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166-515: The charter was approved by William and Mary on October 7, 1691, and established English rule of the colony by appointing a governor, deputy governor, and secretary, to be elected by members of the council. It took away many of its rights of self-government that had previously been enjoyed by Massachusetts and Plymouth authorities, transitioning the power in Boston from elected to royally appointed governors. William and Mary appointed Sir William Phips as

332-434: A head of government or a cabinet minister or in other cases (possibly as a message, for instance, to distance themselves without rendering offence) just a military officer or civil servant. For non-executive heads of state there is often a degree of censorship by the politically responsible government (such as the head of government ). This means that the government discreetly approves agenda and speeches, especially where

498-573: A bill to the Supreme Court to test its constitutionality, which are used under the president's discretion. The most extreme non-executive republican head of state is the President of Israel , which holds no reserve powers whatsoever. The least ceremonial powers held by the president are to provide a mandate to attempt to form a government, to approve the dissolution of the Knesset made by

664-518: A ceremonial figurehead with no independent discretionary powers related to the governance of Japan. Since the passage in Sweden of the 1974 Instrument of Government , the Swedish monarch no longer has many of the standard parliamentary system head of state functions that had previously belonged to him or her, as was the case in the preceding 1809 Instrument of Government . Today, the speaker of

830-500: A courier to London with the news. The treasure weighed in at over 34 tons, or £205,536. Almost a quarter went to Albemarle. Phips, after paying out £8,000 in crew shares, received £11,000. Phips was treated as a hero in London, and the find was the talk of the town. Some economic historians argue that Phips' find significantly affected history, because it led to a major increase in the formation of joint-stock companies and even played

996-496: A deposit of £100. Of the treasure they found, 35% would go to the King, and the rest would be divided among the otherwise unpaid crew. The plan seemed ill-conceived and suggests that Narborough was obsessed by the possibility of treasure. It is also possible that Phips was being used in a complex way with the sly intention that HMS Rose would act as a noisy decoy for his more important treasure hunt. Unlike Falcon and Bonetta , Phips

1162-532: A display would induce New England to submit to revisions of their charter from the Crown, rather than having it fully revoked. On August 3, 1683, Randolph wrote to Sir Leoline Jenkins , "I am now informed that the H.M.S. Rose is already fitted out for the Bahamas with orders to call at Boston for 2 or 3 weeks on the way." Randolph indicates that time is of the essence, and he is willing to travel with Phips or forego

1328-440: A federal constituent or a dependent territory, the same role is fulfilled by the holder of an office corresponding to that of a head of state. For example, in each Canadian province the role is fulfilled by the lieutenant governor , whereas in most British Overseas Territories the powers and duties are performed by the governor . The same applies to Australian states , Indian states , etc. Hong Kong 's constitutional document,

1494-419: A four-year apprenticeship as a ship's carpenter. He received no formal schooling. Despite a keen intelligence, his literacy skills were likely rudimentary. Robert Calef wrote, "It will be generally acknowledged, that not withstanding the meanness of his parentage and education, he attained to be master of a Ship." Once Phips achieved wealth and fame, he relied on a personal secretary and scribes for assistance, as

1660-496: A frontier settlement at Nequasset (present-day Woolwich, Maine ), near the mouth of the Kennebec River , on February 2, 1651. His father died when the boy was six years old, and his mother married a neighbor and business partner, John White. Although Cotton Mather in his biography of Phips claimed that he was one of 26 children, this number is likely an exaggeration or includes many who did not survive infancy. His mother

1826-556: A half years, to take up his new post as Provost Marshal General. Phips arrived back in Boston in the summer of 1688 and was welcomed back as a hero. His wife seemed very happy to see him. He was celebrated in sermons and at the Harvard College commencement he was compared to Jason fetching the Golden Fleece. Andros and Randolph were not so happy to see him, and it seems the feeling was mutual. Almost all of New England

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1992-523: A higher class than Phips. The articles of agreement testify to the trust that the King and Narborough placed in Phips, and the crew seemed willing to do as Phips commanded, but Knepp acts as if he is not beholden to Phips. Knepp's journal is addressed to Narborough (and Haddock ), and it reads like a sycophant's strong gambit for a future promotion. He presents Phips as the trope of a tarpaulin captain—every sailor his comrade, questionable literacy level—and so it

2158-429: A host role during a state visit , and the programme may feature playing of the national anthems by a military band , inspection of military troops , official exchange of gifts, and attending a state dinner at the official residence of the host. At home, heads of state are expected to render lustre to various occasions by their presence, such as by attending artistic or sports performances or competitions (often in

2324-436: A lengthy siege. Phips sent a message into the citadel demanding its surrender. Governor General Louis de Buade de Frontenac declared that his only response would be from "the mouths of my cannons". Phips then held a war council, which decided to make a combined land assault and naval bombardment. Both failed. The landing force, 1,200 men led by Major John Walley, were unable to cross the well-defended Saint-Charles River , and

2490-462: A letter was written from Whitehall to King William's secretary: "I must now desire your Lordship to acquaint the King that they are willing to accept their Charter ... and no longer Insist upon the Alterations mentioned ... " This could not have been Cooke and Oakes because they never wavered in their stance opposing a new charter. Mather's diary entry one week later (August 19) indicates that he

2656-498: A majority support in the legislature (or, at least, not a majority opposition – a subtle but important difference). It also gives the legislature the right to vote down the head of government and their cabinet, forcing it either to resign or seek a parliamentary dissolution. The executive branch is thus said to be responsible (or answerable) to the legislature, with the head of government and cabinet in turn accepting constitutional responsibility for offering constitutional advice to

2822-763: A matter of convention, the presidency has been held simultaneously by the General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party , the top leader in the one party system . The presidency is officially regarded as an institution of the state rather than an administrative post; theoretically, the President serves at the pleasure of the National People's Congress , the legislature, and is not legally vested to take executive action on its own prerogative. While clear categories do exist, it

2988-583: A mention or signature; and public places, streets, monuments and institutions such as schools are named for current or previous heads of state. In monarchies (e.g., Belgium) there can even be a practice to attribute the adjective "royal" on demand based on existence for a given number of years. However, such political techniques can also be used by leaders without the formal rank of head of state, even party - and other revolutionary leaders without formal state mandate. Heads of state often greet important foreign visitors, particularly visiting heads of state. They assume

3154-785: A notable feature of constitutions in the Americas , including those of Argentina , Brazil , Colombia , El Salvador , Mexico and Venezuela ; this is generally attributed to the strong influence of the United States in the region, and as the United States Constitution served as an inspiration and model for the Latin American wars of independence of the early 19th century. Most presidents in such countries are selected by democratic means (popular direct or indirect election); however, like all other systems,

3320-536: A number of Acadians to swear oaths of allegiance to the English Crown, appointed a council of locals to administer the town, and then sailed back to Boston, carrying Meneval and his garrison as prisoners of war. Phips received a hero's welcome and was lavished with praise, although he was criticized in some circles (and has been vilified in French and Acadian histories) for allowing the sacking of Port Royal. In

3486-416: A parliamentary system (such as India, Germany, Austria, Italy and Israel), the head of state is usually titled president and the principal functions of such presidents are mainly ceremonial and symbolic, as opposed to the presidents in a presidential or semi-presidential system. In reality, numerous variants exist to the position of a head of state within a parliamentary system. The older the constitution,

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3652-454: A reckless plan was concocted, probably by Narborough, whereby this New England native, despite having no background in the English navy, would be assigned as the commander of a 20-gun frigate, HMS Rose of Algiers, for a treasure hunt but given no other financial backing. He and his crew would be required to pay for all other expenses of the voyage, including food and diving equipment, and give

3818-439: A referendum to allow him to resume his monarchical powers and duties, but because of the ongoing controversy he ultimately abdicated.) The Belgian constitutional crisis in 1990, when the head of state refused to sign into law a bill permitting abortion, was resolved by the cabinet assuming the power to promulgate the law while he was treated as "unable to reign" for twenty-four hours. These officials are excluded completely from

3984-422: A reprieve to one of these but was impressed upon "by some Salem gentlemen" to take it back. At this point, Phips seemed to wash his hands of the proceedings, not relishing the idea of gaining the enmity of his own lieutenant governor and powerful clergymen, including the fully committed Cotton Mather and the somewhat more waffling Increase Mather. There is no record of Phips ever having traveled north to meet any of

4150-453: A response to the Board of Trade. Also at this meeting is Sir Henry Ashurst. These three—Mather the clergyman, flanked by two knights: Sir William Phips and Sir Henry Ashurst—would emerge later as the major proponents of the various compromises that brought about a new charter. Not counting Phips, there seem to have been a total of four agents acting on behalf of Massachusetts in seeking to restore

4316-607: A role in the eventual formation of the Bank of England . Phips and the crew were rewarded by the investors with medals, and Phips was knighted by James in June. James also rewarded Phips with the post of Provost Marshal General (Chief Sheriff) of the Dominion of New England , serving under Sir Edmund Andros . In September 1687, Phips returned to the wreck, though he did not command the venture. Admiral Narborough elected to personally lead

4482-490: A sailor and shipwright to select high quality anchors, chains, and cables to hold their ships securely in close proximity to the shoals for months as they tried to fish treasure from it. £500 worth of merchandize was taken along to barter for provisions, as well as to provide cover, or a ruse, that they were in Hispaniola merely as merchants, not treasure hunters. The London investors must have felt confident because they paid

4648-637: A sailor, crossing the Atlantic in half the time of another ship that they meet and making first landfall at Cape Ann. On October 27, Increase Mather recorded his one and only diary entry for all of 1683: "Randolph arrived at Boston." Phips quickly began to provide a show of force for Randolph by insisting other ships strike their colors and firing across their bows if they did not. Knepp claims that Narborough did not condone this, and many historians have followed his lead in treating Phips' activities in Boston harbor as arrogant showboating, but it seems clear from

4814-413: A salty bunch to say the least; a "rum lot" as Peter Earle calls them, and this final last-minute bait-and-switch, after the previous addition of Randolph, seems to have nearly put them over the edge. Everything we know about the crew comes from a detailed journal of the trip to Boston kept by Knepp, and he has rightly been called a "hostile observer", but he was often ignorant of the complex, dual nature of

4980-598: A share in the spoils of the Dominion, he might have stuck around and kept his head down. Instead, he stayed home in Boston only six weeks before shipping back to London to join with Increase Mather in opposing the Dominion and seeking to restore the original charter. This seems to be the first mention of Phips in Increase Mather's diary or correspondence. Motivated by a shared dislike of Andros, Phips and Increase Mather worked together to bring about his downfall. After

5146-523: A shipwreck lying on the white sands of the reef. The ship they had found was the Almiranta of the Spanish silver fleet (later determined to be Nuestra Señora de la Concepción ; the English did not know the name of the ship) wrecked in 1641. Over the next two days, the divers were able to bring up 3,000 coins and 3 silver bars. They decided to travel back to Phips to let him know, but this turned out to be

Massachusetts Charter - Misplaced Pages Continue

5312-508: A somewhat slow and treacherous trip among the reefs. After Phips was discreetly informed of their amazing find, he spent the next nine days preparing the ships and gathering enough food to sustain the men over months of bringing up treasure. (During the controversies that surrounded Phips at the end of his life, his critics like to portray him as hot-headed, ill-bred, and impatient, so it seems worth noting his careful conduct during this life-changing and momentous time.) Through March and April,

5478-421: A special Court of Oyer and Terminer was created to hear the accumulated cases . This may have been Increase Mather's idea since such courts were specifically mentioned in the new charter and no one had spent more time working on the details of the charter than Increase Mather. Nonetheless, Phips signed the order and may have composed it. The language of the order itself is curious because it speaks of concern for

5644-486: A spontaneous spiritual awakening, including heartfelt testimony, which Cotton Mather claims to faithfully transcribe "without adding so much as one word unto it." (Cotton Mather loved puns and inside jokes, which could be interpreted as his sly way of saying Phips wrote not a single word .) Both events are not mutually exclusive. Cotton Mather places the baptism the next day, March 23. The general court in which Cotton Mather played an active role may have made Phips free with

5810-583: A tenuous peace agreement with the Abenaki people . By the time Phips returned from Maine on September 29, 1692, twenty people had been executed and the accusations and arrests continued, including charges against many high-profile individuals, allegedly including Phips's own wife. At this point, Phips finally let it be known that the Court of Oyer and Terminer "must fall". A new court was formed with instructions to entirely disregard spectral evidence. But Stoughton

5976-507: A theatrical honour box, on a platform, on the front row, at the honours table), expositions, national day celebrations , dedication events, military parades and war remembrances, prominent funerals, visiting different parts of the country and people from different walks of life, and at times performing symbolic acts such as cutting a ribbon , groundbreaking , ship christening , laying the first stone. Some parts of national life receive their regular attention, often on an annual basis, or even in

6142-596: A total of £3,210 outfitting the ships for the voyage. Unlike the voyage of the Rose , the crew were to be paid regular wages. Phips sailed from the Downs on September 12, 1686, and on November 28, arrived in Hispaniola, Samana Bay, where they spent two weeks restocking their water and provender. The weather was bad, and the search consequently did not get underway for a few more weeks. On January 12, Phips sent out Captain Rogers in

6308-527: A town born child, Captain Phips answering him, 'Let him be what he would, he had been sworn at sixteen years of age to be true to the King and his government." (As if in an act of delayed vengeance, HMS Rose would be boarded and demasted, and its captain John George imprisoned, less than six years later during the Boston revolt .) Randolph's writ of quo warranto required a response from Massachusetts by

6474-427: A young man. During King Philip's War, when many took up arms, Phips built ships and cut lumber. John Knepp's journal testifies to Phips' constitutional disinterest in military discipline. Yet Phips' control of a naval gunship, and his subsequent actions, seem to have suggested he was a good candidate to lead a large military expedition. Sewall writes: Saturday, March 22. Sir William Phips offers himself to go in person,

6640-421: Is Sewall's entire entry, and he has no entry for the next day. It shows that Phips, though knighted, one of the richest men in the colony, and highly active on the colony's behalf, was not yet able to vote or serve under the provisional government because they were following the old charter, wherein only church members were free. The court, not the church, made Phips free on this Saturday, according to Sewall. Sewall

6806-405: Is an executive president that is both head of state and head of government. Likewise, in some parliamentary systems the head of state is not the head of government, but still has significant powers, for example Morocco . In contrast, a semi-presidential system , such as France , has both heads of state and government as the de facto leaders of the nation (in practice they divide the leadership of

Massachusetts Charter - Misplaced Pages Continue

6972-410: Is carefully scribed with few cross-outs or mistakes, suggesting it was not so much "minutes" of a meeting as a careful construction after the fact. It is not endorsed by any minister or government official. According to Cotton Mather's telling, the ministers at the gathering simultaneously urged both caution and speedy prosecution. Most importantly, Cotton Mather's Return does not disallow, or discredit,

7138-558: Is defined in the constitution as "the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people" (article 1), and is generally recognised throughout the world as the Japanese head of state. Although the emperor formally appoints the prime minister to office, article 6 of the constitution requires him to appoint the candidate "as designated by the Diet", without any right to decline appointment. He is

7304-479: Is known to have had six children by James Phips and eight by White. His father was poor, but his ancestry may have descended from country gentry in Nottinghamshire , at least technically. Constantine Phipps , Lord Chancellor of Ireland, seems to have been a cousin of Phips, five years his junior. Phips watched over his family's flock of sheep, according to Mather, until the age of 18, after which he began

7470-417: Is probably safe to infer that Knepp was of the gentleman class and likely some years younger than Phips, perhaps in his mid-twenties. Knepp is excellent at taking coordinates and seems trained in piloting, but does not exhibit a breadth of experience or knowledge of the rigging. Though he records every perceived misstep by Phips, his careful plotting of the journey also shows the great ability Phips possessed as

7636-561: Is sometimes difficult to choose which category some individual heads of state belong to. In reality, the category to which each head of state belongs is assessed not by theory but by practice. Constitutional change in Liechtenstein in 2003 gave its head of state, the Reigning Prince , constitutional powers that included a veto over legislation and power to dismiss the head of government and cabinet. It could be argued that

7802-518: Is still either unaware or has not yet accepted this move. On August 20, the Earl of Nottingham told a committee that he had been with Sir William Phips, who informed him that the New England agents "did acquiesce therein [with the new charter]." By August 27, Increase Mather had decided to participate in the process of shaping this new charter, if reluctantly. A number of Mather's requests concerning

7968-480: The 1689 Boston revolt , the Dominion of New England fell apart. The dominion had been an attempt by the Crown to consolidate some North American colonies into one entity and consisted of the Massachusetts Bay Colony , Province of New Hampshire , Plymouth Colony , Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations , Connecticut Colony , Province of New York , and Province of New Jersey . With

8134-457: The Basic Law , for example, specifies the chief executive as the head of the special administrative region, in addition to their role as the head of government. These non-sovereign-state heads, nevertheless, have limited or no role in diplomatic affairs, depending on the status and the norms and practices of the territories concerned. In parliamentary systems the head of state may be merely

8300-713: The Colony of New York , but the colonial leaders insisted that they become part of the Massachusetts Bay Colony instead. A draft of the charter was drawn up by the Attorney-General that allowed the Royal Governor to be chosen by the Crown, but the Governor's Council , the deputy governor , and the lower house of the General Court were to be elected by the colonists. These proposals were dismissed by

8466-497: The Dominion government he helped bring about and with a vehemence that would seem to suggest some degree of shame and dismay for the role he played as Captain of HMS Rose in 1683–84. After leaving Boston, Phips searched the picked over wrecks in the Bahamas with limited success. Too many other treasure hunters had already gone before. When some of his crew became mutinous, he had them put off in Jamaica. On November 18, 1684, Phips

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8632-771: The Glorious Revolution in late 1688 replaced the Catholic James with the Protestant monarchs William III and Mary II , Phips and Mather petitioned the new monarchs for restoration of the Massachusetts charter and successfully convinced the Lords of Trade to delay the transmission of formal instructions about the change of power to Andros. Phips returned to Boston in May 1689, carrying proclamations from

8798-533: The National Assembly ( legislature ) and is thus similar, in principle, to a head of government in a parliamentary system but is also, in addition, recognised as the head of state. The offices of president of Nauru and president of Botswana are similar in this respect to the South African presidency. Panama , during the military dictatorships of Omar Torrijos and Manuel Noriega ,

8964-632: The Privy Council on the grounds it gave too much control to the colonists and diminished the rightful authority of the Crown. In 1692, William Phips arrived in Boston with a copy of the new charter that was written by the Privy Council , although many in Massachusetts Bay objected to their not being able to return to their original 1629 charter (other colonies were allowed to return to their original charters). Despite opposition from many colonial leaders, when Phips arrived, he assembled

9130-640: The Reichstag , which was expected, in normal circumstances, to be answerable to the Reichstag. Initially, the president was merely a symbolic figure with the Reichstag dominant; however, persistent political instability, in which governments often lasted only a few months, led to a change in the power structure of the republic, with the president's emergency powers called increasingly into use to prop up governments challenged by critical or even hostile Reichstag votes. By 1932, power had shifted to such an extent that

9296-409: The Rose became a focal point for the resistance, as Knepp dutifully recorded without understanding the subtext: "Phips crew say that they would as soon fire against this town as against Algiers and called us rebels," is one deposition Knepp records though Knepp seems to believe he is merely recording a barroom brawl. " ... one of the constables in particular told him that he thought Capt. Phips had been

9462-473: The Rose . Pepys had been out of power when Narborough set the strange plan in motion. In March and May 1686, Phips was ordered to attend the Lord Treasurer, where it was found that the king was only to receive £471 in treasure, though the wear and tear on the Rose was estimated at £700. In this age of piracy and high mortality, Phips making it back to London alive and with the King's ship still afloat

9628-496: The Viceroy and Governor-General of India . Head of state is the highest-ranking constitutional position in a sovereign state. A head of state has some or all of the roles listed below, often depending on the constitutional category (above), and does not necessarily regularly exercise the most power or influence of governance. There is usually a formal public ceremony when a person becomes head of state, or some time after. This may be

9794-413: The constitutionally socialist state type inspired by the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) and its constitutive Soviet republics , real political power belonged to the sole legal party. In these states, there was no formal office of head of state, but rather the leader of the legislative branch was considered to be the closest common equivalent of a head of state as a natural person . In

9960-720: The de facto Soviet leader at the moment. For example, Nikita Khrushchev never headed the Supreme Soviet but was First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party (party leader) and Chairman of the Council of Ministers ( head of government ). This may even lead to an institutional variability, as in North Korea , where, after the presidency of party leader Kim Il Sung , the office

10126-507: The high contracting party with respect to international treaties. The remaining official functions of the sovereign, by constitutional mandate or by unwritten convention, are to open the annual session of the Riksdag, receive foreign ambassadors and sign the letters of credence for Swedish ambassadors, chair the foreign advisory committee, preside at the special Cabinet council when a new prime minister takes office, and to be kept informed by

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10292-429: The party leader , rather than the office of president. Former French president Charles de Gaulle , while developing the current Constitution of France (1958), said that the head of state should embody l'esprit de la nation ("the spirit of the nation"). Some academic writers discuss states and governments in terms of "models". An independent nation state normally has a head of state, and determines

10458-529: The personification of the Canadian state and is described by the Department of Canadian Heritage as the "personal symbol of allegiance, unity and authority for all Canadians". In many countries, official portraits of the head of state can be found in government offices, courts of law, or other public buildings. The idea, sometimes regulated by law, is to use these portraits to make the public aware of

10624-469: The "afflicted" or attend a single Oyer and Terminer trial or execution. Instead, Phips continued to work on recruiting troops and gathering supplies to build a fort in Maine, and he left the province around August 1 and was gone the entire month and much of September. William Stoughton seems to have officially taken over executive powers in this period of Phips's absence. French and Indian raids had resumed in

10790-482: The "imperial model", because the executive officials of the government are answerable solely and exclusively to a presiding, acting head of state, and is selected by and on occasion dismissed by the head of state without reference to the legislature. It is notable that some presidential systems, while not providing for collective executive accountability to the legislature, may require legislative approval for individuals prior to their assumption of cabinet office and empower

10956-462: The Acadian capital, Port Royal . On May 9 he summoned Governor Louis-Alexandre des Friches de Meneval to surrender. Meneval, in command of about 70 men and a fort in disrepair, promptly negotiated terms of capitulation. When Phips came ashore the next day, it was discovered that Acadians had been removing valuables, including some that were government property (and thus were supposed to come under

11122-601: The Boston Harbor on January 19, 1684 but unfortunately not before some of his rogue-ish crew could cause a small riot in Boston and perpetrate a despicable assault in Hull, according to Knepp. Knepp was not on board, meaning he had effectively deserted according to the Articles, "though I should be almost undone by it" and so it became all the more important for Knepp to show Phips in a bad light. Two days after Phips left

11288-493: The Boston area, Increase Mather gave a rousing speech to the deputies and freemen advising them not to submit to the Crown and to resist the quo warranto . One historian calls this Increase Mather's "first important entry into politics." {Mather's " Remarkable Providences " was distributed this same month, with echoes to the New England government Increase Mather assembles in 1692.} It had been Phips' debut into colonial politics too, if clumsily and involuntarily. To what extent he

11454-483: The Boston area. On June 8, William Stoughton ordered a woman accused of witchcraft (Bridget Bishop) to be executed only two days later, though tradition had been to allow at least four days between order and execution. The following Monday, the clergy all around the Boston area were asked to officially weigh in on the issue. There is no official record of this meeting except what was written down by Increase Mather's son Cotton Mather and usually referred to as The Return of

11620-658: The General Court by Thomas Gage . The members of the General Court cited the 1691 Charter as their constitutional authority and did not recognize the actions of Gage as legitimate. The delegates then met and formed the Massachusetts Provincial Congress in 1774. The Provincial Congress became the revolutionary government of the Province of Massachusetts Bay , with the 1691 charter acting as the de facto constitution of Massachusetts Bay until

11786-567: The General Court was to remain intact and allowed to continue to pass governmental rulings, with the condition that the Royal Governor had veto power. The upper house of the legislature was to be codified as the Governor's Council , instead of the previous "Board of assistants." The councilors were to be elected by the General Court with the Governor's assent. The General Court was to be given control of most Provincial affairs, aside from admiralty and commercial rulings, areas that were to remain under

11952-401: The General Court, and the majority of members approved the charter and declared a day of prayer and thanksgiving . Other than an increase in land under control of the General Court in Boston were other "constitutional" changes. The religious requirement that had existed for suffrage was changed to a property requirement, which widened the margin of those men able to vote. The lower house of

12118-487: The German president, Paul von Hindenburg , was able to dismiss a chancellor and select his own person for the job, even though the outgoing chancellor possessed the confidence of the Reichstag while the new chancellor did not. Subsequently, President von Hindenburg used his power to appoint Adolf Hitler as Chancellor without consulting the Reichstag. Note: The head of state in a "presidential" system may not actually hold

12284-468: The Governor [Bradstreet] sends for me, and tells me of it, I tell the [General] Court; they send for Sir William who accepts to go, and is appointed to command the forces. Major Townsend relinquishes with thanks. Sir William had been sent to at first ; but some feared he would not go; others thought his Lady would not consent. Court makes Sir William free and swear him Major General, and several others. Adjourn to Boston, Wednesday,14 night one o'clock. This

12450-547: The King and Queen and found Andros and Randolph had already been arrested in a revolt in Boston . Phips served for a time as an Overseer guarding Andros and Randolph in the prison at Castle Island. If Paris were worth a mass to Henry IV, Boston was worth a conversion, in the Puritan sense, to William Phips. The turmoil in England and William's accession to the throne had prompted New France 's Governor to take advantage of

12616-463: The Ministers , which was put into print at the end of 1692 in a book by Increase Mather, after Phips's had disrupted the trials and disbanded the Court of Oyer and Terminer. The manuscript was unknown to historians until 1943, when it was presented to archivists in a trove of documents including the infamous Letter from Cotton Mather to William Stoughton, September 2, 1692 . Cotton Mather's manuscript

12782-481: The Plymouth Colony, islands south of Cape Cod including Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket , and the present-day territories of Maine , New Brunswick , and Nova Scotia . It also expanded the franchise to be nearly universal (for males). Phips and Increase Mather were odd fellows, without much in common, but they had become politically conjoined to the new charter, and it would be their job to sell it to

12948-520: The Riksdag appoints (following a vote in the Riksdag ) the prime minister and terminates their commission following a vote of no confidence or voluntary resignation. Cabinet members are appointed and dismissed at the sole discretion of the prime minister. Laws and ordinances are promulgated by two Cabinet members in unison signing "On Behalf of the Government" and the government—not the monarch—is

13114-944: The Soviet Union this position carried such titles as Chairman of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR ; Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet ; and in the case of the Soviet Russia Chairman of the Central Executive Committee of the All-Russian Congress of Soviets (pre-1922), and Chairman of the Bureau of the Central Committee of the Russian SFSR (1956–1966). This position may or may not have been held by

13280-492: The admission of spectral evidence (accusations of a crime committed by one's "specter", against which there is no alibi possible). The Mathers, father and son, continued to debate this issue with other area ministers, like Samuel Willard , throughout the summer and into the fall, as documented by the minutes of the Cambridge Association . At the end of June, five more women were condemned to die. Phips granted

13446-461: The approval of each of the six independent realms of which he was monarch. In monarchies with a written constitution, the position of monarch is created under the constitution and could be abolished through a democratic procedure of constitutional amendment. In many cases there are significant procedural hurdles imposed on such a procedure (as in the Constitution of Spain ). In republics with

13612-517: The banks where Stanley had been diligently searching for over a year. The decisiveness with which Phips later returned and quickly located the treasure suggests that he was able to gather valuable knowledge and began to formulate a clear plan, though he would have to wait two years to bring it to fruition. After Phips returned to London in August 1685, Samuel Pepys ordered the Navy Board to assess

13778-479: The breakup of the dominion, the Crown consolidated colonies around New England , specifically the Massachusetts Bay Colony , the Plymouth Colony , and territories such as Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket . With the dissolution of the dominion, many colonies were concerned about their future status of annexation by other colonies. For instance, the Plymouth Colony was originally meant to be transferred to

13944-512: The captain). It was a lucrative post and required an investment to procure, hence it usually went to young Naval clerks and scions who could afford the capital outlay. It seems like a terrible idea to place a purser on a voyage like that of the Rose, on a shoestring budget, with the men receiving no wages and collectively buying and sharing food together. Knepp brought great quantities of fancy cheese and brandy, with predictable results. But either way,

14110-517: The care and attention of Increase Mather as they crossed the Atlantic. They seemed to have come to an agreement—you work your side of the street and I'll work mine—whereby Phips would tend to the frontier while Increase Mather and his slate of cohorts would see to domestic affairs. Unfortunately, their crossing also coincided with the great swelling of the infamous witchcraft hysteria. More than 125 people had been arrested on charges of witchcraft and were being held in Boston and Salem prisons. On May 27,

14276-456: The colony £50,000 to mount, for which it issued paper currency, a first in the English colonies. Many of the expedition's participants and creditors were unhappy at being paid this way, and Phips generously purchased some of the depreciated paper with hard currency, incurring financial losses in the process. At this same time, Governor Meneval petitioned for the return of minor valuables (silverware and other small items) that Phips had taken. Phips

14442-564: The constitution (or customary law) assumes all political responsibility by granting the crown inviolability (in fact also imposing political emasculation) as in the Kingdom of Belgium from its very beginning; in a monarchy this may even be extended to some degree to other members of the dynasty, especially the heir to the throne. Below follows a list of examples from different countries of general provisions in law, which either designate an office as head of state or define its general purpose. In

14608-457: The control of Royal Officers appointed by the monarchy. The Governor was given control of the militia , but the House of Representatives had to consent to any officers receiving commission. The General Court was also given authority of the treasury, which included the Governor's as well as all royal officer's pay. With a friction existing between the General Court and the Governor, the Royal Governor

14774-464: The couple exhibited "genuine affection" for one another, and there is no evidence Phips was unfaithful during his long absences from home. Phips established a shipyard on the Sheepscot River at Merrymeeting Bay in Maine in 1675 at the outbreak of King Philips War . The shipyard was successful, turning out a number of small boats and building its first large merchant ship in 1676. As he

14940-446: The crew, which is easily done when Phips returns to the ship, with Randolph acting as a witness. Next, Knepp complained to Phips about the firing of the ships cannons to set the watch. By the time the ship set sail the next day, Phips and Knepp were distinctly at odds, as Knepp records when asked for a cabin or berth and was told he would have to make do sleeping on a trunk. This was an unfortunate turn of events for both of them, as well as

15106-516: The decision by King Leopold III of the Belgians to surrender on behalf of his state to the invading German army in 1940, against the will of his government. Judging that his responsibility to the nation by virtue of his coronation oath required him to act, he believed that his government's decision to fight rather than surrender was mistaken and would damage Belgium. (Leopold's decision proved highly controversial. After World War II , Belgium voted in

15272-474: The divers and ships' crews worked to recover all manner of treasure: silver coins, silver bullion , doubloons , jewelry, a small amount of gold, and other artifacts. Concerned about the possibility of mutiny, Phips guaranteed to the crew, who had been hired for seaman's wages, that they would receive shares in the find even if he had to pay them from his own percentage. He carefully avoided putting in at any ports before anchoring at Gravesend , where he dispatched

15438-491: The end of " Michaelmas term ." Empty-handed, Randolph and his brother boarded a pink bound for England on December 14. A few days later, Phips began making preparations but was detained by problems with the Boston government and the ongoing search for victuals. In a discussion with Phips, Knepp allows, as a purser, that many of the crew owe him money and says that he would have them thrown into jail except that it would hinder His Majesty's treasure hunt. Phips finally sailed clear of

15604-449: The executive: they do not possess even theoretical executive powers or any role, even formal, within the government. Hence their states' governments are not referred to by the traditional parliamentary model head of state styles of His/Her Majesty's Government or His/Her Excellency's Government . Within this general category, variants in terms of powers and functions may exist. The Constitution of Japan ( 日本国憲法 , Nihonkoku-Kenpō )

15770-410: The expedition, but it was not nearly as successful. The wreck had been discovered by others, and the arrival of the English scattered more than 20 smaller ships. Treasure worth £10,000 was recovered before Narborough's death in May 1688 brought the expedition to an end. Phips had by then already left the wreck site in early May, sailing for Boston for what seems to have been his first time home in four and

15936-506: The extent of its head's executive powers of government or formal representational functions. In terms of protocol : the head of a sovereign , independent state is usually identified as the person who, according to that state's constitution, is the reigning monarch , in the case of a monarchy ; or the president, in the case of a republic . Among the state constitutions (fundamental laws) that establish different political systems, four major types of heads of state can be distinguished: In

16102-422: The first royally appointed governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay . Phips was famous in his lifetime for recovering a large treasure from a sunken Spanish galleon but is perhaps best remembered today for establishing the court associated with the infamous Salem Witch Trials , which he grew unhappy with and was forced to prematurely disband after five months. Phips was born the son of James and Mary Phips in

16268-543: The form of official patronage. The Olympic Charter (rule 55.3) of the International Olympic Committee states that the Olympic summer and winter games shall be opened by the head of state of the host nation, by uttering a single formulaic phrase as determined by the charter. As such invitations may be very numerous, such duties are often in part delegated to such persons as a spouse,

16434-514: The formulation and passage of the Constitution of Massachusetts in 1780. William Phips Sir William Phips (or Phipps ; February 2, 1651 – February 18, 1695) was born in Maine in the Massachusetts Bay Colony and was of humble origin, uneducated, and fatherless from a young age but rapidly advanced from shepherd boy to shipwright, ship's captain, and treasure hunter, the first New England native to be knighted, and

16600-452: The franchise of New England away from the control of the clergy was one of Blathwayt's obsessions, and his comment probably goes to this point, as well as noting Phips loyalty with New England as opposed to the crown. In short, if something like Cotton Mather's March 23 church scene happened at all, it should be understood as foremost a political event. In late April, leading a fleet of seven ships and over 700 men, Phips sailed from Boston to

16766-603: The frigate idea and embark on a merchantman. Randolph, along with his brother Bernard, were given passage and cabins on HMS Rose . Just before the Rose set sail, things were complicated again when the Crown decided to place a minder on board named John Knepp "to look after the King's interest". Knepp seems to have been a purser. In the English Navy, the purser acted as a sort of Company Store, tempting sailors far from shore with whiskey, tobacco and other desirables by offering them credit against their wages, (collected through

16932-504: The government be answerable to both the president and the legislature. The constitution of the Fifth French Republic provides for a prime minister who is chosen by the president, but who nevertheless must be able to gain support in the National Assembly . Should a president be of one side of the political spectrum and the opposition be in control of the legislature, the president is usually obliged to select someone from

17098-511: The harbor of his hometown and to compromise between his own interests and the interests of the Crown. This was surely noted at Whitehall, even by the more conservative elements. With Captain Stanley of the Bonetta expressing disinterest in continuing to search for the Hispaniola treasure, while Captain Phips probably expressed enthusiasm and new confidence, the next logical choice for commander

17264-490: The head of state depends on the country's form of government and separation of powers ; the head of state may be a ceremonial figurehead or concurrently the head of government and more. In a parliamentary system , such as India or the United Kingdom , the head of state usually has mostly ceremonial powers, with a separate head of government. However, in some parliamentary systems, like South Africa , there

17430-538: The head of state is notional chief executive include Australia , Austria , Canada , Denmark , India , Italy , Norway , Spain and the United Kingdom . The few exceptions where the head of state is not even the nominal chief executive - and where supreme executive authority is according to the constitution explicitly vested in a cabinet - include the Czech Republic , Ireland , Israel , Japan and Sweden . The head of state usually appoints most or all

17596-489: The head of state. In parliamentary constitutional monarchies , the legitimacy of the unelected head of state typically derives from the tacit approval of the people via the elected representatives. Accordingly, at the time of the Glorious Revolution , the English parliament acted of its own authority to name a new king and queen (the joint monarchs Mary II and William III ); likewise, Edward VIII 's abdication required

17762-481: The historian who would prefer to have Knepp at the Captain's table recording the dinner conversation between Randolph, his brother, and Phips. Class friction surely played a strong role in the conflict between Knepp and Phips. Knepp consistently presents himself as a victim, and there are many times he is bullied and badly mistreated, but it also seems that he must have set himself above and thought of himself as being of

17928-406: The key officials in the government, including the head of government and other cabinet ministers, key judicial figures; and all major office holders in the civil service , foreign service and commissioned officers in the military . In many parliamentary systems, the head of government is appointed with the consent (in practice often decisive) of the legislature, and other figures are appointed on

18094-564: The king had the power of declaring war without previous consent of the parliament. For example, under the 1848 constitution of the Kingdom of Sardinia , and then the Kingdom of Italy , the Statuto Albertino —the parliamentary approval to the government appointed by the king—was customary, but not required by law. Examples of heads of state in parliamentary systems using greater powers than usual, either because of ambiguous constitutions or unprecedented national emergencies, include

18260-473: The leading symbol of the nation, the president in this system acts mostly as a prime minister since the incumbent must be a member of the legislature at the time of the election, answer question sessions in Parliament, avoid motions of no confidence, etc. Semi-presidential systems combine features of presidential and parliamentary systems, notably (in the president-parliamentary subtype) a requirement that

18426-402: The legislature to remove a president from office (for example, in the United States of America ). In this case the debate centers on confirming them into office, not removing them from office, and does not involve the power to reject or approve proposed cabinet members en bloc , so accountability does not operate in the same sense understood as a parliamentary system. Presidential systems are

18592-420: The letters of Randolph and Blathwayt that Phips was not doing this merely for some explosive fun. Phips cites personal instructions from the King, and indeed Charles II was known to have insisted on a salute to his flag. As Phips was creating chaos for the Massachusetts government, he continued to pursue his original intention of gathering diving equipment and divers to take to the Bahamas. Phips later followed

18758-515: The majority of states, whether republics or monarchies, executive authority is vested, at least notionally, in the head of state. In presidential systems the head of state is the actual, de facto chief executive officer. Under parliamentary systems the executive authority is exercised by the head of state, but in practice is done so on the advice of the cabinet of ministers. This produces such terms as "Her Majesty's Government" and "His Excellency's Government." Examples of parliamentary systems in which

18924-421: The manifest. Edward Randolph , "indefatigable foe of Puritans", was serving Boston with a writ of quo warranto against the precious Charter of Massachusetts and searching for a frigate to be the muscle backing him: It is essential that a frigate should be on the New England coast at such a time to second the quo warranto and hasten submission; ... a war vessel be present to awe them . Randolph hoped such

19090-414: The more constitutional leeway tends to exist for a head of state to exercise greater powers over government, as many older parliamentary system constitutions in fact give heads of state powers and functions akin to presidential or semi-presidential systems, in some cases without containing reference to modern democratic principles of accountability to parliament or even to modern governmental offices. Usually,

19256-446: The nation between themselves). Meanwhile, in presidential systems , the head of state is also the head of government. In one-party ruling communist states , the position of president has no tangible powers by itself; however, since such a head of state, as a matter of custom, simultaneously holds the post of General Secretary of the Communist Party , they are the executive leader with their powers deriving from their status of being

19422-530: The naval bombardment failed because the New Englanders' guns were unable to reach the high battlements of the city, and they furthermore soon ran out of ammunition. The fighting, according to Phips, cost the expedition 30 deaths and one field cannon, as well as numerous wounded; disease and disaster took an additional toll. Smallpox ravaged the troops, and two transports were lost to accidents; another 200 men were lost to these causes. The expedition cost

19588-440: The new charter were rejected, but William and Mary allowed Mather to nominate the colony's lieutenant governor and council members. The monarchs appointed Phips as the first Royal Governor, with Increase Mather's approval, under a newly issued colonial charter for the Province of Massachusetts Bay . The charter greatly expanded the colony's bounds, including not just the territories of the Massachusetts Bay Colony but also those of

19754-472: The new governor. The charter established freedom of worship for Christians (not including Roman Catholics , referred to in the charter as " Papists ") and removed religious restrictions on voting. The charter benefited the British economically by reserving the right of free fishery to British interests only. Towns across the colony grew in status as a result of the charter. With the [Glorious Revolution] and

19920-409: The nominal chief executive officer , heading the executive branch of the state, and possessing limited executive power. In reality, however, following a process of constitutional evolution, powers are usually only exercised by direction of a cabinet , presided over by a head of government who is answerable to the legislature. This accountability and legitimacy requires that someone be chosen who has

20086-713: The office of President of the Presidium of the Supreme People's Assembly , while the party leader's post as chairman of the National Defense Commission was simultaneously declared "the highest post of the state", not unlike Deng Xiaoping earlier in the People's Republic of China . In China , under the current country's constitution , the Chinese President is a largely ceremonial office with limited power. However, since 1993, as

20252-519: The old charter. The two agents holding official commission papers from the Massachusetts council—Cooke and Oakes—were also the least compromising and the least politically deft. The Board of Trade seems to have sought a policy of pushing through a new charter by cleaving the two knights away from these two agents. On July 24, Increase Mather recorded in his diary that he would "part with my life sooner than [compromise on charter]". Not long after this, Increase Mather left London on vacation. On August 11, 1691,

20418-404: The opposition to become prime minister, a process known as Cohabitation . President François Mitterrand , a Socialist, for example, was forced to cohabit with the neo-Gaullist (right wing) Jacques Chirac , who became his prime minister from 1986 to 1988. In the French system, in the event of cohabitation, the president is often allowed to set the policy agenda in security and foreign affairs and

20584-464: The people of Massachusetts, who were expecting their agents to return with nothing less than the old charter restored. Phips and Increase Mather reached Boston in separate ships on May 14, 1692. This was a Saturday afternoon, meaning all activity was to cease at sundown according to the old Puritan laws regarding the sabbath. Unlike his arrival in HMS Rose in 1683, when Phips showed little regard for

20750-473: The political turmoil in New England, launching a series of Indian raids across the northern frontier in 1689 and early 1690. When a frontier town in Maine was overrun in early March 1690, the French were perceived as instigators and the provisional government of Massachusetts began casting about for a major general to lead an expedition against the French in Acadia . Phips had not demonstrated military interests as

20916-704: The presidential model also encompasses people who become head of state by other means, notably through military dictatorship or coup d'état , as often seen in Latin American , Middle Eastern and other presidential regimes. Some of the characteristics of a presidential system, such as a strong dominant political figure with an executive answerable to them, not the legislature can also be found among absolute monarchies , parliamentary monarchies and single party (e.g., Communist ) regimes, but in most cases of dictatorship, their stated constitutional models are applied in name only and not in political theory or practice. In certain states under Marxist–Leninist constitutions of

21082-548: The prime minister on matters of state. In contrast, the only contact the president of Ireland has with the Irish government is through a formal briefing session given by the taoiseach (head of government) to the president. However, the president has no access to documentation and all access to ministers goes through the Department of the Taoiseach . The president does, however, hold limited reserve powers , such as referring

21248-401: The prime minister runs the domestic and economic agenda. Other countries evolve into something akin to a semi-presidential system or indeed a full presidential system. Weimar Germany , for example, in its constitution provided for a popularly elected president with theoretically dominant executive powers that were intended to be exercised only in emergencies, and a cabinet appointed by him from

21414-429: The prime minister, and to pardon criminals or to commute their sentence. Some parliamentary republics (like South Africa , Botswana and Kiribati ) have fused the roles of the head of state with the head of government (like in a presidential system), while having the sole executive officer, often called a president, being dependent on the Parliament's confidence to rule (like in a parliamentary system). While also being

21580-431: The purser was dependent on good relations with the captain, yet Knepp seems to have looked down on Phips and decided to be forward in introducing himself to the crew of HMS Rose while Phips was absent in London. The reception was rather less than friendly: ... then most of them began to curse the ship and wished she had been afire before they saw her and that they had better have hired a ship of merchants ... The crew were

21746-532: The role Phips was intended to play, either in support of Randolph or as a possible decoy and cleanup for the Falcon & Bonetta . In Knepp's first interaction, he says that he is seeking signatures between the crew and the King though the July 13 agreement (see image) would more accurately be portrayed as between Phips and the crew, as the first mate protests. Knepp's job seemed to be to seek additional signatures from

21912-477: The sabbath, on this occasion, Phips was highly deferential toward the theocracy. Phips's elaborate swearing-in ceremony at the meeting house was halted at sundown and delayed until the following Monday. According to one letter writer, Phips presented himself as having no intentions to oppose the ancient laws and customs of Puritan Boston. He promised to rule as a weak governor, according to the tradition of his predecessors. The speech itself had likely been crafted with

22078-646: The same procedures of requiring ships to strike in the West Indies and with a new crew in Bermuda. Phips lack of experience in the Royal Navy would suggest he likely made mistakes and did not always go about this procedure in the best way. It must have been a strange and uncomfortable chore for someone whose loyalties were with Boston (in '76 the records show initiated the building of a house in Boston). Randolph

22244-525: The smaller Henry of London along with three Native American divers (including Jonas Abimeleck and John Pasqua; the name of the other diver is not listed) to search what was then called the Ambrosia Bank (now the Silver Bank ). There was a bit more delay due to the weather, but Peter Earle writes, "There is no doubt that he knew exactly where he was going." On January 20, they spotted cannons from

22410-580: The strengthening of the Prince's powers, vis-a-vis the Landtag (legislature), has moved Liechtenstein into the semi-presidential category. Similarly the original powers given to the Greek President under the 1974 Hellenic Republic constitution moved Greece closer to the French semi-presidential model. Another complication exists with South Africa , in which the president is in fact elected by

22576-454: The swearing in at the inauguration of a president of a republic, or the coronation of a monarch. One of the most important roles of the modern head of state is being a living national symbol of the state; in hereditary monarchies this extends to the monarch being a symbol of the unbroken continuity of the state. For instance, the Canadian monarch is described by the government as being

22742-498: The symbolic connection to the government, a practice that dates back to medieval times. Sometimes this practice is taken to excess, and the head of state becomes the principal symbol of the nation, resulting in the emergence of a personality cult where the image of the head of state is the only visual representation of the country, surpassing other symbols such as the flag . Other common representations are on coins , postage and other stamps and banknotes , sometimes by no more than

22908-436: The title of " president " - the name of the system refers to any head of state who actually governs and is not directly dependent on the legislature to remain in office. Some constitutions or fundamental laws provide for a head of state who is not only in theory but in practice chief executive, operating separately from, and independent from, the legislature. This system is known as a "presidential system" and sometimes called

23074-506: The understanding that Cotton Mather would add him to the rolls of the North Church. Records of the North Church show Phips' name added to admissions. (Curiously, a "B" for "brother" is withheld as prefix to his name, unlike all others. See image.) Another book, mostly recording infant baptisms, lists Phips as "Admitted and Baptized." Phip's wife's name does not seems not to appear in the records at all. The admission and baptism of an adult

23240-427: The victor's control). Phips, whose motives continue to be debated by historians today, claimed this was a violation of the terms of capitulation and consequently declared the agreement void. He allowed his troops to sack the town and destroy the church, acts that he had promised to prevent in the oral surrender agreement. He had the fortifications destroyed, removing all of their weaponry. Before he left, he convinced

23406-420: The voyage, as well as basic colonial politics, if not some important elements of human nature. Distant historians must grope for any available source to shed light on events of the past, and so history tends to be swayed heavily by the writers. Phips was never a writer and so much of his story comes from others, with Knepp's Journal at the top of this pile. Like the rest of us, Knepp does not seem to have understood

23572-512: The wake of the success, the Massachusetts provisional government agreed to organize an expedition on a larger scale against Quebec , the capital of New France, and gave its command to Phips. Originally intending to coordinate with a simultaneous overland attack on Montreal launched from Albany, New York , the expedition's departure was delayed in the vain hope that needed munitions would arrive from England. The expedition, counting 34 ships and more than 2,000 soldiers, finally sailed on August 20. It

23738-511: The welfare of those "imprisoned during this hot time of the year". Increase Mather's pick for lieutenant governor, William Stoughton , was chosen as chief judge of this new court. There was little then to indicate that Stoughton would proceed with such ruthless conviction. Phips later claimed to have chosen nominations for the court from "persons of the best prudence and figure that could then be pitched upon", and indeed, as Thomas Brattle pointed out, most were well-known and respected merchants from

23904-464: The years following Phips's 1690 expeditions, so he sought to improve the province's defenses. Pursuant to his instructions from London, in 1692, he oversaw the construction of a stone fort, which was dubbed Fort William Henry , at Pemaquid (present-day Bristol, Maine ), where a wooden fort had been destroyed in 1689 . He recruited Major Benjamin Church to lead a 450-man expedition eventually leading to

24070-422: Was a remarkable achievement for a poor New Englander like Phips, but it also seems clear that he must have been at the right place at the right time. His reputation for finding sunken ships may have preceded him, and he seems to have had demonstrable gains to show, as one letter writer mentions his "late successful returns." Perhaps he delivered the King's portion of these returns to Whitehall in person. In any case,

24236-449: Was common for many figures of the time. After his apprenticeship ended in 1673, Phips traveled to Boston , where he continued to employ his shipmaking and carpentry skills. About a year later, he married Mary Spencer Hull, widow to John Hull (unrelated to Massachusetts mintmaster John Hull ). Mary's father, Daniel Spencer, was a merchant and landowner with interests in Maine. Phips may have known Mary from an early age. By all accounts,

24402-552: Was considered a hero among the colonists in Boston. In the early 1680s, Phips began to engage in a favorite colonial pastime of treasure hunting in the Bahamas . As captain of the Resolution , he was seeking treasure from sunken Spanish ships near New Providence. The expedition is not well documented but seems to have been profitable, returning shares worth £54 to certain low-level participants. New England mintmaster John Hull

24568-463: Was designated to do most of the searching, but Falcon would act as aid and protection. These instructions were from Sir John Narborough , a rear admiral and commissioner of the Royal Navy , who also had the ear of King Charles II . Around this same time, the thirty-two-year-old Phips had made his way to England, where he gained an audience with Narborough and Charles II . By any measure, this

24734-574: Was drawn up under the Allied occupation that followed World War II and was intended to replace the previous militaristic and quasi- absolute monarchy system with a form of liberal democracy parliamentary system . The constitution explicitly vests all executive power in the Cabinet , who is chaired by the prime minister (articles 65 and 66) and responsible to the Diet (articles 67 and 69). The emperor

24900-545: Was generally a somewhat drawn-out process over some weeks. There seems to be no surviving record of Phips "coming to the table" to partake in the Lord's Supper, as only church members were invited to do. The only other reference to a baptism of Phips is not first-hand but a sardonic reference by Blathwayt (Randolph's boss in London) mentioning Phips being made a general the same year he was "publicly christened at Boston." Expanding

25066-520: Was in Port Royal , Jamaica, the same time as Captain Stanley of the Bonetta . There is no record of their joining forces or sharing information. It seems likely they met up, but it is unknown if it was preordained. If Phips was unwittingly being used as a decoy to distract the other treasure hunters away from Stanley, it might have dawned on him at this time. Soon afterward, Phips visited the north coast of Hispaniola and slowly cruised north exploring

25232-592: Was limited in power and authority in most matters to that of a head of state , rather than a head of government . With the passage of what came to be known as the Intolerable Acts by the Parliament of England , many colonists became dissatisfied with the governmental arrangement. The political tension culminated in the Boston Tea Party , which resulted in the cancellation and dissolution of

25398-427: Was never one to withhold criticism, but he did not complain of Phips activities in Boston harbor that winter, and Randolph even seems to have assisted Phips by searching a ship for him. But choosing a threatening posture showed Randolph's inability to understand the New England character, and it did not produce the effect Randolph intended. The magistrates voted to submit to the crown, but the deputies resisted. Phips and

25564-697: Was nominally a presidential republic. However, the elected civilian presidents were effectively figureheads with real political power being exercised by the chief of the Panamanian Defense Forces . Historically, at the time of the League of Nations (1920–1946) and the founding of the United Nations (1945), India's head of state was the monarch of the United Kingdom, ruling directly or indirectly as Emperor of India through

25730-474: Was not sent directly to search near Hispaniola where Narborough (correctly) believed a great treasure lay buried. Phips' instructions were not kept secret but were signed by the entire crew, thereby broadcasting their designs through the harbor and shipyards. On July 13, 1683, the articles of agreement (see image) were signed by Phips and seven other crew members, in the presence of Narborough and Haddock. Before Phips could set sail, he had another mission added to

25896-580: Was obvious. Narborough turned to the hard-partying Duke of Albemarle who assembled a group of private investors to fund another expedition. Phips was tasked with finding suitable ships and these came to be the James and Mary , a 22-gun 200-ton frigate, and the 45-ton Henry of London , a sloop commanded by Francis Rogers, Phips' second mate on the previous voyage (he had left the Rose in Boston ISTG Vol 4 - Salee Rose ). Phips utilized experience as

26062-418: Was once again selected by his peers to be chief justice. In late January 1693, Stoughton ordered eight graves dug in advance of his next round of execution orders, not realizing that Phips would no longer appease him. Head of state This is an accepted version of this page A head of state (or chief of state ) is the public persona of a state or sovereign state . The specific naming of

26228-448: Was one of Phips's investors. Phips earned a widespread reputation for "continually finding sunken ships". On May 2, 1683, the captain of the frigate HMS Falcon was sailing from England to the West Indies and beckoned the other officers to be present as he broke open his secret instructions. He learned that his mission was to aid in the hunt for a large treasure near Hispaniola . A sloop in convoy, HMS Bonetta (sometimes Bonito ),

26394-553: Was outraged when the General Council heard Meneval's case. He returned to England in February 1691 to seek support for another expedition against Quebec. Soon after returning to England, Phips joined up again with Increase Mather, and again supported him in dealing with Whitehall. Increase Mather's diary says they are together on March 25, 1691, and again on March 26. On March 31, they are together as Increase Mather writes

26560-530: Was preparing for its maiden voyage in August 1676, planning to deliver a load of lumber to Boston, a band of Indians descended on the area during the Northeast Coast Campaign (1676) . Rather than take on his cargo, he took on board as many of the local settlers as he could. Although he was financially ruined (the Indians destroyed the shipyard and his intended cargo of masts and lumber), Phips

26726-407: Was probably enough for him to pass the test. Already Narborough had a new plan in the works for Captain Phips, though this time it would be a private venture. Narborough's long infatuation with the Hispaniola treasure had not been diminished by Captain Stanley's discouragement on the Bonetta . And Knepp's report on Phips did not disqualify him. Phips had shown that he was serviceable: willing to harass

26892-599: Was religiously devout and active in his church congregation and would not likely have misspoken or deliberately withheld information on this point. Sewall's diary is generally considered trustworthy and is widely referenced by historians. Some years later, after Phips' death and a good bit of political upheaval involving Phips and the Mathers, Cotton Mather anonymously wrote a biography of Phips and sent it away to London for publication although he had Boston printing presses at his beck and call. He implausibly cast this scenario as

27058-549: Was short on ammunition, had no pilots familiar with the Saint Lawrence River , and carried what would turn out to be inadequate provisions. Because of contrary winds and the difficulty in navigating the Saint Lawrence, the expedition took eight weeks to reach Quebec. The late arrival (wintry conditions were already setting in on the river) and the long voyage meant that it would be impossible to conduct

27224-402: Was swayed by the arguments of Randolph as they crossed the Atlantic, it is hard to know, but Phips certainly played the role with bluster, and he seems to have spoken up as a royalist to the Boston government in the meetings he had with Bradstreet and Stoughton , at least as recorded by Knepp. By 1688, Phips had crossed over to Increase Mather's side and begun to consistently oppose Randolph and

27390-399: Was unified in their opposition to Andros and Randolph. Phips, despite having been Captain of Randolph's gunship in 1683-4, does not seem to have carried an association with Randolph in the minds of the people of Massachusetts Bay. Andros swore Phips into his new post in early July, but his council refused Phips' demand that the previously named sheriffs be dismissed. If Phips had simply wanted

27556-411: Was vacant for years. The late president was granted the posthumous title (akin to some ancient Far Eastern traditions to give posthumous names and titles to royalty) of " Eternal President " . All substantive power, as party leader, itself not formally created for four years, was inherited by his son Kim Jong Il . The post of president was formally replaced on 5 September 1998, for ceremonial purposes, by

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