Masisi Territory is a territory which is located within the North Kivu Province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo . Its political headquarters are located in the town of Masisi .
84-469: Masisi territory has an area of 4734 km. Masisi Territory is administratively subdivided into four sectors: Bahunde, Bashali, Katoyi, and Osso. Masisi is bordered by Walikale Territory on the west and north, Rutshuru Territory to the northeast, Nyiragongo Territory and Goma to the east, and South Kivu to the south. Language-wise French is the DRC's administrative language. The most common language for
168-577: A corvée system in which Hutu were forced to work for Tutsi chiefs. Rwabugiri's changes caused a rift to grow between the Hutu and Tutsi populations. The Twa were better off than in pre-Kingdom days, with some becoming dancers in the royal court, but their numbers continued to decline. The first exodus of ethnic Banyarwanda from the jurisdiction of the Rwanda kingdom was the Banyamulenge , who crossed
252-583: A kinyarwanda word meaning ‘saviors’ or ‘liberator’. However, their presence in the DRC was supposed to be temporary, in order to allow them time and protection (the wideness of the territory and its forests offers much more possibility to hide than Rwanda) to build up an army and to organize their potential coup d'État. The FDLR FOCA is, today, divided in three main brigades commanded by ‘Colonel’ Mutima, ‘Colonel’ Sadiki and ‘Colonel’ Omega. Their number has been evaluated between 3000 and 4500 rebels (Mercier 2009) In order to develop their influence and control over
336-476: A Bantu ethnolinguistic supraethnicity . The Banyarwanda are also minorities in neighboring DR Congo , Uganda and Tanzania . Although the ethnic make-up of Burundi is similar to that of Rwanda, Banyarwanda is a political neologism used solely in Rwanda since the 1990s in order to mitigate ethnic division within the country following the Rwandan Civil War and the 1994 Rwandan genocide . In
420-673: A counteroffensive. The Rwandan army joined forces with Zairian Tutsi groups, including the Banyamulenge and Banyamasisi, attacking the refugee camps. Many refugees returned to Rwanda, while others ventured further west into Zaire. A Hutu extremist group known as the Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda , which seeks to restore the Hutu state in Rwanda, remains active in the Democratic Republic of
504-470: A hospital or social infrastructures. Even though in 2008 the FDLR represented an obstacle to food security in the sense that, through their taxing system and their lack of integration within the local population, the population was deprived from an important part of their harvest, the stability they imposed to the region ensured a certain regularity of food production and trade. In addition, the vulnerability of
588-538: A language of western Tanzania; together, these languages form part of the wider dialect continuum known as Rwanda-Rundi . With more than 10 million Kinyarwanda speakers, and around 20 million for Rwanda-Rundi as a whole, it is one of the largest of the Bantu languages. The language was likely to have been introduced to the area from Cameroon during the Bantu expansion , although the timescale and nature of this migration
672-675: A long history of written literature, and very little historical texts exist in the Kinyarwanda language. Writing was introduced during the colonial era, but most Rwandan authors of that time wrote in French. There is, however, a strong tradition of oral literature amongst the Banyarwanda. The royal court included poets ( abasizi ), who recited Kinyarwanda verse covering topics such as the royal lineage, as well as religion and warfare. History and moral values were also passed down through
756-430: A majority of the local population (56%) is Swahili . Congolese Rwandans speak Kinyarwanda (15%), Hunde (20%). A few people speak Tembo (2%), who migrated from Lubero Territory and Beni Territory , and a few others speak Nande (2%), which is more common in the south of Masisi in the two Ufamando groupings. The following lists the organizational subunits of the territory, as of 1977. The administrative center of
840-420: A minimum of six hours). The Mayi-Mayi Simba group was initially created in 1964 during the ‘Lumumbist rebellion’. It used to share communitarians ideals and motivations, but its motivations today are exclusively related to pillage and looting. They are located in the north of Walikale territory, on the western axis near the borders with Lubutu and Maniema (region of Oninga), but their activities have decreased in
924-675: A movement of protest orchestrated by the FDLR, which once again was reflected as a resumption of attacks on the population and the intensification of fighting with the FARDC. According to a member of a local NGO, this resumption could also be related to the fact that the opposition was constituted by members supporting the FDLR and the Mayi-Mayi. 01°25′S 28°02′E / 1.417°S 28.033°E / -1.417; 28.033 Banyarwanda The Banyarwanda ( Kinyarwanda : Abanyarwanda , plural; Umunyarwanda , singular) are
SECTION 10
#17327802607061008-662: A new round of fighting began. This round of conflict, the Second Congo War, also known as the African World War, was a complex conflict involving multiple rebel groups, foreign armies, and various factions within the DRC . In the course of the conflict, the original RCD faction fractured into several groups, with the Rally for Congolese Democracy–Goma maintaining control of Masisi. The war officially ended in 2003 with
1092-412: A prefix matching the prefix of the noun. For example, the word abantu (people) is a class 2 noun with preprefix a- and prefix ba- ; when applying the adjective -biri (two) to that noun, it takes the class 2 prefix ba- , so "two people" translates as abantu babiri ; ibintu (things) is a class 4 noun with prefix bi- , thus "two things" translates as ibintu bibiri . The Banyarwanda do not have
1176-446: A prefix, a stem, and sometimes a preprefix. Nouns are divided into sixteen classes , covering both singular and plural nouns. Some of the classes are used exclusively for particular types of noun; for example classes 1 and 2 are for nouns related to people, singular and plural respectively, classes 7, 8 and 11 refer to big versions of nouns in other classes, and class 14 is for abstract nouns. Adjectives applied to nouns generally take
1260-409: A return to Rwanda. They formed armed groups, known as inyenzi (cockroaches), who launched attacks into Rwanda; these were largely unsuccessful, and led to further reprisal killings of Tutsi and further Tutsi exiles. By 1964, more than 300,000 Tutsi had fled, and were forced to remain in exile for the next three decades. Pro-Hutu discrimination continued in Rwanda itself, although the violence against
1344-443: A significant proportion of the population into urban settlements. These armed groups often inflict robbery and violence on the local people, as well as engage in hunting and poaching of nominally protected species. The territory is composed of various terrestrial and fresh water eco-regions. There are transition forests in the northeast and wet tropical forests and farmed land in the southeast and from Gilbertiodendron and Uapaca to
1428-570: Is a security crisis but also tends to become a food crisis. Years of recurrent conflicts in Walikale has increased the vulnerability of the population and has disrupted the basic functioning of the economy and the society; without being considered as a humanitarian emergency yet, the situation in Walikale is too unstable and threatens the life of too many people to be left out of food security programs planning. The context of protracted crisis worsened food insecurity but did not totally originate it; it
1512-435: Is essential not to limit the analysis to insecurity itself, but also to consider the root causes of food insecurity, which can vary from one region to another. Unlike some other conflicts, where armed groups' activities and insecurity directly provokes food insecurity, in the case of Walikale it appears that structural causes, historical causes of food insecurity and insecurity itself are intrinsically linked. Walikale Territory
1596-500: Is from Kisangani , the capital of the Orientale Province. It is the longest way of the three (the distance between Goma and Walikale Centre via Kisangani is more or less 1700 km) but it is the safest. From Goma, it is possible to take planes to Kisangani. The itinerary from Goma to Walikale via Kisangani is the best to transport material, as the roads are good enough for trucks. It implies crossing North Kivu, following
1680-508: Is not known conclusively. It is likely that these migrations caused Kinyarwanda to replace the native tongue of the Twa, and the Tutsi may also have originally spoken a separate language, under the hypothesis that they migrated from Nilotic speaking regions. Like most other Bantu languages, Kinyarwanda is tonal and also agglutinative : most words are formed as a series of morphemes , including
1764-574: Is part of Virunga National Park , and contains the active volcano Nyamuragira and its satellite Rumoka . The area was traditionally inhabited mostly by the Hunde people , as well as some Twa people . With support from the Belgians , one of the small local chiefs, Mwami André Kalinda, expanded his chiefdom, the Grande Chefferie des Bahunde to encompass of all of Masisi by 1935. During
SECTION 20
#17327802607061848-647: Is produced by the Banyarwanda, although most originated as functional items rather than purely for decoration. Woven baskets and bowls are especially common. Imigongo , a unique cow dung art, is produced in the southeast of Rwanda, with a history dating back to when the region was part of the independent Gisaka kingdom. The dung is mixed with natural soils of various colours and painted into patterned ridges to form geometric shapes. Other crafts include pottery and wood carving. Traditional housing styles make use of locally available materials; circular or rectangular mud homes with grass-thatched roofs (known as nyakatsi ) are
1932-587: Is represented in the National Assembly by two deputies: After the Congolese wars, Walikale territory had known a period of relative calm: surely, armed groups' activities had not ceased, "food lootings" were still frequent, and armed groups benefited from the central state’s ignorance of the region to continue their mining exploitation activities and to extend their local power. However, almost no conflicts were going on between armed groups, and neither
2016-415: Is the largest territory in the province of Nord-Kivu , with 39.46% of its surface. The territory is bordered by Lubero Territory on the north, Rutshuru Territory and Masisi Territory on the east, Tshopo Province and Maniema Province on the west, and South Kivu on the south. Many armed groupings, often former Interahamwe or the militias of Laurent Nkunda , control the forests and have forced
2100-542: Is transmitted orally, with styles varying between the Hutu, Tutsi and Twa. Drums are of great importance; the royal drummers enjoyed high status within the court of the king. Drummers play together in groups of varying sizes, usually between seven and nine in number. Traditionally, Rwandan women of marriageable age and high-status Rwandan men would wear the Amasunzu hairstyle, with the hair styled into elaborate crests. A considerable amount of traditional arts and crafts
2184-636: The Congo crisis in the early 1960s, voting rights were first granted to the Rwandan immigrants. Their immediate electoral success prompted a backlash from the Hunde population, who took control of local politics under the slogan udongo ya baba (father's land). Increasing violence between the Hunde administration and the immigrant population spiraled into the Kanyarwanda War . The violence prompted most of
2268-609: The Great Lakes Bantu languages . This classification groups the Banyarwanda with nineteen other ethnic groups including the Barundi , Banyankore , Baganda and Bahunde . The Banyarwanda are descended from a diverse group of people, who settled in the area through a series of migrations. The earliest known inhabitants of the African Great Lakes area were a sparse group of hunter gatherers , who lived in
2352-620: The Great Lakes refugee crisis when there was an influx of around 600,000 Rwandan refugees due to Rwandan Genocide and related Hutu - Tutsi conflict. In the 1990s, Mobutu Sese Seko , the long-time dictator of the DRC , was facing growing opposition from various factions in the country, including rebel groups in the east. In 1996, a coalition of rebel groups, backed by neighboring Rwanda and Uganda , launched an offensive against Mobutu's forces. The rebels quickly gained control of much of eastern Congo, including Masisi Territory, and Mobutu
2436-591: The Kingdom of Rwanda was one. The first Banyarwanda were the people of this kingdom. According to oral history, Rwanda was founded on the shores of Lake Muhazi in the Buganza area, close to the modern city of Rwamagana . At that time it was a small state in a loose confederation with the larger and more powerful neighbouring kingdoms, Bugesera and Gisaka . The kingdom was invaded by the Banyoro around 1600, and
2520-408: The coltan mining center of Rubaya . Near the town of Mweso there is a tea processing plant as part of a 450 hectare tea plantation known as JTN. Beginning in 1975, Belgian priests introduced a cheese-making tradition, and small farmers in the area produce Goma cheese , a Gouda -like cow cheese that is the only significant cheese production in the whole DRC. The eastern portion of the territory
2604-520: The 1880s, although some Congolese intellectuals contest this. Scholars cite two major reasons for the migration; the first is that the migrants were composed of Tutsi trying to avoid the increasingly high taxes imposed by Rwabugiri, while the second is that the group was fleeing the violent war of succession that erupted after the death of Rwabugiri in 1895. This group was mostly Tutsi and their Hutu abagaragu (clients) had been icyihuture (turned Tutsi), which negated interethnic tension. They settled above
Masisi Territory - Misplaced Pages Continue
2688-612: The 1930s the Belgian colonial authorities, who controlled both Congo, Rwanda and Burundi at the time, implemented programs to encourage large numbers of Banyarwanda to emigrate to the Belgian Congo from Rwanda and Burundi. The population of Banyarwanda has increased later by large numbers fleeing violence in those two countries especially in the 1960s and the 1990s. An estimated 524,098 Banyarwanda live in Uganda , where they live in
2772-583: The 1940s, as well as Belgium's desire for labourers in North Kivu, accelerated this process. The migrant Rwandans in North Kivu became known as the Banyamasisi. In 1959, following a decade of increasing tension between the Tutsi and the Hutu, a social revolution took place in Rwanda. Hutu activists began killing Tutsi, overturning the centuries-old Tutsi dominance amongst the Banyarwanda. The Belgians suddenly changed allegiance, becoming pro-Hutu, and
2856-493: The Congo. Music and dance are an integral part of Banyarwanda ceremonies, festivals, social gatherings and storytelling. The most famous traditional dance is a highly choreographed routine consisting of three components: the umushagiriro , or cow dance, performed by women; the intore , or dance of heroes, performed by men; and the drumming, also traditionally performed by men, on drums known as ingoma . Traditionally, music
2940-574: The Congolese province of North Kivu , in the eastern regions of the Democratic Republic of the Congo . The headquarters are in the town of Walikale . The locality is situated between Bukavu and Lubutu ( Maniema Province) on DR Congo National Road No. 3 in the valley of the river Lowa, 135 km to the west of Goma . Walikale is rich in cassiterite , which is refined elsewhere into tin . As of 2008, Walikale's cassiterite resources were largely controlled by warlords empowered by
3024-487: The FARDC or by formers CNDPs. Their location – on the western axis directed toward Kisangani, on the North of the cities of Mubi and Ndjingala, next to the famous mining area of Bisié – is representative of their concrete motivation, which is mining exploitation. The territory is divided into 2 collectivities, Bakano (4238 km ) and Wanianga (19,237 km ), and comprises 15 "groupements" totalling 90 localities. Walikale
3108-547: The FDLR after the Umoja Wetu operation, mostly members of the CNDP and various Mayi-Mayi groups. The FDLR therefore represented at that moment, the most powerful opposition to the FARDC and by extension, to the central government, and therefore reassembled all military groups or rebels opposed for various reasons to the Congolese government. The consequences on the population of Umoja Wetu were dreadful: civilians became tools of
3192-405: The FDLR and the FARDC. (GRIP, 2011) Therefore, this military operation completely destabilized the relative organization of food production and trade in Walikale. Instead of regular taxation, armed groups began to steal directly from the populations and to commit exactions in villages and on the fields. Food and rapes became weapons of the FDLR and other armed groups in Walikale, weapons that led to
3276-425: The FDLR are mainly isolated forests and mining sites, exploited illegally and manually, with their own governance system, out of which we can identify: Cassiterite, coltan, and gold are being extracted from these mines and brought illegally to Goma through Masisi territory. The only way to reach these sites is by plane from Goma to Walikale Centre, followed by a long trek into the forest by motor bike and on foot (of
3360-632: The National of International court of justice. Location in Walikale: approximate zones of FDLR’s actions. The FDLR controls the territory of Walikale on wide superficies. Their presence has been detected on a wide axis going from the east of Oninga (border with Lubutu) to Walowa Yungu (Mpito/ Ntoto area) as well as on the western part of the southern axis going from the Kahrizi-Biega Park. They have different basis: The areas controlled by
3444-683: The RDC) in the region of Ufamando, in South Kivu. Today they have moved to South Walikale, in Walowa Loanda and Walowe Ubora regions, and control the southern axis of Chambucha to Karete. This position is very strategic as it is right on the trade road linking Bukavu to Walikale. They also control the eastern area of the Chambucha-Karete axis. The Mayi-Mayi Kifuafua is divided into two groups, and antagonisms have started to arise between
Masisi Territory - Misplaced Pages Continue
3528-622: The Rusizi river into the South Kivu province of the Belgian Congo . Rwandan historian Alexis Kagame wrote in 1972 that soldiers under King Kigeli II settled in the Congo in the 1700s, although Gérard Prunier casts some doubt on this hypothesis, stating that Kagame had "a tendency to exaggerate the power of the old Rwanda kingdom." International historians believe the first significant influx of Banyarwanda into South Kivu occurred in
3612-564: The Ruzizi Plain on the Itombwe Plateau . The plateau, which reached an altitude of 3,000 metres (9,800 ft), could not support large-scale agriculture, but allowed cattle grazing. Over time, the Banyamulenge identified less as Banyarwanda and more as Congolese. Having settled in the country before the colonial era, they were later treated as a native ethnic minority within the Congo, rather than as migrants or refugees. At
3696-530: The Rwandan government and the RPF signed a cease-fire . This ended on 6 April 1994 when President Habyarimana's plane was shot down near Kigali Airport, killing him. The shooting down of the plane served as the catalyst for the Rwandan genocide , which began within a few hours. Over the course of approximately 100 days, between 500,000 and 1,000,000 Tutsi and non-compliant Hutu were killed in well-planned attacks on
3780-502: The Rwandan monarchy was abolished in 1962 following a referendum. Rwanda then gained independence as a republic, under Hutu leadership. As the revolution progressed, Tutsi began leaving the country to escape the Hutu purges, settling in the four neighbouring countries Burundi, Uganda , Tanzania and Zaire . These exiles, unlike the Banyarwanda who migrated during the pre-colonial and colonial era, were regarded as refugees in their host countries, and began almost immediately to agitate for
3864-601: The Tutsi did reduce somewhat following a coup in 1973 . The Twa, the minority class of the Banyarwanda, remained marginalised, and by 1990 were almost entirely forced out of the forests by the government; many became beggars. In the 1980s, a group of 500 Banyarwanda refugees in Uganda, led by Fred Rwigyema , fought with the rebel National Resistance Army (NRA) in the Ugandan Bush War , which saw Yoweri Museveni overthrow Milton Obote . These soldiers remained in
3948-530: The Ugandan army following Museveni's inauguration as Ugandan president , but simultaneously began planning an invasion of Rwanda through a covert network within the army's ranks. In 1990, the soldiers broke ranks and launched an invasion of northern Rwanda as the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), initiating the Rwandan Civil War ; neither side was able to gain a decisive advantage, and in 1993
4032-529: The army and government of the former Hutu regime, including many leaders of the genocide. This regime was determined to return to power in Rwanda and began rearming, killing Tutsi residing in Zaire and launching cross-border incursions in conjunction with the Interahamwe paramilitary group. By late 1996, the Hutu militants represented a serious threat to the new Rwandan regime, causing Paul Kagame to launch
4116-541: The axis Goma – Butembo , Butembo – Komanda, Komanda – Nia Nia, Nia Nia – Bafwasende and finally Bafwasende – Kisangani. Then from Kisangani to Walikale, until Lubutu, the road follows the N3, and then secondary roads link Lubutu to Walikale Centre. The overall trip can take up to one week. In 2011, 55% of the population of Walikale has been affected by the consequences on the ongoing crisis in North-Kivu. This ongoing crisis
4200-566: The civilian population. One of the armed groups active in the territory is Nyatura , a majority Hutu militia which was founded in 2010 in nearby Kalehe Territory in South Kivu. Another active group is the Alliance of Patriots for a Free and Sovereign Congo (APCLS), a majority Hunde Mai-Mai . In July 2014, an offensive in the Masisi and Walikale Territories by the Congolese army and UN forces liberated 20 rebel controlled towns, freeing
4284-499: The colonial period in the 1940s and 1950s, the Belgian administration had a "dual colonization" policy of bringing in many immigrant white people and Banyarwanda ( Hutus and Tutsis ) to settle in the area, based on the promise of land. The colonial parastatal Comité national du Kivu [ fr ] gave out long term leases to the settlers in Bashali Chiefdom, to focus on tea and pyrethrum cash crops. During
SECTION 50
#17327802607064368-580: The conflict between the Congolese army and militias, which has plagued the eastern Congo since the ending of the Second Congo War . militias originating from the Rwandan genocide and the Congolese civil war, and Ugandan rebel groups, are involved in these episodes of conflict, which also relates to Rwandan border security and the control of eastern Congo's minerals by rebel groups and business interests. Armed groups have systematically targeted
4452-524: The current situation of food instability and humanitarian upcoming crisis. The November 2011 election was also a factor in explaining the resumption of armed groups’ activities, and in particular of FDLR activities. In fact, the accumulations of the alliance between Kabila and Kagame and of the various military operations led to the development of a real hatred on behalf of the FDLR against the government of Kabila; his reelection in November therefore provoked
4536-487: The end of the nineteenth century, the territory of Rwanda was assigned to Germany, marking the beginning of the colonial era. The first major contact between the Banyarwanda and the Europeans occurred in 1894 when explorer Gustav Adolf von Götzen crossed Rwanda from the south-east to Lake Kivu and met the king. The Germans did not significantly alter the social structure of the country, but exerted influence by supporting
4620-426: The existing society. Under this theory, the Hutu and Tutsi distinction arose later and was a class distinction rather than a racial one. The earliest form of social organisation in the area was the clan ( ubwoko ). The clans were not limited to genealogical lineages or geographical area, and most included Hutu, Tutsi, and Twa. From the 14th or 15th centuries, the clans began to coalesce into kingdoms, of which
4704-438: The first Congo war in 1996, the Rwandan army started to dismantle the refugee camp that had been created to host the refugees of 1994, in search of ex-FAR (Forces Armées Rwandaises). The ALIR ( Armée de Libération du Rwanda ), former FDLR, was, therefore, created by these Hutu rebels in order to dismiss the new Rwandan Government and to resettle a Hutu government. The use of the acronym FOCA (Forces combattantes Abacunguzi) refers to
4788-426: The forest-dwelling Twa lost much of their habitat and moved to the slopes of mountains. Others argue the Twa came to exist as a group who were in a close client relationship with the farmer populations, and that perceived physical distinctions are not from separate Origins, but caused by the advantages of small stature in forest hunting leading to more opportunities to have children and to those of higher stature leaving
4872-552: The governmental army nor was the MONUC was interfering with their activities. In addition, some armed groups such as the FDLR had even started to integrate into the social and economic organization of Walikale; as shown in a report by the Pole Institute dating from 2008, the FDLR had begun to constitute "a state within a state" (Rudahigwa, 2008): customary chiefs admitted at the time that an important part of Walikale territory
4956-512: The group. The removal of taller women from the marginalized class group may have also played a role. Historians have several theories regarding the nature of the Bantu migrations; one theory is that the first settlers were Hutu , while the Tutsi migrated later and formed a distinct racial group, possibly of Cushitic origin. An alternative theory is that the migration was slow and steady, with incoming groups integrating into rather than conquering
5040-521: The identity cards prevented any further movement between the classes. The period of Belgian rule marked the second major exodus of Banyarwanda, this time predominantly the Hutu; a 1926 change in labour laws by the Belgians allowed Rwandans to seek employment abroad, and many moved to North Kivu in the Belgian Congo as well as to the British Uganda and Tanganyika colonies. A major famine in
5124-605: The king and the existing hierarchy and delegating power to local chiefs. Belgian forces took control of Rwanda and Burundi during World War I , and ruled the country much more directly. Both the Germans and the Belgians promoted Tutsi supremacy, considering the Hutu and Tutsi different races while downplaying the Rwandan ethnicity. In 1935, Belgium introduced identity cards labelling each individual as either Tutsi, Hutu, Twa or Naturalised. While it had previously been possible for particularly wealthy Hutu to become honorary Tutsi,
SECTION 60
#17327802607065208-760: The kings forced to flee westward, but the kingdom survived and a new dynasty, the Nyiginya , was built by Ruganzu Ndori , which started expanding from its base in Nyanza . As the kingdom expanded, the people in conquered areas became part of the Banyarwanda identity. The kingdom reached its greatest extent during the nineteenth century under the reign of King Kigeli Rwabugiri . Rwabugiri initiated several administrative reforms in Banyarwanda culture; these included ubuhake , in which Tutsi patrons ceded cattle, and therefore privileged status, to Hutu or Tutsi clients in exchange for economic and personal service, and uburetwa ,
5292-467: The large Osso concession in Masisi. Since at least the 1970s, the territory has been divided into the four modern collectives: Bahunde chiefdom and Bashali chiefdom are run by the traditional ethnic Hunde chiefs, and Katoyi and Osso are organized as sectors. Beginning in March 1993, the conflict broke out along ethnic lines in nearby Walikale Territory . Although fighting ended in Walikale after two weeks,
5376-583: The last years in Walikale. It is very hard to evaluate their number, as today they often attack in alliance with the Mayi-Mayi Tseka, or very occasionally with the FDLR. One of the most recent grouped attacks is the one lead in the famous mining site of Bisié. Initially, the Mayi-Mayi Kifuafua was a self-defense group, aiming at defending their villages against the CNDP (previously called
5460-505: The late Stone Age . They were followed by a larger population of early Iron Age settlers, who produced dimpled pottery and iron tools. According to some theories these early inhabitants were the ancestors of the Twa , a group of aboriginal pygmy hunter-gatherers who remain in the area today. Between 700 BC and 1500 AD, a number of Bantu groups migrated into the territory, and began to clear forest land for agriculture. Some state that
5544-419: The leaders of these factions These different tendencies and orientations are believed to be at the origins of ethnic tensions between Walowa Loanda and Walowa Ubora. The official motivation of the Mayi-Mayi Tseka is the protection of Walikale against the Tutsi invader. This faction was formed by Tseka, a merchant of ore, by young peasant from Walikale having lost their lands during the war, by some deserters of
5628-465: The local residents. As of 2023, the majority Tutsi March 23 Movement has taken control of portions of the territory during its recent offensive . The Nyatura and APCLS militias are currently in a coalition to resist the M23. 1°24′S 28°48′E / 1.400°S 28.800°E / -1.400; 28.800 Walikale Territory Walikale Territory is a territory located within
5712-461: The most common. The government has initiated a programme to replace these with more modern materials such as corrugated iron. Kinyarwanda (also sometimes known as Rwanda language) is the native language of the Banyarwanda, and is spoken as a mother tongue by most Banyarwanda in Rwanda as well as those in the Congo and Uganda. Kinyarwanda is a Bantu language , and is mutually intelligible with Kirundi , an official language of Burundi and Ha ,
5796-467: The ongoing Kivu conflict . Specifically, the renegade FARDC 85th Brigade, under Colonel Samy Matumo , controlled the mine at Bisie up to early 2009, when it was replaced by "accelerated integration" FARDC elements. The FDLR is continuing its activities in the territory, with May 2009 attacks in Busurungi, in the area bordering South Kivu . Busurungi has around 7,000 inhabitants, spread between
5880-560: The orders of the interim government. Many Twa were also killed, despite not being directly targeted. The RPF restarted their offensive, and took control of the country methodically, gaining control of the whole country by mid-July. The victory of the Tutsi-led rebels led to a fresh Banyarwanda exodus, this time of Hutu who feared reprisals following the genocide. The largest refugee camps formed in Zaire , and were effectively controlled by
5964-463: The population was lower because the FDLR taxing system encouraged the production of foodstuff and the cultivation of land; the farmers and peasants were fewer victims of attacks and could access their camp with lesser fear than today. The growing power and activities of the FDLR in North Kivu led Kagame and Kabila to plan a joint intervention in 2009, to stop FDLR activities and to repatriate to Rwanda its combatants: this 2009 Eastern Congo offensive
6048-611: The signing of the Sun City Agreement , but fighting continued in some parts of the country, including Masisi Territory. During the conflict, Masisi Territory was a hotspot of violence and human rights abuses, with numerous reports of massacres, rape, and other atrocities committed by both rebel groups and government forces. The conflict also had a devastating impact on the local economy and infrastructure, with many villages and towns destroyed and large numbers of people displaced. Masisi Territory has constantly been subjected to
6132-458: The territory constitutes their strength. On the other hand, the accumulation of years and years of fighting and wild livelihoods (part of their members literally live in the forest all year long) as well as the discovery that their chiefs (involved in the 1994 genocide) have absolutely no interests in going back to Rwanda (the official and initial aim of the FDLR), where they would probably be judged by
6216-564: The territory is the town of Masisi , which contains Masisi Hospital, run by aid agency Médecins Sans Frontières , treats civilians and fighters from all sides of the conflict. The town is inaccessible much of the time, due to fighting. The town of Sake in Masisi, located at a crossroads, is the main headquarters of the United Nations Force Intervention Brigade (part of MONUSCO ). Other settlements in Masisi include Karuba and Burungu , as well as
6300-512: The territory, the FDLR tried on a few occasions to create alliances with the Mayi-Mayi Kifufua, Simba or Tseka, but at the moment no long term alliance has been created and fights between the FDLR and these groups are believed to have occurred on access to mines. The FDLR have an important impact in Walikale today: from all the armed groups’ presents in the region, they are the most organized, numerous, structured and their knowledge of
6384-401: The villages of Bunyamisimbwa, Busurungi, Kahunju, Kamaito, Kamanyola , Kasebunga, Katokoro, Kitchanga , Kifuruka, Bukumbirwa , Kilambo , Kitemera, Moka, Ndaboye, Nyamimba, and Tuonane. The ‘ Forces Démocratiques de Libération du Rwanda ’ (FDLR) was initially a political-military movement that was created in 2000 by Hutu rebels that had participated in the 1994 genocide in Rwanda . During
6468-628: The violence had since spread to Masisi Territory and the Bwito Chiefdom (western Rutshuru Territory ). This began with militias made up of the autochtone populations ( Nyanga people , Hunde people , and Twa people ), conducting a campaign aimed at forcibly removing the majority Hutu population from Walikale and Masisi. According to Doctors Without Borders , the fighting in March and May 1993 killed between 6,000 and 15,000 and displaced 250,000. Peace negotiations were attempted, but violence resumed in 1994, and then escalated significantly with
6552-463: The war, and the instauration of terror, recurrent massacres, and killings that followed Umoja Wetu were exclusively meant to put a pressure on the government. The military operation Kimia II and Amani Leo, led by the FARDC and supported by MONUC (which then became MONUSCO), worsened the insecurity in Walikale: not only were civilians victims of abuses meant to force the FARDC to stop their attacks, but also, entire villages were destroyed by fighting between
6636-615: The west of the country; Umutara and Kitara are the centres of their pastoral and agricultural areas. The Banyarwanda, through their language of Kinyarwanda, form a subgroup of the Bantu peoples , who inhabit a geographical area stretching east and southward from Central Africa across the African Great Lakes region down to Southern Africa . Scholars from the Royal Museum of Central Africa in Tervuren , building on earlier work by Malcolm Guthrie , placed Kinyarwanda within
6720-655: The western edge of the province. Since 1975, the southwest corner of the Walikale has been a part of Kahuzi-Biéga National Park . The principal peoples of the territory are: There are three main ways to access Walikale Centre from Goma. The easiest and most secure way is by plane: there are no internal flights between Walikale and Goma, but the MONUSCO often flies from one city to the other, as well as some commercial planes. The landing strips are also very precarious. The other ways of accessing Walikale Center from Goma are by land: Another possibility to access Walikale Centre
6804-523: The white settlers to leave, with all the remaining whites gone after the implementation of the Zaïranization policy in the early 1970s. Historical events such as the 1977 eruption of Mount Nyiragongo prompted additional immigration to the area. The Banyarwanda acquired the overwhelming majority of the ex-colonial plantations, such as the case of Barthélémy Bisengimana , who served as chief of staff for DRC president Mobutu as well as taking over
6888-530: Was forced to flee the country in May 1997. After Mobutu's ouster, Laurent-Désiré Kabila assumed power in the DRC . However, Kabila's rule was also marked by conflict and instability, as various rebel groups sought to gain control of the country's vast mineral resources. In 1998, a new rebellion broke out in the east of the country, led by the Rally for Congolese Democracy (RCD). The rebels quickly gained control of Masisi Territory and other areas of eastern Congo, and
6972-514: Was named Umoja Wetu ("Our Unity" in Swahili). Judging whether this first intervention was efficient or not is irrelevant here, but two months after, in March 2009, the FDLR had grown in power again and started to lead reprisal attacks on the population. In Walikale, the consequences of these reprisals led to a food and humanitarian crisis in 2009 and marked the beginning of insecurity and violence in Walikale. (GRIP, 2011) Many "volunteers" also joined
7056-453: Was under control of the FDLR, who had imposed its own rules and organization. Regular collections were organized within the local population of each village, and a part of their harvest had to be given, as a sort of tax. In exchange, the FDLR protected them. Furthermore, the members of the FDLR even started to develop economic activities other than mining looting, such as farming, local trade of foodstuff or manufactured products, and even building
#705294