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128-629: Mao developed the mass line into an organizing methodology that encompasses philosophy, strategy, tactics, leadership, and organizational theory , which has been applied by many communists subsequent to the Chinese Communist Revolution: from Che Guevara in Latin America , to Ho Chi Minh in Vietnam . Many CCP leaders have attributed their attainment of power to the faithful pursuit of effective "mass line" tactics, and

256-522: A "complete socialist order", the CCP intensified its cadre training program in 1950–1951 to ensure that all cadres and other workers would be "carefully indoctrinated in basic Marxist-Leninist mass line theory and practice". The problem was deemed so serious, that CCP leadership temporarily deferred several important social reforms pending the completion of the cadre training program. In 1958, regulation required Military Officers to work one month each year in

384-553: A "correct" mass line is supposed to be the essential prerequisite for the full consolidation of power. In its original conception, the mass line referred to both an ideological goal as well as a working method based on "pooling the wisdom of the masses" ( simplified Chinese : 集中群众智慧 ; traditional Chinese : 集中群眾智慧 ; pinyin : jízhōng qúnzhòng zhìhuì ) from which CCP leadership could formulate policy after further deliberation, adjustments, implementation and experimentation, which would in turn continue to receive feedback from

512-442: A 'right to the office' develops, there is a decrease in career opportunities for ambitious new hires and overall technical efficiency becomes less guaranteed. In a bureaucracy, salaries are provided to officials. The amount is determined on the basis of rank and helps to signify the desirability of a position. Bureaucratic positions also exist as part of stable career tracks that reward office-holders for seniority. Weber argues that

640-506: A Communist revolutionary party. The third phase of the Rectification Campaign lasted from October 1943 to 1944 or April 1945, depending on sources. It is generally known as the "Summing up party history" phase. Senior leaders restudied party history and attempted to reach agreements on major issues by admitting to "errors". The 1943 portion of the campaign included a "Rescue Campaign" that focused on group retribution . In

768-459: A company or any sort of work environment has the opportunity and right to disagree or to speak up if they are unhappy with something rather than not voice their opinion in fear of losing their job. Open communication is a very important part of Weber's bureaucracy, and is practiced today. Because of the communication it may not be the most efficient, but Weber would argue that improved human conditions are more important than efficiency. Weber's theory

896-546: A group. Individuals put through thought reform later described it as excruciating. The resulting changes in views were not permanent, but the experience overall seriously affected the lives of those who went through it. The CCP used these same types of techniques on millions of Chinese after 1949. The preparatory phase of the Rectification Campaign lasted from May 1941 to February 1942. The Campaign began on February 1, 1942, under Mao Zedong with his speech "Reform in Learning,

1024-604: A journalist and intellectual known for his belief in "democracy and science." Wang wrote an essay denouncing the hierarchy, bureaucracy, and inegalitarian distribution of resources in Yan'an. The essay irritated Mao greatly, and Wang was labeled a Trotskyist . Wang was arrested by the Central Social Department, modeled off the Soviet Union's OGPU , and beheaded in 1947. Under the leadership of Peng Zhen ,

1152-458: A regulated way for resources to be allocated. Formalization is a way to standardize organizational behavior. As a result, there will be stable expectations, which create the rational organizational system. Scientific management : Frederick Winslow Taylor analyzed how to maximize the amount of output with the least amount of input. This was Taylor's attempt to rationalize the individual worker by: Problems arose out of scientific management. One

1280-499: A report to the 7th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party ,emphasizing the necessity of selfless leadership, accountable to the masses. Thus, certain mass points had to be instilled in the minds of party members. One of such was the paramount importance of external audit of leadership by the masses. After recognizing that large numbers of cadres properly trained in mass line tactics were necessary to build

1408-458: A series of interrelated concepts that involve the sociological study of the structures and operations of formal social organizations . Organizational theory also seeks to explain how interrelated units of organization either connect or do not connect with each other. Organizational theory also concerns understanding how groups of individuals behave, which may differ from the behavior of an individual. The behavior organizational theory often focuses on

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1536-611: A shift to wage dependence, externalities from industrialization also created a perfect opportunity for the rise of organizations. Various negative effects such as pollution, workplace accidents , crowded cities, and unemployment became rising concerns. Rather than small groups such as families and churches being able to control these problems as they had in the past, new organizations and systems were required. These organizations were less personal, more distant, and more centralized, but what they lacked in locality they made up for in efficiency. Along with wage dependency and externalities,

1664-410: A specific ruler, not an institution. The hierarchical nature of bureaucracies allows employees to demonstrate achieved social status. When an officeholder is elected instead of appointed, that person is no longer a purely bureaucratic figure. He derives his power "from below" instead of "from above." When a high-ranking officer selects officials, they are more likely to be chosen for reasons related to

1792-411: A superior means the abandonment of bureaucratic principles. He articulates that providing a status incentive to inferior officers helps them to maintain self-respect and fully participate in hierarchical frameworks. Michel Crozier reexamined Weber's theory in 1964 and determined that bureaucracy is flawed because hierarchy causes officers to engage in selfish power struggles that damage the efficiency of

1920-496: A theory of bureaucracy is Max Weber . In Economy and Society , his seminal book published in 1922, Weber describes its features. Bureaucracy, as characterized in Weber's terminology of ideal types , is marked by the presence of positions that are earned and not inherited. Rules govern decision-making. Those in positions of authority demonstrate professionalism. There is a chain of command and position-defined responsibility. Authority

2048-505: A theory. Suggestions to view organizations as a series of logical relationships between its participants have found its way into the theoretical relationships between diverging organizational theories as well, as explains the interdisciplinary nature of the field. In 1820 , about 20% of the United States population depended on a wage income . That percentage increased to 90% by 1950. Generally, by 1950, farmers and craftsmen were

2176-400: A unified body of knowledge in which each development builds carefully on and extends the one before it. Rather, developments in theory and descriptions for practice show disagreement about the purposes and uses of a theory of organization, the issues to which it should address itself (such as supervisory style and organizational culture), and the concepts and variables that should enter into such

2304-533: Is according to Jung Chang and Jon Halliday , whose treatment of Mao has been regarded as flawed by some China scholars. ) The Yan'an era had a profound effect on the CCP and its future fortunes. When the Communists completed the Long March, the CCP was a relatively small band of less than 10,000 worn out troops from the south, displaced to an isolated and poor area in the hinterlands of northern China. By

2432-514: Is also part of a long spanning Marxist–Leninist "epistemology ( zhishi lun ) or methodology ( fangfa lun )". Mao acknowledged inspiration in the October Revolution and subsequent formation of Vladimir Lenin's Vanguard Party . Mass line also exhibits elements of ancient Chinese beliefs, which emphasized the importance of wise rulers reading signs of popular discontent in order to avoid social calamity. Some argue that Mao's conception of

2560-417: Is bounded. Weber begins his discussion of bureaucracy by introducing the concept of jurisdictional areas : institutions governed by a specific set of rules or laws. In a jurisdictional area, regular activities are assigned as official duties. The authority to assign duties is governed by a set of rules. Duties are fulfilled continuously by qualified individuals. These elements make up a bureaucratic agency in

2688-424: Is controversial and by no means accepted by all sociologists. There are certainly both positive and negative consequences to bureaucracy and strong arguments for both the efficiency and inefficiency of bureaucracies. While Max Weber's work was published in the late 1800s and early 1900s, before his death in 1920, his work is still referenced today in the field of sociology. Weber's theory of bureaucracy claims that it

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2816-665: Is extremely efficient, and even goes as far as to claim that bureaucracy is the most efficient form of organization. Weber claimed that bureaucracies are necessary to ensure the continued functioning of society, which has become drastically more modern and complex in the past century. Furthermore, he claimed that without the structured organization of bureaucracy, our complex society would be much worse off, because society would act in an inefficient and wasteful way. He saw bureaucracies as organizations driven towards certain goals, which they could carry out efficiently. In addition, within an organization that operates under bureaucratic standards,

2944-638: Is formally articulated in the 1927 Report on an Investigation of the Peasant Movement in Hunan , which Mao wrote while working in Changsha . Among other observations, the Hunan Report highlighted the challenges to and successes of local communist mobilization. In 1948, Mao would claim that the discussion of mass line had been ongoing for "the past dozen years". This situates its conception in

3072-586: Is goal-directed. Organizational theory covers both intra-organizational and inter-organizational fields of study. In the early 20th century, theories of organizations initially took a rational perspective but have since become more diverse. In a rational organization system, there are two significant parts: Specificity of Goals and Formalization. The division of labor is the specialization of individual labor roles, associated with increasing output and trade. Modernization theorist Frank Dobbin wrote that "modern institutions are transparently purposive and that we are in

3200-788: Is governments role to listen to the scattered ideas of the masses, turn them into systemic ones, and return them back to the people as a guide for action. This is a process by which leadership refines the views of the people, "pooling the wisdom of the masses", while constantly adjusting and testing decisions in an "endless spiral" of improvement. Pragmatic considerations evident in mass line include its ability to reconcile central leadership with mass consultation. It alleviates "two problematic tendencies" that occur with centralization: losing touch with popular sentiment and creating political apathy among citizens. Some have gone as far as to speculate that Mao's success resulted from his understanding of how government can employ mass line to its strength. Mass line

3328-418: Is not fulfilled the rest of them are unable to work in unison, leaving the organization performing below its full potential. One characteristic that was meant to improve working conditions was his rule that "Organization follows hierarchical principle – subordinates follow orders or superiors, but have right of appeal (in contrast to more diffuse structure in traditional authority)." In other words, everyone in

3456-499: Is not perfectly instantiated in real life. The elements of his theory are understood as "ideal types" and are not perfect reflections of individuals in their organizational roles and their interactions within organizations. Some individuals may regard Weber's model as good way to run an organization. A rational organization system has two significant parts: (1) specificity of goals and (2) formalization. Goal specification provides guidelines for specific tasks to be completed along with

3584-661: Is still ongoing, and is "not a short-term movement" according to the People's Daily . A new official website was launched, focusing on the mass line. In his own words, Xi has described the campaign in terms of "purification" of the CCP, often involving the elimination of " hedonism and extravagance", although the purification implied is sometimes extended metaphorically to issues such as "reducing air pollution". As part of this campaign, Xi Jinping has declared that "All Party organs and members should be frugal and make determined efforts to oppose ostentation and reject hedonism", although

3712-440: Is that the standardization leads workers to rebel against mundanes. Another may see workers rejecting the incentive system because they are required to constantly work at their optimum level, an expectation that may be unrealistic. The concept of formal organization has been touched upon by a number of authors in the subject of organizational theory, such as Max Weber , whose bureaucratic models could be said to be an extension of

3840-407: Is the argument of efficiency. Highest efficiency, in theory, can be attained through pure work with no regard for the workers (for example, long hours with little pay), which is why oversimplification can be dangerous. If we were to take one characteristic focusing on efficiency, it would seem like Weber is promoting unhealthy work conditions, when in fact, he wanted the complete opposite. Taking all of

3968-605: Is to collect the opinions of these mass statesmen, sift and refine them, and return them to the masses who then take them and put them into practice ”. On June 1, 1943, Mao formally articulated this message, the essence of mass line, in a report to the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party . In the report, titled Resolution of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party on Methods of Leadership, Mao argued that correct governance comes "from

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4096-562: The 1920s with the Hawthorne studies , which gave emphasis to "affective and socio-psychological aspects of human behavior in organizations." The study, taking place at the "Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric Company between 1927 and 1932," would make Elton Mayo and his colleagues the most important contributors to the neoclassical perspective. There was a wave of scholarly attention to organizational theory in

4224-659: The Long March (1934–1935). The area was known as a territory of camaraderie without corruption, though the Rectification Movement essentially changed everything. According to official CCP sources, the purpose of the Rectification Campaign was to give a basic grounding in the Marxist theory and Leninist principles of party organization to the thousands of new members who had joined the CCP during its expansion after 1937. A second, equally important aspect of

4352-603: The labor force by management. Taylor identifies four inherent principles of the scientific management theory: Division of labor is the separation of tasks so that individuals may specialize, leading to cost efficiency. Adam Smith linked the division of labor to increased efficiency and output. According to Smith, the division of labor is efficient for three reasons: (a) occupational specialization, (b) savings from not changing tasks, and (c) machines augmenting human labor. Occupational specialization leads to increased productivity and distinct skill. Furthermore, Smith argued that

4480-462: The modern worldview is the idea that "modern institutions are transparently purposive and that we are in the midst an extraordinary progression towards more efficiency." This concept epitomizes the goal of modern firms, bureaucracies, and organizations to maximize efficiency. The key to achieving this goal is through scientific discoveries and innovations. Dobbin discusses the outdated role of culture in organizations. "New Institutionalists" explored

4608-452: The 17-year-old-son of a high-ranking military officer for an alleged connection to a gang rape. Perhaps 20,000 party officials were punished within the first year of the revival campaign. Academic Alexander Korolev argues that: "If implemented not as a propaganda tool but as a mechanism of interest articulation and aggregation, the mass line has the potential to offer China alternative routes of democratization ." As part of his emphasis on

4736-466: The 1930s at the beginning of the Yan'an Rectification Movement (1935–1947). Mao's published works reflect this: in a speech given at the Yan'an Forum on Literature and Art in 1942, mass line was articulated as an unofficial doctrine of communism. In one section, Mao argues that cultural workers have a role to play in the revolutionary army just as peasants do, emphasizing that artists and their like must serve

4864-427: The 1950s, Western culture utilized mass-media to communicate their good fortune—attributed to modernization. The coverage promoted "economic mobility" among the social class and increased the aspirations of many hopefuls in developing economic countries. Under this theory, any country could modernize by using Western civilization as a template. Although this theory of modernization seemed to pride itself on only

4992-598: The 1950s, which from some viewpoints held the field to still be in its infancy. A 1959 symposium held by the Foundation for Research on Human Behavior in Ann Arbor, Michigan , was published as Modern Organization Theory . Among a group of eminent organizational theorists active during this decade were E. Wight Bakke , Chris Argyris , James G. March , Rensis Likert , Jacob Marschak , Anatol Rapoport , and William Foote Whyte . The scholar most closely associated with

5120-476: The CCP had 800,000 members, of which only a small group of approximately 150 members usually made all major decisions. Although Mao took charge of the leadership of the CCP after the Zunyi Conference , he was not yet in a dominant position. Even after Mao won a power struggle with Zhang Guotao , he was still one among many senior leaders, including Zhou Enlai , Wang Ming and Zhang Wentian . Before

5248-577: The CCP, and years later became central to the party's mythology that reminisced about the success of the Yan'an era. During the Yan'an Rectification Campaign, more sophisticated techniques of thought control were used than had been previously attempted in China. Relying on criticism, self-criticism, "struggle", confession, and the content of the Marxist doctrine, these methods were heavily influenced by contemporary Soviet practices of "thought reform". Under

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5376-466: The CCP. To do this he undertook a "thought-reform campaign" from 1942 to 1944. The effort was partly a reflection of Mao's wish to eradicate Soviet influence. Under the conditions of independently operating Communist areas and incessant warfare, Mao could not rely on discipline alone to guarantee obedience in the CCP ranks. In order to ensure the Party's obedience to his orders, Mao developed the techniques of

5504-492: The Central Committee published a directive condemning as a "principal weakness of the Party's propaganda" a failure to effectively give "systematic guidance and control of various levels of party organizations". The directive said that "One of the inborn duties of a Communist lies in the incessant effort to carry out propaganda among the people so as to educate them, to wage relentless war against all reactionary and mistaken conceptions and principles, and to promote as well as raise

5632-488: The Central General Study Committee to be in charge of the movement. This committee was run by Mao's close allies Kang Sheng , Li Fuchun , Peng Zhen , and Gao Gang , and later included Liu Shaoqi. This Committee temporarily replaced the politburo and secretariat, running daily operation for the CCP and making it one of the most powerful administrative bodies at that time. The Committee gave Mao

5760-594: The Central Party School. The lecture "Against Party Stereotype-Writing" in the cadre party of Yan'an in February 1942 interpreted the aim and policy of the movement in full detail – the event included thousands of cadres from the party. In this lecture, Mao Zedong declared: Why must there be a revolutionary party? There must be a revolutionary party because our enemies still exist, and furthermore there must not be only an ordinary revolutionary party but

5888-555: The Central Political School of the CCP began to carry out the Rectification Campaign among its students. Massive numbers of party members were forced to write reports of confession and self-criticism. The Central General Study Committee ordered people to report on their daily habits and speech. This stage was known as the "Salvation Stage". The Salvation Stage was the extension of the Maoist anti-Trotskyist movement and

6016-559: The Hawthorne plant of Western Electric Company, Chicago. The company was producing bells and other electric equipments for the telephone industry. Prominent professors in the research team included psychologist Elton Mayo , sociologists Roethlisberger and Whilehead, and company representative William Dickson. The team conducted four separate experimental and behavioral studies over a seven-year period. These were: The Hawthorne studies helped conclude that "a human/social element operated in

6144-774: The Northwest Public School, the Central Party School , the Academy of Marxism-Leninism, the Women's University, Yan'an University, and the Academy of the Nationality, as well as a number of special training programs. All veterans and new recruits had to be enrolled and educated in one of these institutions, in accordance with their previous training or their expertise, before they could be trusted with assignment to party and government positions. At

6272-475: The Party and Literature." A book entitled "Documents of the Rectification Campaign" was published and circulated internally. This book included essays including Mao's "Combat Liberalism" and Liu Shaoqi 's "How to be a Good Communist." In July and August 1942 the CCP issued the decision for "Research and Analysis" and "Improvement of Party Membership." The leading team for the campaign was established with Mao as director and Wang Jiaxiang deputy director. In 1942

6400-411: The Party and the popular masses". During the Maoist era the state supported a range of mass organizations, coordinated by the CCP through its united front system. The most significant of the mass organizations encompassed large numbers of people from major social groups, including workers through trade unions, students, youth, and women. Their purpose was to "penetrate society, to bring vast sections of

6528-532: The Party as of the mid-1940s consisted of 90% peasants recruited from the base areas of north China. The mostly young volunteers who arrived in Yan'an after the Long March were "vital to Mao because they were relatively well educated, and he needed competent administrators to staff his future regime." Most of the Long Marchers and rural recruits from within the Communist bases were illiterate peasants. It

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6656-503: The Party can systematically sum up after analysis and coordination the experiences and views of the masses and turn them into the Party's views, and then taking the resulting ideas back to the masses, explaining and popularizing them until the masses embrace the ideas as their own... " The next period would see a grappling with the role of leadership in mass line. In the 1957 essay On the Correct Handling of Contradictions among

6784-419: The Party during the war against Japan. The Yan'an Rectification Campaign was also directed towards the indoctrination of older CCP personnel. "The Party chose to re-emphasize its basic principles during this period, in an evident determination to maintain its Leninist foundations in the midst of all the changes brought about by the war-time shift to the united front." The Yan'an Rectification Campaign improved

6912-413: The Party in the choice of propaganda matter and methods appropriate for different periods of time". Earlier directives connected the need to boost consciousness of the mass line with criticisms and self-criticisms in the press. CCP members were supposed to "be trained to appreciate that criticism and self-criticism in newspapers and periodicals are necessary methods for strengthening the relations between

7040-589: The People , Mao outlines a new application of mass line feedback between leadership and masses. Arguing that bureaucracy has eroded mass line's efficacy, Mao proposes that intellectuals among the masses engage in a critique of government in what would come to be known as the Hundred Flowers Campaign . These critiques were promptly shut down when they became critical of government. An Anti-Rightist Campaign followed from 1957 to 1959. While mass line

7168-682: The Rectification Campaign Mao's contribution to the revolution in rural areas, and even his status as a senior leader, was doubted by other members of the CCP, including Xiang Zhongfa , Zhang Guotao, Li Lisan , and intellectuals such as Zhou Enlai, Qu Qiubai and the 28 Bolsheviks . Unlike his rival Wang Ming , Mao was not recognized by the Communist International as one of the CCP's preferred leaders. During this preparatory phase, Mao used his political skills to consolidate his power base. By manipulating

7296-593: The Rectification Campaign to implement 思想改造 sīxiǎng gǎizào "thought reform" or "ideological transformation". Mao's tactics often included isolating and attacking dissenting individuals in "study groups." The CCP established numerous schools, formulating a new type of educational system. Among these schools were the Anti-Japanese Military and Political University, the Lu Xun Academy of the Arts,

7424-497: The Red Sun Rose: The Origins and Development of the Yan'an Rectification Movement, 1930–1945 , have focused on the political nature of the Rectification Movement. Modern scholars have increasingly viewed the movement as being initiated by Mao in order to ensure his status as paramount leader of the CCP. According to Gao, the Rectification Movement had four purposes: Throughout the Rectification Campaign, Yan'an

7552-468: The Rescue Campaign, members would write about their own confessions, often pointing fingers at other members to save themselves from other people's false allegations toward them. The Rescue Campaign soon became a circular cycle of false guilt and fake reenactments sending many innocent people to death via needless witch hunts. One of the members crucial to carrying out the Rectification Movement

7680-529: The United States allowed not only for the development of organizations, but also for their spread and growth. Wage dependency, externalities, and growth of industries all played into the change from individual, family, and small-group production and regulation to large organizations and structure. As people implemented organizations over time, many researchers have experimented as to which organizational theory fits them best. The theories of organizations include bureaucracy, rationalization (scientific management), and

7808-483: The ability to exercise authoritarian power without being limited by elections and term limits. The earlier collective decision-making system of CCP center was abandoned, and Mao turned the government of Yan'an into his own dictatorship. From February 1942 to October 1943, the Rectification Campaign reached its peak. Mao gave the lecture "Improving the Party Work Style and Thought" in the opening ceremony at

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7936-409: The benefit of the superior than the competency of the new hire. When high-skilled employees are necessary for the bureaucracy and public opinion shapes decision-making, competent officers are more likely to be selected. According to Weber, if 'tenure for life' is legally guaranteed, an office becomes perceived as less prestigious than a position that can be replaced at any time. If 'tenure for life' or

8064-489: The benefits, countries in the Middle East saw this movement in a different light. Middle Eastern countries believed that the media coverage of modernization implied that the more "traditional" societies have not "risen to a higher level of technological development." Consequently, they believed a movement that benefits those who have the monetary resources to modernize technological development would discriminate against

8192-612: The bureaucratic system. First of all, he noted that bureaucracies are ruled by very few people with considerable unregulated power. A consequence is oligarchy, whereby a limited number of officials gain political and economic power. Furthermore, Weber considered further bureaucratization to be an "inescapable fate" because it is thought to be superior to and more efficient than other forms of organization. Weber's analysis led him to believe that bureaucracies are too inherently limiting of individual human freedom. He feared that people would begin to be too controlled by bureaucracies. In his view,

8320-443: The cadres who had survived the Long March and "proven their revolutionary credibility." All Party members were reeducated with the newly established "Mao Zedong Thought" in order to ensure their high compliance with the new leadership and the new party ideology. In order to secure his power, Mao supported his political authority with ethical and moral rhetoric. The Yan'an rectification saw Mao consolidate his position of preeminence in

8448-408: The case of the state and bureaucratic enterprises in the private sector. There are several additional features that make up a Weberian bureaucracy: Weber argued that in a bureaucracy, taking on a position or office signifies an assumption of specific duties necessary for the smooth running of the organization. This conception is distinct from historical working relationships in which a worker served

8576-479: The censorship of newcomers who had come from the areas governed by the Kuomintang. The Central Social Department took control of the movement and turned it into a mass persecution in 1943. Thousands of people, especially those new members who came from areas governed by KMT, were purged, kept in custody, censored, mentally and physically tortured, and occasionally executed. Many of them were labeled as "spies of

8704-424: The cessation of traditional methods in order to pursue more contemporary effective methods of organization. Urbanization is an inevitable characteristic of society because the formation of industries and factories induces profit maximization . It is fair to assume that along with the increase in population, as a result of the subsequent urbanization, is the demand for an intelligent and educated labor force. After

8832-413: The characteristics of Weber's theory have to all be perfect for a bureaucracy to function at its highest potential. "Think of the concept as a bureau or desk with drawers in it, which seems to call out to you, demanding that everything must fit in its place." If one object in the drawer does not fit properly, the entire drawer becomes untidy, which is exactly the case in Weber's theory; if one characteristic

8960-416: The characteristics that to Weber are hallmarks of bureaucracy, he recognized that a pure bureaucracy is nearly impossible to attain. Though his theories include characteristics of a highly efficient organization, these characteristics are only meant to serve as a model of how a bureaucratic organization works, recognizing that the manifestation of that model in life differs from the pure model. With this said,

9088-415: The classical perspective: the scientific management and bureaucracy theory. A number of sociologists and psychologists made major contributions to the study of the neoclassical perspective, which is also known as the human relations school of thought. The human relations movement was a movement which had the primary concerns of concentrating on topics such as morale, leadership. This perspective began in

9216-418: The communist program. In 1956, the 8th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party was held. In contrast with Liu Shaoqi's emphasis on the "audit by the masses" in his 7th Congress Report, the 8th Congress emphasized leadership's role as the director of the mass line. This was articulated by Deng Xiaoping in his report: " Whether the Party can remain correct in leadership will be determined by whether

9344-422: The concept of relying heavily on mass media for the betterment of society. The last wave of modernization theory, which took place in the 1990s, depicts impersonality. As the use of newspapers, television, and radio becomes more prevalent, the need for direct contact, a concept traditional organizations took pride in, diminishes. Thus, organizational interactions become more distant. According to Frank Dobbin,

9472-594: The concept. In Chester Barnard 's book The Functions of the Executive , formal organization is defined as "a system of contributors' activities that are consciously coordinated by the organization's purpose." This differs from informal organization, such as a human group, that consists of individuals and their interactions, but do not require these to be coordinated toward some common purpose, although formal organizations also consist of informal organizations, as sub-parts of their system. The scientific management theory

9600-456: The conditions of China'. The Rectification Campaign was successful in either convincing or coercing the other leaders of the CCP to support Mao. Because the CCP had overcome great odds to grow and develop during this period, the methods employed in Yan'an were looked upon in reverence during Mao's later years. After the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, Mao repeatedly used some of

9728-622: The country into decades of reform. While partially honouring the legacy of Mao in his 1981 Resolution on Certain Questions in the History of Our Party since the Founding of the People's Republic of China , Deng's leadership placed a lesser emphasis on Maoist egalitarianism and collectivism fundamental to mass line. One of the distinctive features of the national leadership of Chinese Communist Party general secretary Xi Jinping has been

9856-478: The culture of the May Fourth Movement with that of the CCP. The rectification movement is regarded by many as the origin of Mao Zedong's cult of personality . In the 1930s the remote region of Yan'an had not experienced the same turmoil and hostilities as other mainland territories. Situated in northwest China , the area was also difficult to attack. CCP members mostly arrived there after

9984-456: The development of a money economy is the "normal precondition for the unchanged survival, if not the establishment, of pure bureaucratic administrations." Since bureaucracy requires sustained revenues from taxation or private profits in order to be maintained, a money economy is the most rational way to ensure its continued existence. Weber posits that officials in a bureaucracy have a property right to their office and attempt at exploitation by

10112-530: The discipline, education, and organization of the membership of the CCP. Having lost many veterans before and during the Long March, the CCP found new sources of recruits among urban youth, students, and intellectuals. Alienated from the Nationalist government and doubting its resolve in resisting the Japanese, many new CCP volunteers were drawn by communist propaganda that portrayed the CCP as "the saviors of

10240-488: The division of labor. Each theory provides distinct advantages and disadvantages when applied. The classical perspective emerges from the Industrial Revolution in the private sector and the need for improved public administration in the public sector. Both efforts center on theories of efficiency. Classical works have seasoned and have been elaborated upon in depth. There are at least two subtopics under

10368-399: The effects of various environmental and internal constraints, and that the ability to navigate this requisite variety may depend upon the development of a range of response mechanisms. Dwight Waldo in 1978 wrote that "[o]rganization theory is characterized by vogues, heterogeneity , claims and counterclaims." Organization theory cannot be described as an orderly progression of ideas or

10496-436: The end of the Yan'an Rectification Campaign the CCP had developed an operational set of principles and practices that differed greatly from the centralized, functionally specialized, hierarchical, command-oriented approach imposed by Joseph Stalin in the Soviet Union. In what some authors have labeled the "Yan'an complex," the CCP emphasized a combination of qualities that can be summed up as: These became deeply held values of

10624-473: The end of the Yan'an era, however, the CCP's forces had grown to nearly 2.8 million members, and it governed nineteen base areas that contained a population of nearly one hundred million people. Party membership was strongly shaped by the devastation of the final battles for the Jiangxi Soviet , the Long March. With only a few original members of the CCP surviving until the end of the Yan'an period,

10752-491: The group. The individual then had to write a full "self-confession." Other group members isolated the individual during this process. Only when the confession was accepted would the person be drawn back into an accepted position in the group and in the larger society. These techniques of pressure, ostracism, and reintegration were particularly powerful in China, where the culture puts great value on "saving face", protecting one's innermost thinking, and above all, identifying with

10880-486: The growth of industry also played a large role in the development of organizations. Markets that were quickly growing needed workers urgently, so a need developed for organizational structures to guide and support those new workers. Some of the first New England factories initially relied on the daughters of farmers; later, as the economy changed, they began to gain workers from the former farming classes, and finally, from European immigrants. Many Europeans left their homes for

11008-407: The guidance of a group leader, an individual, as part of a larger "study group", would study Marxist documents to understand "key principles," and then relate those principles to their own lives in a "critical, concrete, and thoroughgoing way". Other members of the group put the individual under "extraordinary pressure" to examine fully his or her most deeply held views, and to do so in the presence of

11136-610: The inclusion of all involved stakeholders in decision-making. The teleological view of Weberian bureaucracy postulates that all actors in an organization have various ends or goals, and attempt to find the most efficient way to achieve these goals. "There is dangerous risk of oversimplification in making Weber seem cold and heartless to such a degree that an efficiently-run Nazi death camp might appear admirable." In reality, Weber believed that by using human logic in his system, organizations could achieve improvement of human condition in various workplaces. Another critique of Weber's theory

11264-430: The interpretation of what this means seems to have varied from one province to the next somewhat. Hebei province reportedly reduced public spending on official receptions by 24%, cancelled the order of 17,000 new cars, and punished 2,750 government officials. The Economist reported two specific examples of punishments under the new mass line: the suspended death sentence for corruption given to Liu Zhijun and charging

11392-640: The mass line reflected his faith in the people as well as a theory of "history from below." The principle of the mass line is reflected in the Party slogan " serve the people ". The legacy of mass line principles is also reflected in the interpersonal relationships between party officials in local party branches and the people in their jurisdictions. In many localities, county and township-level officials are required to visit villages in their jurisdictions to personally acquaint themselves with residents and their needs. Academic Jing Vivian Zhan describes China's petitioning system as related to mass line principles. Through

11520-454: The mass line, Xi states that officials should "pay more grassroots visits to listen to opinions from the masses ... think like the masses ... spare no efforts in eliminating public grievances and safeguarding people's interests." According to Steiner, the mass line is closely related to the CCP's propaganda apparatus. Despite the vast output from the CCP's propaganda apparatus, in January 1951

11648-552: The masses," and is delivered back "to the masses". This required strict adherence to two principles: combining the "general with the particular" and "leadership with the masses". In asserting this, Mao answered challenges proposed in the Hunan Report by summarizing lessons learned in the Yan'an Rectification Movement. The report was passed by the Politburo of the Chinese Communist Party in 1943. In 1945, Liu Shaoqi delivered

11776-413: The masses. The methodology is as follows: Thus, the mass line is a method in which theory is refined by practice, with leadership flowing "to the masses - from the masses - to the masses". In doing this, a line of feedback is formed between leaders and masses, representing the aggregate interests of ordinary people on their behalf, in a Maoist political line , ostensibly derived "from the peasants". It

11904-449: The members will be better off due to the heavy regulation and detailed structure. Not only does bureaucracy make it much more difficult for arbitrary and unfair personal favors to be carried out, it also means that promotions and hiring will generally be done completely by merit. Weber regarded bureaucracies as goal-driven, efficient organizations. But he also acknowledged their limitations. Weber recognized that there are constraints within

12032-415: The midst of an extraordinary progression towards more efficiency." Max Weber 's conception of bureaucracy is characterized by the presence of impersonal positions that are earned and not inherited, rule-governed decision-making , professionalism , chain of command , defined responsibility, and bounded authority. Contingency theory holds that an organization must try to maximize performance by minimizing

12160-537: The minorities and poor masses. Thus, they were reluctant to modernize because of the economic gap it would create between the rich and the poor. The growth of modernization took place beginning in the 1950s. For the ensuing decade, people analyzed the diffusion of technological innovations within Western society and the communication that helped it disperse globally. This first "wave," as it became known, had some significant ramifications. First, economic development

12288-715: The modern organizations and lead them in the direction that will maximize profits efficiently. Thus, the modernity of organizations is to generate maximum profit, through the use of mass media, technological innovations, and social innovations in order to effectively allocate resources for the betterment of the global economy . The Neoclassical perspective began with the Hawthorne studies in the 1920s. This approach gave emphasis to "affective and socio-psychological aspects of human behavior in organizations." The Hawthorne study suggested that employees have social and psychological needs along with economic needs in order to be motivated to complete their assigned tasks. This theory of management

12416-400: The monotonous atmosphere that division of labor creates; repeatedly performing routines may not suit everyone. Furthermore, division of labor gives rise to employees that are not familiar with other parts of the job. They cannot assist employees of different parts of the system. Modernization "began when a nation's rural population started moving from the countryside to cities." It deals with

12544-426: The movement was the elimination of the blind imitation of Soviet models, obedience to Soviet directives (mostly communicated to China via the Communist International ), and "empiricism". Mao emphasized that the campaign aimed at "rectifying mistaken ideas" and not the people who held them. Modern research by Chinese and Western scholars, in particular the interpretation of history professor Gao Hua in his work " How

12672-497: The nation", promising democracy and liberal reforms. As a result, hundreds of thousands of students, teachers, artists, writers, and journalists poured into Yan'an, seeking a revolutionary career. In Marxist classification these new recruits were of petit bourgeois origin. Their enthusiasm and various sorts of expertise were useful for the revolution, but only after they had undergone a thorough political reeducation and ideological reform. The process of indoctrination extended even to

12800-495: The only people not dependent on working for someone else. Prior to that time, most people were able to survive by hunting and farming their own food, making their own supplies, and remaining almost fully self-sufficient. As transportation became more efficient and technologies developed, self-sufficiency became an economically poor choice. As in the Lowell textile mills , various machines and processes were developed for each step of

12928-430: The organization. Weber identified the following components of bureaucracy as essential: When a bureaucracy is implemented, it can provide accountability, responsibility, control, and consistency. The hiring of employees will be an impersonal and equal system. Although the classical perspective encourages efficiency, it is often criticized as ignoring human needs. Also, it rarely takes into consideration human error or

13056-456: The people by becoming one with the masses. Becoming one with the masses was also asserted as a strategy by which leaders and local organizers could form a common language, Maoism , allowing them to unite and "analyze China's problems and propose solutions": “ Revolutionary statesmen, the political specialists who know the science or art of revolutionary politics, are simply the leaders of millions upon millions of statesmen—the masses. Their task

13184-594: The petitioning system, citizens can register complaints about socioeconomic problems with government departments and provide a mechanism for the state to collect political inputs from, and remain in contact with, the public. Throughout Mao Zedong's early revolutionary activity among the peasantry of the Hunan Province, he preached that the CCP must rely on the masses for its strength, serve their needs, "draw inspiration" from them, and orient its political ideology and organizational tactics to their responsiveness. This

13312-478: The political climate in Yan'an, Mao was able to break up the alliance of his opponents, most notably Zhang Guotao and the members of the 28 Bolsheviks, and to eliminate his rivals one by one. The Rectification Campaign was officially launched in 1942. Since the 4th Plenum Meeting of 6th National Congress of the CCP (1928), the 28 Bolsheviks began to take control of the CCP with the help of the Comintern. To gain

13440-409: The political consciousness of the masses." The directive called for the establishment of networks of "propaganda officers"—one in every party cell—and "reporting officers" at higher levels. Propaganda activity was to be conducted among the masses under strict control and in "fixed activity programs". Among other duties, propaganda officers were to maintain "constant public contact" so they could "assist

13568-689: The population further into the party's net," Frederick Teiwes writes. The largest self-proclaimed Maoist party in the US, the Revolutionary Communist Party , which proclaims itself adopted the concept of "mass line" during the 1970s. Organizational theory 1800s: Martineau · Tocqueville  ·  Marx ·  Spencer · Le Bon · Ward · Pareto ·  Tönnies · Veblen ·  Simmel · Durkheim ·  Addams ·  Mead · Weber ·  Du Bois ·  Mannheim · Elias Organizational theory refers to

13696-433: The production process, thus making mass production a cheaper and faster alternative to individual production. In addition, as the population grew and transportation improved, the pre-organizational system struggled to support the needs of the market. These conditions made for a wage-dependent population that sought out jobs in growing organizations, leading to a shift away from individual and family production. In addition to

13824-444: The promises of US industry, and about 60% of those immigrants stayed in the country. They became a permanent class of workers in the economy, which allowed factories to increase production and produce more than they had before. With this large growth came the need for organizations and for leadership that was not previously needed in small businesses and firms. Overall, the historical and social context in which organizations arose in

13952-428: The ranks as common soldiers. Bureaucrats were under similar pressures to learn from peasants, leading many to adopt the practice of personally inspecting locales. Liu Shaoqi, for example, frequented Tianjin , the municipality where his wife was born. Across many programs implemented throughout the 1950s, the focus was the "delicate area" of leadership relations with the unconverted masses: those who had not yet bought into

14080-530: The revival of the mass line in CCP theory and praxis. Xi's ideological contributions, described as Xi Jinping Thought , seek to reinvigorate the mass line. In 2013, Xi initiated the first of his Party's Education Programs on Selected Themes, which addressed the mass line. This program sought to address four types of harmful behaviors by party cadres and to require cadres to conduct self-examination and self-criticism in front of their subordinates and to solicit criticism from their subordinates. As of 2014, this revival

14208-400: The significance of culture in the modern organization. However, the rationalist worldview counters the use of cultural values in organizations, stating, "transcendental economic laws exist, that existing organizational structures must be functional under the parameters of those laws, [and] that the environment will eliminate organizations that adopt non-efficient solutions." These laws govern

14336-424: The skill of workers should be matched with the technology they employ. Although division of labor is often viewed as inevitable in a capitalism, several problems emerge. These problems include alienation , lack of creativity, monotony, and lack of mobility. Adam Smith himself foresaw these problems and described the mental torpor the division of labor could create in workers. Creativity will naturally suffer due to

14464-527: The strict methods of administration and legitimate forms of authority associated with bureaucracy act to eliminate human freedom. Weber tended to offer a teleological argument with regard to bureaucracy. Weber's idea of bureaucracy is considered teleological to the extent that he posits that bureaucracies aim to achieve specific goals. Weber claimed that bureaucracies are goal-oriented organizations that use their efficiency and rational principles to reach their goals. A teleological analysis of businesses leads to

14592-508: The subsequent history of the Chinese Communist Party, according to Kenneth Lieberthal . These included the consolidation of Mao Zedong 's paramount role within the CCP, especially from 1942 to 1944, and the adoption of a party constitution that endorsed Marxist-Leninism and Mao Zedong Thought as guiding ideologies. This move formalised Mao's deviation from the Moscow party line and the importance of Mao's alleged 'adaptation of communism to

14720-541: The support of those who might potentially oppose him, Mao labeled his rivals as comrades who were supporting the wrong cause. This rejection of ad hominem arguments made him appear politically and mentally superior to his political enemies. Mao categorized his rivals, or potential rivals, into two groups. One group was labeled "dogmatists," comprising Wang Ming, the 28 Bolsheviks, and those who had studied abroad and were deeply influenced by foreign theories, including Liu Bocheng , Zuo Quan , and Zhu Rui . The other group

14848-407: The tactics that had been successful in Yan'an whenever he felt the need to monopolize political power. To a large extent, the Yan'an Rectification Campaign began with the "systematic remolding of human minds." The United States Joint Publications Research Service estimated that more than 10,000 were killed in the "rectification" process, as the CCP made efforts to attack intellectuals and replace

14976-640: The variability of work performances (since each worker is different). In the case of the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster , NASA managers overlooked the possibility of human error. (See also: Three Mile Island accident .) Weber believed that a bureaucracy consists of six specific characteristics: hierarchy of command, impersonality, written rules of conduct, advancement based on achievement, specialized division of labor, and efficiency. This ultimate characteristic of Weberian bureaucracy , which states that bureaucracies are very efficient,

15104-635: The workplace and that productivity increases were as much an outgrowth of group dynamics as of managerial demands and physical factors." The Hawthorne studies also concluded that although financial motives were important, social factors are just as important in defining the worker-productivity. The Hawthorne Effect was the improvement of productivity between the employees, characterized by: Yan%27an Rectification Movement Taishō period Shōwa period The Yan'an Rectification Movement ( simplified Chinese : 延安整风运动 ; traditional Chinese : 延安整風運動 ; pinyin : Yán'ān Zhěngfēng Yùndòng )

15232-585: Was a political mass movement led by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) from 1942 to 1945. The movement took place in the Yan'an Soviet , a revolutionary base area centered on the remote city of Yan'an . Although it was during the Second Sino-Japanese War , the CCP was experiencing a time of relative peace when they could focus on internal affairs. The legacies of the Yan'an Rectification Movement proved fundamental to

15360-492: Was a product of the strong opposition against "the Scientific and universal management process theory of Taylor and Fayol ." This theory was a response to the way employees were treated in companies and how they were deprived of their needs and ambitions. In November 1924, a team of researcher – professors from the renowned Harvard Business School began investigating into the human aspects of work and working conditions at

15488-494: Was called a "revolutionary Mecca." One young volunteer described his feeling: "At last we saw the heights of Yenan City. We were so excited we wept. We cheered from our truck... We started to sing the " Internationale ", and Russia's Motherland March.'" The Party's leadership, however, reflected the CCP's origins south of the Yangtze River , and was at best supplemented by the intellectuals who trekked out to Yan'an to join

15616-427: Was emphasized in the late 1950 and into the 1960s, its practice became less clear. This has led some to argue that post 1960s China was "a situation of unprecedented mass activity without the mass line". By Mao's death on September 9, 1976, his own role had been elevated to the point that he had become the defining factor in the mass line. In 1977, the new preeminent political leader of China, Deng Xiaoping, would move

15744-405: Was enhanced from the spread of new technological techniques. Second, modernization supported a more educated society (as mentioned above), and thus a more qualified labor-force. The second wave, taking place between the years 1960 and 1970, was labeled as anti-modernization , because it saw the push of innovations of Western society onto developing countries as an exertion of dominance. It refuted

15872-457: Was introduced by Frederick Winslow Taylor to encourage production efficiency and productivity. Taylor argues that inefficiencies could be controlled through managing production as a science. Taylor defines scientific management as "concerned with knowing exactly what you want men to do and then see in that they do it in the best and cheapest way." According to Taylor, scientific management affects both workers and employers, and stresses control of

16000-463: Was labeled "empiricists", whose members included Zhou Enlai , Ren Bishi , Peng Dehuai , Chen Yi , Li Weihan , Deng Fa , and any other senior leaders who supported Wang Ming. Mao forced these leaders to criticize each other and self-criticize in rounds of meetings. Every one of them wrote reports of confession and apologies for their mistakes. Those who had produced self-criticisms were later persecuted according to their own confessions. Mao set up

16128-640: Was not seriously threatened by either the Japanese or the Nationalists . With the Soviets at war with Nazi Germany and unable to intervene, Mao seized the opportunity in Yan'an to "go to work" on his Party and "mold it into an unquestioning machine" in preparation for the all-out civil war against the Nationalists under Chiang Kai-shek that was expected to follow the defeat of the Japanese. (This

16256-607: Was the secret police boss Kang Sheng . Wang Ming was one of the main members singled out and forced to confess to having "errors." Wang was set up by his former friend Bo Gu , who coincidentally was also later condemned for pursuing an "erroneous leftist line" in Jiangxi . Zhang Wentian also made self criticisms. Wang Shiwei became a well known victim. Some CCP members thought Mao would also accept genuine criticism and spoke their true feelings of anger over hierarchy and inequality in Yan'an. The most famous came from Wang Shiwei ,

16384-438: Was these more recent volunteers who were Mao's primary "target". A large number of the young volunteers congregated in Yan'an, the capital of Mao's Communist Party. By the time Mao Zedong started his drive to "condition" them, around 40,000 had arrived. Most were in their late teens and early twenties, had joined the CCP in territories controlled by the Nationalists, and later departed to Yan'an. They were excited at reaching what

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