took over control in 1796, after a period of gradual usurpation of Dutch authority along the coast and elsewhere by the East India Company . They had seized Tuticorin in 1785. Both sides had attempted to influence the Paravars, seeking to have their support to exploit

580-660: A higher social standing directly linked to Arabs. She states the Sunni Shafi Madhab connection to Arabia as proof of their identity. They (marakkars) strictly maintained the sect by intermarriage between the Marakkayars of Malabar and Tamil Nadu. She states that the Labbais sect follows the rules, like marrying the father's sister's daughter (Murapennu – a famous South Indian "Kalyana murai"). Nagore, Kulasekarapattinam, Kayalpattanam, Kilakkarai, and Adiramapattanam are

696-534: A lower standing than themselves, such as the Nadars. Although they regarded the Nadar Christians as their equal in the past. The Nadars had been enthusiastic in their conversion to Christianity but did so much later than the Paravars, with surges of conversion — both to Catholicism and Protestantism — taking place in 1802–1803, the 1840s and the late 1870s/early 1880s. Dyron Daughrity has said that

812-591: A non-Muslim or a fellow Muslim in a different region. The Sri Lankan Moors have been strongly shaped by Islamic culture, with many customs and practices according to Islamic law. While preserving many of their ancestral South Asian customs, the Moors have over time adopted several Arabic-Islamic practices. The Moors practice several customs and beliefs which they closely share with the Arab , Sri Lankan Tamils , and Sinhalese People . Tamil and Sinhala customs such as wearing

928-659: A rich history, starting from their major economic contributions to the coffers of the ancient Pandya kings through their pearl-harvesting and trade, to their later interactions with the Portuguese in the 16th century and later. The arrival of Portuguese soldiers and missionaries in their midst, including the great missionary St. Francis Xavier , resulted in their conversion to the Catholic faith, adoption of Portuguese names and also protection against marauding enemies. The name Paravar literally means "dwellers on seacoast" and

1044-535: A robust maritime spice trading community in medieval South Asia . They traded in and with locations such as Myanmar , Thailand , Malaysia in East Asia and South Asia , Maldives and Sri Lanka . The Marakayars have dominated the educational and economic landscape in Tamil Nadu since the 17th century. There are two main hypotheses regarding the term "Marrakayar" etymology and its various forms. The first

1160-499: A significant distance from Indian Tamils. The Nei genetic distance for Sinhalese and Moors is 0.0123, SL Tamil and Moors is 0.0233 while Indian Tamil and Moors 0.0293. The study was carried on the X-STRs DXS10148, DXS10135, DXS8378, DXS7132, DXS10079, DXS10074, DXS10075, DXS6801, DXS6809, DXS6789, DXS7424, DXS101, DXS7133, DXS9902, HPRTB and DXS7423. Sri Lankan Moor Population and Percentage Depending on where they live in

1276-506: A wedge between the two groups and to limit the subservience displayed towards the jati and other senior caste members which, the Jesuits believed, infringed on the true worship of God because offerings of money and goods were made to those people as part of Paravan church rituals. They went so far as to attempt to install an alternative jati and the battle for control continued for several years. The Jesuits were not helped in their aim by

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1392-632: Is also a theory that the etymology of the name Meenakshi , for whom the great Meenakshi Temple, Madurai was built, is derived from the Tamil words meen (fish) and aatchi (rule). Thus, some researchers point to the fact that the Pandyans may have been from the Neithal lands of ancient Tamil country, which were then mostly occupied by the Bharathars. Also, in the ancient Tamil epic Cilappatikaram ,

1508-755: Is also extinct as a spoken language. Today, they use Malayalam and Tamil as their primary language, with influence from Arabic. Many Arabic and Arabized words exist in Malayalam and Tamil, spoken by Marakkars. Among many examples, greetings and blessings are exchanged in Arabic instead of Malayalam/Tamil, such as Assalamu Alaikum instead of Shaanthiyum Samadanavum , Jazakallah instead of Nanni/Nandri and Pinjhan/Finjan/Pinjaanam for Bowl/Cup. There are also words which are unique to Marakkars and Sri Lankan Moors , such as Laatha for elder-sister, Kaka for elder-brother, Umma for mother and Vappa for father, suggesting

1624-456: Is an extension of the Tamil tradition. The Sri Lankan Moors along with Mukkuvar dominated once in medieval era the pearl trade in Sri Lanka . Alliances and intermarriages between both communities were observed in this period. They held close contact with other Muslims of Southern India through coastal trade. The Moors had their own court of justice for settling their disputes. Upon

1740-416: Is being referred to at various times by various authors but what does appear to be a common factor is that this was until modern times a major port for the pearl trade. Kayal is the Tamil and Malayalam word for a backwater. The 1901 Madras Census noted three groups who called themselves Paravars. It speculated that their common root were the mostly Christian Tamil-speaking Paravars, The other groups were

1856-696: Is derived from the Old Tamil word paravai meaning "sea" or "expanse". The Paravars may have been the Paradavar mentioned in Sangam literature , who are mentioned in the Pattinappaalai . They were maritime inhabitants of the littoral Sangam landscape known as Neithal, who were involved in pearls-harvesting, boat-building, salt-making, fishing, among other maritime activities. Professor Subramaniam says, they were “ferocious warriors” and constituted

1972-683: Is found in the Southern, Western, and Central provinces with some variations and other linguistic features within it. As an example, Muslims in the Western province, especially in Colombo tend to code-mix their speech with Tamil and English terms. On the other hand, NEMT is found in Northern and Eastern provinces. One phonological variation between these two sub-dialects is that SMT replaces the Tamil sound /sa/ with /sha/. Another phonological variation

2088-519: Is from the term 'Marakala+aayar', which may mean those who controlled or owned boats. In Tamil/Malayalam, " marakalam " signifies "wooden boat" and " aayar ". That it is the association of these two words that give Marakkayar. KVK Iyer says in his history of Kerala that Marakkar was a prized title given by the Zamorin of Calicut . Derived from Marakka Rayar, it signifies the captain of a ship Rayar (captain) of Marakkalam (ship). According to tradition,

2204-488: Is not the majority language. The Tamil dialect spoken by Muslims in Sri Lanka is identified as Sri Lankan Muslim Tamil (SLMT). It is a social dialect of Sri Lankan Tamil that falls under the larger category of the colloquial variety of Tamil. SLMT has distinct phonological , morphological and lexical differences in comparison to other varieties of SLT since it is influenced by the Arabic language. Due to this, we can see

2320-554: Is recorded that he burned down a hut which had been used to house non-Christian religious symbols. Xavier appointed catechists in the Paravar villages up and down the 100 miles (160 km) of coastline to spread and reinforce his teachings, the method for much of which was to recite repetitively (and in poorly translated Tamil) rhythmic phrases of the Creed , Pater Noster and other standard Catholic teachings regardless of whether

2436-527: Is that SMT uses voiced plosives such as /b, d, j, g/ whereas NEMT uses voiceless plosives such as /v, p, t, c, k/ instead of them. Another symbolic representation of the Southern variety is the shortening of Tamil verbs. As an example, the verb ‘to come’ known as ‘varukhudu’ in SLT/NEMT would be shortened and pronounced as ‘varudu.’ Furthermore, the Moors like their counterparts in Tamil Nadu , use

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2552-492: Is the pattern that has survived to this day. The Marakkars, the early Muslim inhabitants of Kerala, Coastal Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka, are Sunnis of the Shafi‘i school of thought (Madhab). Most Marakkars are, in some way or other, connected to foreign trade through which they became more advanced economically and socially than the different Muslim groups in the locality and even many Hindu sub-castes. The Marakkars were known to be

2668-749: The Arwi which is a written register of the Tamil language with the use of the Arabic alphabet. The Arwi alphabet is unique to the Muslims of Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka, hinting at erstwhile close relations between the Tamil Muslims across the two territories. However, SLMT is only a spoken variety that is limited to the domestic sphere of the community members and is something shared with the Marrakar community of Tamil Nadu. In addition, they frequently tend to code-switch and code-mix when they communicate with

2784-538: The Canarese -speaking Paravars, who were umbrella makers and devil-dancers and the Malayalam -speaking Paravars, who were lime burners, gymnasts, midwives and shell collectors. It has been further speculated that the splitting of the latter two groups from the first may have been as a consequence of a desire to move away from the ancient tribal area when faced with the arrival of Muslims. The Paravar belief of being

2900-783: The Muslims from the Northern Province was an act of ethnic cleansing carried out by the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam in October 1990. In Northern Sri Lanka, the LTTE forcibly expelled the Muslim population from the Northern Province at gunpoint and confiscated their properties. Yogi, the LTTE's political spokesman, claimed that this expulsion was carried out in retaliation for atrocities committed against

3016-572: The Pandya Kingdom by the first century AD, and was a major source of revenue for the kingdom. (The pearl diving season usually lasted 20 – 30 days, around March). The Paravas were skilled in diving and in the harvesting of pearls, which were done scientifically. Thus, the control of the Paravas and the Pearls trade led to many skirmishes in the region, right from the ancient Pandyas to

3132-878: The Pandyan king is referred to as Korkai Pandyan by Kannagi , which gives credence to the theory that the Pandyas were originally from Korkai , where the Bharathars lived. Also silapathikaram mentions about Bharathavar as follows, பெருங்கடல் பரதவர், பழந்திமில் கொன்ற பரதவர், வலம்புரி மூழ்கிய வான்திமில் பரதவர், ’உரைசால் சிறப்பின் அரசுவிழை திருவின் பரதவர் மலிந்தபயங்கொழு மாநகர்” (மனையறம் படுத்த காதை) ’’அரச குமாரரும் பரவ குமாரரும்”(இந்திர விழா ஊர் எடுத்த காதை) It Praises Bharathavars as One who sails high seas, Killed huge Sea fishes (whales), one who did Pearl and valamburi shell diving, One who runs world’s famous kingdom and city. Silapathikaram calls Bharathavars as Kings : “அரசர் முறையோ பரதர் முறையோ” Pearls were major exports from

3248-652: The Tamils in the Eastern Province by Muslims, who were seen by the LTTE as collaborators of the Sri Lankan Army . Sri Lanka's Muslims still hold a bitter grudge for their forced expulsion from the North by the LTTE. In 2002, LTTE leader Vellupillai Prabhakaran formally apologized for the expulsion of the Muslims from the North. There has been a stream of Muslims travelling in and out of Jaffna since

3364-515: The Thaali or eating Kiribath were widely prevalent among the Moors. Arab customs such as congregational eating using a large shared plate called the 'sahn' and wearing of the North African fez during marriage ceremonies feed to the view that Moors are of mixed Sinhalese, Tamil, and Arab heritage. The late 19th century saw the phase of Islamization of Sri Lankan Moors, primarily under

3480-575: The biblical figure Noah . The descendants of these Muslim people became known as the Lebbais and their main settlement was the town of Kayal , a presence which was noted by Vasco da Gama and Duarte Barbosa by the early sixteenth century. There is some ambiguity regarding this town: there was a harbour on the Tamraparani River in Pandyan times which was known as Korkai and when

3596-480: The cophenetic correlation was 0.8956 which indicates Sinhalese & Tamil as native population. Also, he reflected on the genetic distance among five populations of Sri Lanka as per given below eigenvector plot of the R-matrix . Burgher Malay Moor Tamil Sinhalese According to a study published in 2021 using 16 X-chromosomal short tandem repeat markers (STRs) conducted on 838 unrelated individuals from

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3712-543: The separatist Tamil militant Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE). The LTTE attempted to create an independent Tamil state called Tamil Eelam in northeast Sri Lanka. Since 1888, under the initiative of Ponnambalam Ramanathan , the Sri Lankan Tamils launched a campaign to classify Tamil-speaking Sri Lankan Moors as Tamils , primarily to bolster their population numbers for the impending transition to democratic rule in Sri Lanka . Their view holds that

3828-409: The 1920s, with the elders extracting payments from villagers which were then passed on to the jati thalavan , and the latter in return managing affairs (including the fishery operations) and adjudicating in both internal and external disputes involving the community. Kaufmann has commented that these "highly organised caste institutions" including hereditary headmen and councils of elders holding sway,

3944-526: The 9th century, and who intermarried with local Tamil and Sinhala women. Recent genetic studies, however, have suggested a predominant Indian origin for Moors compared to the Arab origin speculated by some. Perera et al. (2021) in their genetic analysis of the Moors stated the following in their report: " In contrast, Sri Lankan Moors have descended exclusively from Muslim male merchants of either Arabic or of Indian origin, who came to Sri Lanka for trading. During

4060-537: The Arabic links. The Marakkayar port of Porto Novo (Mahmud Bandar) was popular and busy in the later years. In Ramnad, however, the Marikkars mainly handled trade for the Setupati royal family. In Kerala, Marakkar, known as Marikkars , are primarily concentrated in and around Malabar. They were traditionally boatmen. According to tradition, Marakkars were originally marine merchants of Kochi who left for Ponnani in

4176-473: The British government, who in 1891 renegotiated the arrangements for sharing the fishery catches with the new, non-Jesuit appointed jati thalavan . This deal, in which it was agreed that the jati should receive the output of one boat for that of every thirty which went to the government, once again confirmed the support of the ruling power for the caste hierarchy. The new jati was himself controversial among

4292-451: The Catholic message. In 1545 he wrote that "I have never ceased wondering at the number of new inflexions they have added to the conjugation of the verb to rob ." He left India some time in the late 1540s or early 1550s but the precise year is disputed. There is at least one source which believes that Francis Xavier briefly visited again in 1548, when he was paraded through Tuticorin by the Paravars. It has been suggested that his status among

4408-566: The Hindu epic Mahabharata , who were the ancestors of the heroes in the epic. The Parathavars of ancient Korkai in the Neithal (coastal) lands, near the present-day city of Tuticorin , may have been the first Pandya kings. Some researchers also believe that the Paravars were blood-related to the Maravars , in ancient times. The Pandya kings, eventually, moved their capital to Madurai . Pandyas were rulers with fish on their flag. There

4524-735: The Kunjali Marakkars were maritime merchants of Arab descent who supported the trade in the Indian Ocean and settled in the coastal regions of Kayalpattinam, Kilakarai, Adirampattinam, Thoothukudi, Nagore and Karaikal. But they shifted their trade to Kochi and then migrated to Ponnani in the Zamorin 's dominion when the Portuguese fleets came to the Kingdom of Cochin . With the emergence of the Portuguese in India , some Marakkars were forced to take up arms and enlist themselves in

4640-476: The Marikkar community. Paravar Paravar (also known as Bharathar or Bharathakula Kshatriyar ) is a Tamil maritime community, mainly living in the state of Tamil Nadu , Kerala , and in Sri Lanka . Historically, they were inhabitants of the Neithal (coastal) lands of Tamil Nadu , and find mention in various ancient Tamil literary works. In modern India, Paravars are concentrated along

4756-409: The Moors. Sri Lanka being a predominately agricultural economy, International trade was underdeveloped during the medieval period. The arrival and settlement of Arab-Muslim merchants on the island's coastal regions initiated overseas trade and helped unlock the country's economic potential. The Sri Lankan Civil War was a 26-year conflict fought on the island of Sri Lanka between the government and

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4872-556: The Mukkuvar, their access to wealth, and then to education, after conversion ensured that they could attempt to spread out, urbanize, acquire new skills and enter different professions. All these aided in the process of upward social mobility." When the Jesuit missionaries returned in the 1830s, following the revival of their Society, they were shocked at the lapse in formal religious observance and in general Christian morality, as well as

4988-560: The Paravaims of the biblical scriptures and the lost tribes of Israel added to the differences with the Arabs, which is acknowledged by Fr.Henrique Henriques by his claim of kinship. There are differences of opinion regarding events up to the early 1500s. Donkin and Ray believe that the Muslims gained influence over the Paravars to the point that the latter became at best hired labour and at worst enslaved, and Neill has claimed that there

5104-473: The Paravar responded: "You say your religion is better than the religion which our great padre taught us. Well then, you must perform more miracles than he. Resurrect at least a dozen dead persons, for Xavier restored to life five or six here; heal all our sick; increase the number of fishes in our sea; and then we shall see what answer we will give you." During their period of control the Dutch also established

5220-528: The Paravars held much the same rank as the Mukkavars, who were also a maritime caste of the area and were converted but did not demonstrate the same subsequent socio-economic mobility. (It has, however, been argued that the Mukkavars were "a sub-class of the Parava[r] community" and formed the largest group of those converted to Christianity during Xavier's time). Robinson has said Far more prosperous than

5336-505: The Paravars was one of "cult worship". There is a shrine to him, in a cave, which is still venerated today as the place they believe to have been his principal residence during his time among them. Vikirama Aditha Pandya was rewarded by the Portuguese for his actions of 1532, when as part of the arrangement for protection he had offered to manage the pearl diving on behalf of the Portuguese. He became known as Senhor dos Senhores ("first among notables") Dom João da Cruz (but see Note 1) and

5452-627: The Paravars. However, in the Sangam work Mathuraikkanci , the author Mankudi Maruthanar, refers to his patron, the Pandya sovereign Talaiyanganam Nedunjeliyan , as the Lord of Korkai and the Warlord of the southern Parathavar ( Then Parathavar por yere ). The community was also involved in sea salt production, which was a relatively easy task on the Indian coast as the hot temperatures evaporated

5568-458: The Paravars. The feast halted with the Dutch takeover but was reinstated from 1709, and three years later permission was granted for the building of a new church. It was the right of the jati thalavan always to make the first tug of the rope which was attached to a chariot containing the statuette and which marked the start of the festival. The veneration of the statuette has been called a "cult" and continues into modern times, although few outside

5684-590: The Paravars: his appointment to the role, being the son of the previous headman's daughter, was thought by some to be invalid because the succession had passed through the female line. In the late nineteenth century the Paravar elite tried to reconcile with the Muslim seafarers in their area, seeking to claim kinship. This went as far as the then jati thalivan declaring that the elite among these Marakkar Muslims, from towns such as Kilakarai, were in fact related to him by blood as they shared common antecedents. There

5800-673: The Paravas (called Bharathas in Sri Lanka) have been a more affluent, merchant community since the British colonial times. Today, they are found in significant numbers in the cities of Negombo and Colombo . A section of the Bharathakula community in Sri Lanka has been classified as a separate ethnic group since 2001, whereas another section which identifies itself as Sri Lankan Tamil live in towns such as Vankalai in Mannar District and Puttalam . The Paravars have

5916-402: The Paravas, as is pointed out by Père Lhande, is the only instance of an entire caste being brought into the Church." More modest figures have been proposed, such as 15,000 people including re-baptisms. Xavier also brought about the conversion of members of other castes living in the area, for example Mukkuvars and Paraiyars . His methods of conversion were sometimes forceful; for example, it

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6032-407: The Portuguese intervention. Their conversion may have enabled them to participate more significantly in religious ceremonies than was the case when they were Hindus; this being because their fishing and related occupation (that is, the taking of life) would have prevented any central contribution in Hindu religious rituals. This was certainly the outcome following Pope Clement XIV 's dissolution of

6148-413: The Portuguese proceeded to destroy the Arab fleet when they met fortuitously at Vedalai on 27 June 1538. The Portuguese state began to claim rights over the economic resources in the area due to its patronage of the Paravars. From that point the Paravar people as a whole enjoyed renewed prosperity. Their declaration of acceptance of the Catholic faith did not prevent them from continuing to worship in

6264-467: The Portuguese would also gain a strategic foothold and control of the pearl fisheries. The deal was agreed to and Vikrama Aditya Pandya baptised as Joao de Cruz became the first subject of the king of Portugal and some months later 20,000 Paravars were baptised en masse, and became subjects of Portugal, during the visit of Pedro Gonsalves, Vicar of Cochin . By the end of 1537 the entire community had declared itself to be Catholics, according to Hastings, and

6380-488: The Rajah of Travancore . This continuing situation, and the desire to be relieved of the rivalry from Lebbai divers, caused the Paravars to seek the protection of Portuguese explorers who had moved into the area. A delegation led by Vikirama Aditha Pandya visited Goa to seek talks to this end in 1532. The protection was granted on the condition that the leaders were immediately baptised as Catholics and that they would encourage their people also to convert to Catholicism;

6496-405: The Samoothiri Raja's dominion when the Portuguese came to Kochi. They offered their men, ships and wealth in defence of their motherland to the Samoothiri of Kozhikode – The Raja, who took them into his service and eventually became the Admirals of his fleet. They served as the naval chiefs in the Zamorin's army. Kunjali Marakkar, one of the first Keralites to rebel against the Portuguese, hailed from

6612-409: The Society of Jesus in 1773, which resulted in a dearth of Catholic misisonaries and priests in the area, enabling the jati thalavan and his fellow caste notables to assume the role of solemniser for rituals such as marriage. Paravar Christianity, with its own identity based on a mixture of Christian-Catholic religious belief and Hindu caste culture, remains a defining part of the Paravar life today,

6728-575: The Sonakar. Many Sri Lankan Moors are Marakkars , and share the same history with Tamil Nadu Marakkars in particular, and Marakkars from Kerala. This can be seen from the large number of prominent Sri Lankan Moors who hold the surname of Marikkar (and its variations) and through the extremely strong linguistic and cultural similarities held by these communities. It is said there has been a strong relationship between Marakkar communities through endogamous marriages . The similarities have been described as "enormous" by M. M. M. Mahroof. Some scholars hold

6844-450: The Sri Lankan Moors were mainly Tamil converts to Islam . According to some Tamil nationalists , the concept of Arab descent amongst the Tamil-speaking Moors was invented just to keep the community separate from the Tamils, and this 'separate identity' intended to check the latter's demand for the separate state of Tamil Eelam and to flare up hostilities between the two groups in the broader Tamil–Sinhalese conflict . The expulsion of

6960-432: The arrival of the Portuguese colonisers in the 16th century, a large population of Moors was expelled from cities such as the capital city Colombo , which had been a Moor-dominated city at that time. The Moors migrated to the eastern part of the island, and settled there through the invitation of the Kingdom of Kandy . Robert Knox , a British sea captain of the 17th century, noted that the Kings of Kandy built mosques for

7076-465: The arrival of the Portuguese colonists. The term "Moor" was chosen because of the Islamic faith of these people and was not a reflection of their origin. The Tamil term Sonakar along with the Sinhala term Yonaka , has been thought to have been derived from the term Yona , a term originally applied to Greeks, but sometimes also Arabs and other West Asians. Historically, all Tamil speaking Muslim communities in India and Sri Lanka were known as

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7192-400: The beginning there were no Muslims, only Jews and Tamils". There are also evidences to show that the Portuguese used some Paravars in their maritime exploitations overseas. A report written in 1622 stated that the fisheries had been moribund for many years due to the poverty of the Paravars; it is uncertain as to what period this refers or the cause of the poverty. Xavier had recorded that

7308-409: The caste have such regard for it. During the period of Catholic repression the Dutch East India Company also expelled all Catholic priests and outlawed Catholic baptisms and other rituals. Indeed, there are no surviving records to suggest that there was any evangelism at all, although they did build Tuticorin's first Protestant church in 1750. When told by the Dutch that they must become Calvinists,

7424-526: The coastal belt extending along the Gulf of Mannar , from Kilakarai to Kanyakumari (Cape Comorin). They also live in some pockets along the Arabian Sea coast in Kanyakumari District as well as central Kerala . Paravars have been significant among the population of the port city of Thoothukudi , since the 1580s. Apart from Thoothukudi, Paravars also live in many of the big cities and towns in South Tamilnadu like Nagercoil , Tirunelveli and Madurai where they are into diverse professions. In Sri Lanka,

7540-407: The combination of Jesuit pressure and then also that of the Goan Padroados, who came to agree that the ritual role of the jati was detrimental to belief, caused the gradual erosion of the jati's powers of patronage and organisation. This situation was assisted by the growing number of people aspiring to be members of the elite and those who disputed the validity of the succession as a consequence of

7656-410: The content was actually understood. These appointments necessitated that he obtained funds with which to pay them, the primary source being money granted to him by the Queen of Portugal. Violence had not been completely removed from Paravar society, despite the Portuguese intervention. There were a series of bloody skirmishes involving the Badage tribe, raiding from the neighbouring area of Madura in

7772-538: The conversions were "largely because of the increase in social status that could be effected" but adds that there are occasions when the Christian community would become out-cast. The issues were complex. If the new converts could convince the entire caste to convert, the social status of the group could actually increase. Individuals who converted were often forced to abandon their community and move in order to find Christian support. The often difficult situations regarding conversion and caste exist to this day." However,

7888-416: The country are also different when compared with the SLT terms, but are shared with Tamil Muslims of Tamil Nadu . The following are some terms that show the difference between SLMT and most varieties of SLT/Tamil. Interestingly, one can also notice ethno-regional variations in SLMT and categorise them into two major sub-dialects such as North-Eastern Muslim Tamil (NEMT) and Southern Muslim Tamil (SMT). SMT

8004-611: The country's total population. Most of them are native speakers of the Tamil language. The majority of Moors who are not native to the North and East also speak Sinhalese as a second language. They are predominantly followers of Islam . The Sri Lankan Muslim community is mostly divided between Sri Lankan Moors, Indian Moors , Sri Lankan Malays and Sri Lankan Bohras . These groups are differentiated by lineage, language, history, culture and traditions. The Sri Lankan Moors are of diverse origins with some tracing their ancestry to Arab traders who first settled in Sri Lanka around

8120-417: The country, they may also additionally speak Tamil , Sinhala and or English . According to the 2012 Census 58.7% or 862,397 Sri Lankan Moors also spoke Sinhala and 30.4% or 446,146 Sri Lankan Moors also spoke English. Moorish Tamil bears the influence of Arabic. The vast majority of Sri Lankan Muslims speak Tamil as their mother tongue. Religious sermons are delivered in Tamil even in regions where Tamil

8236-533: The discipline upon them which once had been a primary role. As the caste hierarchy disintegrated, becoming a range of groups each seeking to assert their position, the role of the jati thalavan became more and more impossible and was eventually abandoned, the last occupant of the post having been installed in 1926. The introduction of new technologies in the post- World War II era such as such as nylon fishing nets, refrigeration and motorisation made fishing more lucrative as an occupation in its own right which removed

8352-486: The dominant one.' Historian Patrick Peebles states by the end of the 19th century Sri Lankan Muslims comprised about 6–7 percent of the population, and that "the majority of Muslims were of South Indian origin and spoke Tamil." Another view suggests that the Arab traders, however, adopted the Sinhalese and Tamil languages only after settling in Sri Lanka. The cultural practices of the Moors also vary significantly from

8468-406: The early beneficiaries of Portuguese recognition, perhaps because they were the first to be converted. The consequence was that a formal system of hierarchical control, based on religious authority and economic standing and extending from the jati thalavan through to the elders and then to the villagers, became established in the eyes of Paravars and non-Paravars alike. It remained in existence until

8584-448: The early work of missionaries and in the 1540s having been reinforced by others who succeeded them and by the jati thalavan , the latter also being known as the "little king". Kaufmann explains this Christianity as being "in effect a 'caste lifestyle' for the Paravas", whilst Zupanov gives an example of how the missionaries modified Catholic teaching to suit the Paravars by citing the example of Henrique Henriques , who told them that "in

8700-674: The economic differences between those who laboured and those who either traded or lived off the organisation of labour. With this difference gone, the distinction between the Paravar elite and the majority of the community lost its basis and became obsolete, and the hierarchy within the community disappeared. Sri Lankan Moors Sri Lankan Moors ( Tamil : இலங்கைச் சோனகர் , romanized:  Ilaṅkaic Cōṉakar ; Arwi : اَیلَࢳَیچْ چٗونَكَرْ ‎; Sinhala : ලංකා යෝනක , romanized:  Lanka Yonaka ; formerly Ceylon Moors ; colloquially referred to as Sri Lankan Muslims ) are an ethnic minority group in Sri Lanka , comprising 9.3% of

8816-404: The elite as a consequence of falling out with the jati , and others who wanted recognition more quickly than the system allowed. These disaffected people were the target of the Jesuit actions, which consisted primarily of providing them with status symbols such as the offer of additional Te Deums and bells at marriage ceremonies. The end result of this attempt to foment a new hierarchy, however,

8932-481: The elite. The Jesuits had gone so far as to establish an alternative cathedral, the Sacred Heart, in the hope of drawing worshippers from Our Lady of Snows. That, too, failed in its purpose. There were also several instances where the disputes — often relating to rights in regard to religious buildings and their precincts — were taken through the court system, and also more occasions when riots between

9048-477: The end of the war. Some families have returned and the re-opened Osmania College , a public school in Jaffna which was once a prominent educational institution for the city's Muslim community. According to a Jaffna Muslim source, there is a floating population of about 2,000 Muslims in Jaffna. Around 1,500 are Jaffna Muslims, while the rest are Muslims from outside of Jaffna. About 10 Muslim shops are functioning and

9164-417: The factions occurred. The death of the jati thalavan in 1889 without a male heir gave rise to a power vacuum and so presented a new opportunity for the Jesuits. Combined with this was another boom in maritime trading, this time involving the plantations of Ceylon, which served to swell the ranks of those aspiring for recognition as members of the elite. The Jesuits employed various measures intended to drive

9280-408: The female lineage. The ceremonial role of the jati in religious observance and ceremony was gradually reduced, including the removal of status symbols such as the special seat that he occupied for Mass , and with these actions went much of his influence over the caste. By 1900 there were strikes taking place among the pearl and chank divers, often for frivolous reasons; the jati was unable to impose

9396-421: The four major ethnicities, there is a sex biased demographic history among Sri Lankan ethnicities. According to analysis of molecular variance , Sinhalese, Sri Lankan Tamils and Moors are highly panmictic but Indian Tamils had statistically significant genetic subdivision from both Sinhalese and Moors. According to the genetic distance calculated the Moors were closest to Sinhalese and then Sri Lankan Tamil with

9512-646: The fourteenth century, they started to settle in coastal areas in Sri Lanka and espoused local women, who were either Sinhalese or Sri Lankan Tamil ". The concentration of Moors is the highest in the Ampara , Trincomalee and Batticaloa districts. The Portuguese called the Muslims in India and Sri Lanka Mouros , after the Muslim Moors known to them in Iberia . The word Moors did not exist in Sri Lanka before

9628-487: The friction between the Muslims, the Portuguese and the Dutch, in later centuries. The Pandyan kings allowed the Paravars to manage and operate the pearl fisheries because of their already ancient skills in that activity, which required specialist seamanship abilities, knowledge of how to tend the oysterbeds and also knowledge of their location. The Pandyan kings exempted the Paravars from taxation and allowed them to govern themselves in return for being paid tribute from

9744-504: The good harvests did tend to alternate between the Indian and the Sri Lankan sides of the Gulf, the latter side was more than twice as productive. Control of the fisheries passed from the Portuguese to the Dutch from 1658, along with sovereignty over the Paravars. The new rulers, who were Protestant , tried unsuccessfully to convert the Paravars to their own faith. One example of this attempt

9860-401: The hierarchy. These people were traders, often spending long periods of time away from home in such places as Goa and Sri Lanka. Even lower down the ranks, the rise in ship and cargo movements, the continued development of Tuticorin harbour and town, and similar consequences of the boom (including the requirement for food by those who had moved away from working directly in fishing or on the land)

9976-403: The indigenous women who followed the local Buddhist , Jain & Hindu customs. Naturally, their children will have embedded Islamic and local values and transmitted them to their descendants. From the outset, the Arabs must, in all probability, have asserted the centrality of Islamic values in their relationship with the local women while making the necessary adjustments to local customs. This

10092-497: The liege of Pandyan kings, the Paravars certainly did have armies at a later time, these being created to protect the fisheries and their people from attack. The Arab Muslim invasion began in 712 AD at the Sindh Valley and by around 1300 AD they had taken over the entire northern India. However, even prior to the invasion there were Arabs in southern areas such as Calicut , Quilon and Malabar , chiefly traders interested in

10208-593: The main centres with old mosques and remains of ancient Sahabi saints. Bayly mentions Patattu marakkayar signifies a title or Pattam having been granted to one of these families. Could that be the Pattu Marakkar that we know from Cochin? The Kayal Patanam Quadiri Sufis had connections with the Calicut Sufi families. This confirms the relationship between the Calicut, Cochin and Kayal Marakkayar families and

10324-446: The manner which they had done previously because there were no translators to spread the Catholic message and also because the conversion was seen by the Paravar people as being merely a convenient arrangement to obtain protection, not a statement of belief. Bayly describes the situation as being "... really a declaration of tactical alliance rather than religious conversions as the term is usually understood." St Francis Xavier , then

10440-415: The missionaries and was eager to keep trade running smoothly by operating a policy of non-interventionist conservatism in matters religious and cultural. Bayly has examined why it was that some among the low-ranking Paravars were able to rise to work in occupations that were both more prestigious and more financially rewarding than had been the case before the conversion to Christianity, She points out that

10556-513: The most part of Tamil Navy at all times The name Parathavar may have been derived from the Tamil root word paravai . The Paravars prefer to call themselves Parathar , also written Bharathar , which may be a corrupted form of the Tamil word padavar meaning "boat men". Another theory proposes that the community originated from ancient Ayodhya and are descendants of the Bharatas clan from

10672-534: The numbers are slowly growing. Genetic studies undertaken in the year 2021 by University of Colombo and Genetech Molecular Diagnostics led by Dr Gayani Galhena, made the following observation in paragraph 6, in the faculty of science web publication based on the latest X chromosome fingerprint analysis: "Sinhalese and Moors are genetically closer to each other compared to Sinhalese and Sri Lankan Tamils" Dr Sarabjit Mastanain found in 1996 based on genetic analysis of human blood group systems from 508 individuals that

10788-462: The ongoing struggle between the rajahs. Some of the Portuguese protectors themselves were involved in duplicitous dealings with such tribes, or simply took advantage of the mayhem to make personal gains. Xavier intervened on several occasions in an attempt to right these wrongs and in March 1544 wrote a letter stating that the behaviour of the Portuguese was in fact the biggest hurdle he faced in promoting

10904-439: The opulent lifestyle being led by the Paravar elite which contrasted with the dilapidated state of the churches. Around that time some of the Paravar elite, along with some other groups such as Nadar traders, were making significant amounts of money from a surge in export demand for processed cotton, using their existing wealth from the pearl fisheries as a means to expand their interests into this booming sector. By 1845 Tuticorin

11020-552: The other communities on the island, but share much in common with the Tamil Muslims of Tamil Nadu . This view is dominantly held by the Sinhalese-favouring section of the Moors, as well as the Sri Lankan government , which lists the Moors as a separate ethnic community. Although the caste system is not observed by the Moors as it is by the other ethnic groups in Sri Lanka, their kudi system (matriclan system)

11136-432: The oyster beds seemed to have an uneven cyclical pattern, with a few good years of production alternating with a rather longer period of poor production. Similarly, around 1490 Ahmad ibn Mājid wrote that the fisheries "flourish in some years, but appear dead in others." One contemporary explanation for these changes was that the beds became covered by the shifting sea sands. A study of the period 1666–1916 showed that while

11252-418: The pearl trade in 1292 but by the mid-16th century this too had probably ceased to operate and was replaced by another port, Punnaikayal ( new Kayal ) under the influence of the Portuguese colonists. Punnaikayal was again at the mouth of the river, which as part of an estuary was under constant change, around 4 km from Palayakayal. It is difficult to determine with any consistency which of these locations

11368-726: The produce extracted. Cave engravings from the third century BC, found in 2003, reinforce this view as they suggest that the Paravars were the chieftains ( Velirs ) of the coastal region during this period, ruling as subordinates of the Pandyas . Previously, in the 1920s, Iyengar had noted that the caste name was used in ancient scripts to mean both boatmen and chiefs of the Madurai country. A report written in 1669 made it clear that in so far as they were kings, they were only kings of their own people and not of any wider constituency; furthermore, that these "kings" were referred to as such only by

11484-554: The riches of the fishery waters. The new government continued to recognise the Paravar's hierarchical social structure, as the Dutch and Portuguese had done before them. However, until 1813 the Company did not officially allow Christian missionaries to operate in the areas under its control, bowing only then due to pressure from religious organisations in Britain. The company was suspicious of any potential political undertones spread by

11600-399: The river at this point became too silted to use (it is situated approximately 8 km inland nowadays), it was replaced by a port called Kayal, thought to be situated variously either at the mouth of the river or at the village of Palayakayal which was 4 km downstream of Korkai but is itself nowadays about 3 km inland. Marco Polo described Kayal as a bustling port and the centre of

11716-538: The service of the Hindu king ( the zamorin ) of Calicut . The Marakkar naval chiefs of Calicut were known as Kunjali Marakkars . The Arabic language brought by the early merchants is no longer spoken, though many Arabic words and phrases are still commonly used. Until recently, the Mappila Muslims employed Arabi Malayalam , and the Tamil Muslims employed Arwi as their native language, though this

11832-494: The spices, pearls, precious stones and cottons which were available there. Another advantage of the location was that it was on a major sea trade route running through south-east Asia and on to China. Some of these Arabs were also pearl divers, having gained their experience in the waters of the Persian Gulf . Some Paravars adopted Islam , whose women also were married off to Muslim traders. These claimed to be descendants of

11948-479: The thirteenth century", and that any historical observations have to be made using Arab, European and Chinese accounts. Southern India came under the control of the Cholas in the ninth century but reverted to Pandyan control around the mid-1200s following a series of battles. They maintained control, despite several challenges, until the 16th century. Regardless of any doubt regarding their claims to be warriors under

12064-550: The use of several Persian-Arabic loan words in SLMT vocabulary. This distinctiveness between SLMT and other spoken varieties of SLT brings out the different religious and cultural identities of the Tamil speaking ethnic groups. As an example, the SLT term for the corpse is ‘caavu’ but the SLMT uses the Arabic term ‘mayyatu’. Another example is the verb ‘pray’ which is ‘vanaku’ in SLT and ‘tholu’ in SLMT. The kinship terms used by Muslims in

12180-599: The view that the Sri Lankan Moors in general are descended from the Marakkar, Mappilas , Memons , Lebbes , Rowthers and Pathans of South India . Sri Lankan Moor scholar Dr. Ameer Ali in his summary of the origin history of Sri Lankan Moors states the following: 'In actual fact, the Muslims of Sri Lanka are a mixture of Arab , Persian , Dravidian and Malay blood of which the Dravidian element, because of centuries of heavy Indian injection has remained

12296-603: The water without the need for firewood. The 1901 Madras Census noted that the Tamil-speaking Paravars "claim" to be kshatriyas (warriors) serving under the Pandyan kings, the word used suggesting some official doubt regarding the issue. Little is known about the Paravas during the Middle Ages . Indeed, Donkin has argued that with one exception, "there are no native literary works with a developed sense of chronology, or indeed much sense of place, before

12412-476: The world", and that the Hindu people who fished for oysters there " ... were known as the Paravas". He says that the Hindus were essentially peaceful in nature and temperamentally unsuited to counter physical threat, although Frykenberg has described them as a "... proud and venturesome seafaring folk engaged in fishing, pearl diving, trading, and piracy." Hastings has pointed out that the piracy (and some smuggling)

12528-452: Was a belief among Paravars that the Muslims sought completely to exterminate them following various squabbles. However, Mannar and Chandrasekaran have said that up to the 16th century the Paravars had held almost a monopoly of the rights to exploit the pearl fisheries, having negotiated with successive kings to achieve this. By this time, Maynard has claimed, the south Indian coastal areas around Kanyakumari were "the greatest pearl fishery in

12644-469: Was a rare thing in the agrarian economy of southern India and both lasted longer and was more elaborate than most equivalent Hindu systems of the area. Another writer has said that " ... by the beginning of the eighteenth century the Tamil Paravas had emerged as one of south India's most highly organised specialist caste groups", and adds that the hierarchical system had its origins in times prior to

12760-441: Was a riot and a successful move by the jati to replace the Jesuits with Goan Padroados as ministers to his people and officiators at the church of Our Lady of Snows. The Jesuits continued trying to split the caste for a further thirty years but rarely had more than temporary successes: the ranks of the disaffected were swollen by new arrivals but also diminished by those who left as a consequence of having obtained satisfaction from

12876-441: Was a tactical purpose to these decisions as by these actions he wanted to assert that he had authority over them. Furthermore, it was in the economic interests of the Paravars to foster these relationships because under British rule it was often the Marakkar who were granted the licences to operate the fisheries. Simultaneously, the Paravars were attempting to dissociate themselves from other Christian castes, whom they thought to be of

12992-525: Was only an occasional activity and that their more normal occupations demanded courage, strength and stamina, which made them "hardened adventurers". From 1527 the Paravars were being threatened by Arab fleets offshore, headed by the Muslim supporting Zamorin of Calicut, and also by an onshore campaign of the Rajah of Madura to wrest control of Tirunelveli and the Fishery Coast from the hands of

13108-427: Was providing increasingly profitable work. The Paravar elite continued their traditional role, organising this labour as they had done for the pearl fisheries. They also absorbed into their ranks those members of the caste who had profited from independent trading, this being achieved by requiring the newcomers to pay a fee and swear allegiance to the jati thalivan . However, there were people who had been cast aside from

13224-426: Was recognised as headman and official intermediary by the Portuguese from 1543 until 1553. (1543 was the year that the Portuguese first settled in Tuticorin, and the point from which that port began to expand until it eventually became the hub of the pearl fishery). His title of jati thalavan (head of the caste) was passed down through 21 other members of his family. Caste elders in the various villages were also among

13340-493: Was the banning of the feast of Our Lady of Snows as a consequence of the Dutch taking over all the Catholic churches, many of which were turned into warehouses. This event had originated when a wood statuette of the Virgin Mary was moved by the Portuguese to the church of Our Lady of Mercy at Tuticorin in 1582, its installation being celebrated with a nine-day feast which was subsequently repeated annually and much enjoyed by

13456-482: Was the location of the main cotton export activities in southern India and by the end of the century it was the fifth largest port in the entire of India. In 1841, the Jesuits' attempt to re-assert their authority over the elite by supporting the aspirations of a rising group of lesser Paravars who had also managed to gain from the Cotton trade and boom and had hopes of validating their success with an appropriate rank in

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