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121-647: The gondola line was constructed to provide easy access between Maçka and Taşkışla, two localities in the center of the city separated from each other by a 42 m (138 ft) deep green valley. They are normally connected by a long horseshoe-shaped path around the valley, which contains the Maçka Democracy Park and the Beyoğlu Marriage Office. While the Maçka Station is a gateway to the upscale neighborhoods Teşvikiye and Nişantaşı ,

242-719: A podestà . The Genoese Palace (Palazzo del Comune) was built in 1316 by Montano de Marinis, the Podestà of Galata (Pera), and still remains today in ruins, near the Bankalar Caddesi (Banks Street) in Karaköy , along with its adjacent buildings and numerous Genoese houses from the early 14th century. In 1348 the Genoese built the famous Galata Tower , one of the most prominent landmarks of Istanbul. Pera (Galata) remained under Genoese control until May 29, 1453, when it

363-679: A genocide against Greeks , since, per Alfred-Maurice de Zayas , despite its relatively low number of deaths, it "satisfies the criteria of article 2 of the 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (UNCG) because the ‘‘intent to destroy in whole or in part’’ the Greek minority in Istanbul was demonstrably present, the pogrom having been orchestrated by the government of Turkish Prime Minister Adnan Menderes " and "As

484-564: A hypothetical Greek destruction of Atatürk's house in Thessaloniki , would cause permanent damage; while an official of the Foreign Office said that a stern stance towards Greece would be to Turkey's benefit. MP John Strachey warned that Turkey had a large ethnic Greek minority in Istanbul as a card to play against Greece if it considered annexing an independent Cyprus against the wishes of Turkish-Cypriots. The concerns about

605-583: A jewelry store, one guy had a hammer and he was breaking pearls one by one." One famous eyewitness was James Bond novelist Ian Fleming , who as an MI6 agent was present under the cover of the International Police Conference on 5 September (which he ditched in favour of covering the riots for The Sunday Times ). Fleming's account was published on 11 September, bearing the title "The Great Riot of Istanbul". It has been said that Fleming may have been tipped off by Nâzim Kalkavan,

726-498: A lovely spot on the edge of the Bosporus , a priest of 75 was taken out into the street, stripped of every stitch of clothing, tied behind a car and dragged through the streets. They tried to tear the hair of another priest, but failing that, they scalped him, as they did many others. On the occasion of the pogrom's 50th anniversary, a seventy-year-old Mehmet Ali Zeren said, "I was in the street that day and I remember very clearly...In

847-627: A mansion in this area. His son Alvise Gritti , who had close relations with the Sublime Porte , also stayed there and was probably the person who was specifically referred to as Bey Oğlu after his father became the Doge of Venice. Located further south in Beyoğlu and originally built in the early 16th century, the "Venetian Palace" was the seat of the Bailo. The original palace building was replaced by

968-533: A miniature version of the famous Galleria in Milan, Italy, and has rows of historic pubs, winehouses and restaurants. The site of Çiçek Pasajı was originally occupied by the Naum Theatre , which was burned during the great fire of Pera in 1870. The theatre was frequently visited by Sultans Abdülaziz and Abdülhamid II , and hosted Giuseppe Verdi 's play Il Trovatore before the opera houses of Paris. After

1089-591: A mob of 300,000 was marshaled in a radius of 40 miles (60 km) around the city for the attacks. The role of the National Security Service was not clarified at the trials, since the sole aim of the junta was to sentence the DP government. The trial revealed that the fuse for the consulate bomb was sent from Turkey to Thessaloniki on 3 September. During the Yassıada Trial it was claimed that

1210-449: A result of the pogrom, the Greek minority eventually emigrated from Turkey." A Turkish mob, most of whose members were trucked into the city in advance, assaulted Istanbul's Greek community for nine hours. Although the mob did not explicitly call for the killing of Greeks, over a dozen people died during or after the attacks as a result of beatings and arson . Armenians and Jews were also harmed. The police were mostly ineffective, and

1331-460: A result of the pogrom. However, a number of deaths were never recorded due to the general chaos, so estimates vary. An early source gives the number of dead as 0, but witness accounts, mortal remains, as well as later sources contradict this. According to a number of other sources the total death toll is estimated to be at least 30. A list of 37 dead has also been compiled. Apart from the 30 identified victims, 3 unidentified bodies were found inside

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1452-489: A twenty-year-old university student named Oktay Engin was given the mission of installing the explosives, two sticks of gelignite , in the consulate's garden. The consul M. Ali Balin allegedly first pressured consulate employee Hasan Uçar, but Engin was brought in when Uçar resisted. Both of them were arrested in Greece after the attack. Engin was born in the Greek town of Komotini ( Turkish : Gümülcine ) to Faik Engin,

1573-459: A well-known parliamentarian in the late '40s and one of the three ethnic Turkish members of the Greek parliament between 1946–1950. Oktay Engin became one of the few ethnic Turkish students to graduate from Greek gymnasiums in those years. Turkish officials encouraged him to study law, offering him a scholarship, so that he could promote the interests of Turkish citizens in Greece. He thus entered Aristotle University of Thessaloniki in 1953. When he

1694-810: Is Turkish". The intercommunal violence in Cyprus prompted Turkey to transmit a diplomatic note to the British government , which invited the Turkish and Greek governments to a conference in London, which started on August 26. The day before the Tripartite London Conference (29 August–7 September 1955) began, Prime Minister Menderes claimed that Greek Cypriots were planning a massacre of Turkish Cypriots . Sensing an opportunity to temper Greek demands, Prime Minister Harold Macmillan advised

1815-528: Is a cosmopolitan atmosphere in the heart of the district, where people from various cultures live in Cihangir and Gümüşsuyu. Beyoğlu also has a number of historical Tekkes and Türbes . Several Sufi orders, such as the Cihangirî (pronounced Jihangiri ) order, were founded here. Most of the consulates (former embassies until 1923, when Ankara became the new Turkish capital) are still in this area;

1936-593: Is a municipality and district of Istanbul Province , Turkey . Its area is 9 km , and its population is 225,920 (2022). It is on the European side of Istanbul , Turkey , separated from the old city (historic peninsula of Constantinople ) by the Golden Horn . It was known as the region of Pera (Πέρα, meaning "Beyond" in Greek ) surrounding the ancient coastal town Galata which faced Constantinople across

2057-474: Is a popular restaurant-bar which offers panoramic views of the Hagia Sophia , Topkapı Palace , Sultan Ahmed Mosque and Galata Tower. Throughout Beyoğlu, there are many night clubs for all kinds of tastes. There are restaurants on the top of historic buildings with a view of the city. Asmalımescit Street has rows of traditional Turkish restaurants and Ocakbaşı (grill) houses, while the streets around

2178-520: Is also located in the historic Beyoğlu (Pera) district. The famous street with shops, cafes, cinemas and other venues stretches for 1.4 kilometres (0.87 mi) and hosts up to 3 million people each day. The 1948-opened Atlas Cinema is situated in a 1877-built historic building at Istiklal Avenue. Primary and secondary schools in the district: The original campus of the Ottoman Imperial School of Medicine , established in 1827,

2299-568: Is situated close to the Taşkışla Station. The line was designed and the system was delivered by the French company Poma , and the construction was carried out by Turkish company Baytur. It is a two-station overhead transport system without any support tower in the middle of the line distance. The pulse-movement gondola system runs two sets of two unidirectional six-seater tandem cabins. In each direction, there are two ropes, one for carriyng and

2420-649: The Battle of Vienna in 1683. These encounters can be described as the beginning of today's rich " coffee culture " in both Venice (and later the rest of Italy) and Vienna. Following the conquest of Constantinople and Pera in 1453, the coast and the low-lying areas were quickly settled by the Turks, but the European presence in the area did not end. Several Roman Catholic churches, as St. Anthony of Padua , SS. Peter and Paul in Galata and St. Mary Draperis were established for

2541-649: The Galata Bridge , Atatürk Bridge and Golden Horn Metro Bridge . Beyoğlu is the most active art, entertainment and nightlife centre of Istanbul. The area now known as Beyoğlu has been inhabited since Byzas founded the City of Byzantium in the 7th century BC, and predates the founding of Constantinople . During the Byzantine era , Greek speaking inhabitants named the hillside covered with orchards Sykai (The Fig Orchard), or Peran en Sykais (The Fig Field on

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2662-757: The Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922) , and the establishment of the Republic of Turkey , the population exchange agreement signed between Greece and Turkey resulted in the uprooting of all Greeks in modern Turkey (and Muslims in Greece) from where many of them had lived for centuries. But due to the Greeks' strong emotional attachment to their first capital as well as the importance of the Ecumenical Patriarchate for Greek and worldwide Orthodoxy,

2783-622: The Greek Orthodox Church . 73 churches and 23 schools were vandalized, burned or destroyed, as were eight baptisteries and three monasteries , about 90 percent of the church property portfolio in the city. The ancient Byzantine church of Panagia in Belgradkapı was vandalised and burned down. The church at Yedikule was badly vandalised, as was the church of St. Constantine of Psammathos. At Zoodochos Pege church in Balıklı ,

2904-785: The Hazzopulo Winehouse , established in 1871, inside the Hazzopulo Pasajı which connects Sahne Street and Meşrutiyet Avenue. The famous Nevizade Street , which has rows of historic pubs next to each other, is also in this area. Other historic pubs are found in the areas around Tünel Pasajı and the nearby Asmalımescit Street . Some historic neighbourhoods around İstiklal Avenue have recently been recreated, such as Cezayir Street near Galatasaray High School , which became known as La Rue Française and has rows of francophone pubs, cafés and restaurants playing live French music. Artiste Terasse (Artist Teras) on Cezayir Street

3025-799: The Istanbul Metrobus (only the Halıcıoğlu stop) provide transportation to the district. The Istanbul metro M2 line runs through the district via Taksim and Şişhane stations. The T1 tram line runs in the district between the Kabataş and Karaköy stops and the T2 nostalgic tram line runs on the Istiklal Avenue . Funicular lines F1 and Tünel also provide transport for the district. Foreigners, especially from Euro-Mediterranean and West European countries, have long resided in Beyoğlu. There

3146-511: The Istanbul riots , were a series of state-sponsored anti-Greek mob attacks directed primarily at Istanbul 's Greek minority on 6–7 September 1955. The pogrom was orchestrated by the governing Democrat Party in Turkey with the cooperation of various security organizations ( Tactical Mobilisation Group , Counter-Guerrilla and National Security Service ). The events were triggered by

3267-589: The Italian word Calata , meaning "downward slope", as Galata, formerly a colony of the Republic of Genoa between 1273 and 1453, stands on a hilltop that goes downwards to the sea. The area came to be the base of European merchants, particularly from Genoa and Venice, in what was then known as Pera . Following the Fourth Crusade in 1204, and during the Latin Empire of Constantinople (1204–1261),

3388-498: The Italian , British , German , Greek , Russian , Dutch , and Swedish consulates are significant in terms of their history and architecture. Beyoğlu is also home to many high schools like Galatasaray Lisesi , Deutsche Schule Istanbul , St. George's Austrian High School , Lycée Sainte Pulchérie, Liceo Italiano , Beyoğlu Anatolian High School , Beyoğlu Kız Lisesi, Zografeion Lyceum , Zappeion Lyceum, and numerous others. The unique international art project United Buddy Bears

3509-477: The London Daily Mail on 14 September 1955: The church of Yedikule was utterly smashed, and one priest was dragged from bed, the hair torn from his head and the beard literally torn from his chin. Another old Greek priest [Fr Mantas] in a house belonging to the church and who was too ill to be moved was left in bed, and the house was set on fire and he was burned alive. At the church of Yeniköy ,

3630-731: The Phanariotes , came to play a significant role in the social and economic life of the city and in the political and diplomatic life of the Islamic but multi-ethnic, multi-religious Ottoman Empire in general. This continued even after rebellions against Ottoman rule in Greece and the establishment of an independent Greek state in 1829 , although during the Greek War of Independence massacres against local Greek communities occurred. A number of ethnic Armenians and Greeks, who served in

3751-840: The Topkapı Palace and built a new palace near Pera, called the Dolmabahçe Palace , which blended the Neo-Classical , Baroque and Rococo styles. When the Ottoman Empire collapsed and the Turkish Republic was founded (during and after the First World War ) Pera, which became known as Beyoğlu in English in the modern era, went into gradual decline. The decline accelerated with the departure of

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3872-666: The United Nations to demand self-determination for Cyprus . Britain had a ruling mandate over the mostly ethnic Greek island, and wanted the Cyprus dispute to be resolved without being taken to the United Nations Security Council , due to fears of how the Greek and Greek Cypriot parties would portray the conflict. To this end, the British government resolved to temper Greek demands by encouraging

3993-507: The World Council of Churches ' estimate of 150 million USD , and the Greek government's estimate of 500 million USD. The Turkish government paid 60 million Turkish lira of restitution to those who registered their losses. However, these reparations did not exceed 20% of the claims, at best given that assets had depreciated dramatically. In addition to commercial targets, the mob clearly targeted property owned or administered by

4114-418: The "Cyprus is Turkish" Association were run by DP officials. This organization played a crucial role in inciting anti-Greek activities. Most of the rioters came from western Asia Minor . His case study of Eskişehir shows how the party there recruited 400 to 500 workers from local factories, who were carted by train with third class-tickets to Istanbul. These recruits were promised the equivalent of 6 USD, which

4235-491: The 21st century have witnessed the rapid gentrification of these neighborhoods. Istiklal Avenue has once again become a destination for tourists, and formerly bohemian neighborhoods like Cihangir have once again become fashionable and quite expensive. Some 19th and early 20th century buildings have been tastefully restored, while others have been converted into mammoth luxury malls of dubious aesthetic value. As newer, more international and affluent residents have begun to creep down

4356-641: The 24th edition of the İzmir International Fair was taking place, and burned the Greek pavilion. Moving next to the Church of Saint Fotini, built two years earlier to serve the needs of the NATO Regional Headquarters' Greek officers, the mob destroyed it completely. The homes of the few Greek families and officers were then looted. The mob burned down the Greek consulate building in Alsancak. Considerable contemporary documentation showing

4477-545: The Byzantines retook Constantinople and brought an end to the Latin Empire (1204–1261) that was established by Enrico Dandolo , the Doge of Venice . In 1432, Bertrandon de la Broquière described Pera as "a large town, inhabited by Greeks, Jews and Genoese: the last are masters of it, under the duke of Milan, who styles himself Lord of Pera ... The port is the handsomest of all I have seen, and I believe I may add, of any in

4598-787: The CTA only for inciting some students to burn Greek newspapers in Taksim Square. In response to police chief Kemal Aygün's question about the Cominform 's role in the affair, Şevki Mutlugil of the NSS cooked up a report, which concluded that the Comintern and Cominform had conspired to sabotage NATO. As proof, the prosecution submitted some brochures from the Communist Party of Turkey and a pair of letters from Nâzım Hikmet which called on

4719-688: The Greek minority and the Ecumenical Patriarchate. In 1955, a propaganda campaign involving the Turkish press galvanized public opinion against the Greek minority, targeting Athenogoras , the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, in particular, accusing him of collecting donations for Enosis . Leading the pack was Hürriyet , which wrote on 28 August 1955: "If the Greeks dare touch our brethren, then there are plenty of Greeks in Istanbul to retaliate upon." Ömer Sami Coşar from Cumhuriyet wrote on 30 August: Neither

4840-484: The Greek population of Istanbul was specifically exempted and allowed to stay in place. Nevertheless, this population began to decline, as evinced by demographic statistics. Punitive Turkish nationalist exclusivist measures, such as a 1932 parliamentary law, barred Greek citizens living in Turkey from a series of 30 trades and professions from tailoring and carpentry to medicine , law and real estate . The Varlık Vergisi tax imposed in 1942 also served to reduce

4961-482: The Greek shops on Istanbul's main shopping street , İstiklal Avenue , were ransacked. Many commercial streets were littered with merchandise and fittings torn out of Greek-owned businesses. According to the eyewitness account of a Greek dentist, the mob chanted "Death to the Giaours " (infidels), "Massacre the Greek traitors", "Down with Europe " and "Onward to Athens and Thessaloniki" as they attacked. Predictably,

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5082-619: The Greek-speaking population decreased from 65,108 to 49,081 between 1955 and 1960. The 2008 figures released by the Turkish Foreign Ministry placed the number of Turkish citizens of Greek descent at 3,000–4,000; while according to the Human Rights Watch (2006) their number was estimated to be 2,500. The attacks have been described as a continuation of a process of Turkification that started with

5203-650: The Horn. Beyoğlu continued to be named Pera during the Middle Ages and, in western languages, into the early 20th century. According to the prevailing theory, the Turkish name of Pera, Beyoğlu , meaning " Bey 's Son" in Turkish , is a modification by folk etymology of the Venetian title of Bailo . The 15th century ambassador of Venice in Istanbul, Andrea Gritti (who later became the Doge of Venice in 1523) had

5324-444: The Istanbul station chief of the MI6, who appears in 1957's From Russia, with Love as "Darko Kerim". According to Fleming's biographer, John Pearson , Kalkavan was rather like Kerim bey . A number of Turkish eyewitness accounts were published in 2008 by Ayşe Hür in an article that appeared in Taraf . There are accounts of protection offered to the minorities by their fellow citizens that were successful in fending off

5445-406: The Menderes government closed the "Cyprus is Turkish" Association (CTA) and arrested its executives. 34 trade unions were dissolved. The Minister of Internal Affairs Namık Gedik resigned on 10 September. The investigation initially focused on the "Cyprus is Turkish" Association (CTA). CTA detainee, and spy, named Kamil Önal had one of his CTA associates burn an intelligence report originating from

5566-438: The National Security Service (NSS) that was at the CTA office. In addition, a member from the Kızıltoprak branch, Serafim Sağlamel, was found to be carrying an address list of non-Muslim citizens. However, on September 12, the government blamed Turkish Communists for the pogrom, arresting 45 " card-carrying communists " (including Aziz Nesin , Kemal Tahir , and İlhan Berktay). This type of " false flag " anti-Communist propaganda

5687-453: The Other Side), referring to the "other side" of the Golden Horn. As the Byzantine Empire grew, so did Constantinople and its environs. The northern side of the Golden Horn became built up as a suburb of Byzantium as early as the 5th century. In this period the area began to be called Galata , and Emperor Theodosius II (reigned 402–450) built a fortress. The Greeks believe that the name comes either from galatas (meaning " milkman "), as

5808-409: The Ottoman Imperial diplomatic service and were even leading politicians in the 19th and early 20th century, were targeted. Into the 19th century, the Christians of Istanbul tended to be either Greek Orthodox , members of the Armenian Apostolic Church or Catholic Levantines . Greeks and Armenians form the largest Christian population in the city. Following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire,

5929-415: The Patriarchate nor the Rum [ i.e. Greek] minority ever openly supported Turkish national interests when Turkey and Athens clashed over certain issues. In return, the great Turkish nation never raised its voice about this. But do the Phanar Patriarchate and our Rum citizens in Istanbul have special missions assigned by Greece in its plans to annex Cyprus? While Greece was crushing Turks in Western Thrace and

6050-444: The Sait Paşa Passage. Following the Russian Revolution of 1917 , many impoverished noble Russian women, including a Baroness, sold flowers here. By the 1940s the building was mostly occupied by flower shops, hence the present Turkish name Çiçek Pasajı (Flower Passage). Following the restoration of the building in 1988, it was reopened as a galleria of pubs and restaurants. Pano , established by Panayotis Papadopoulos in 1898, and

6171-403: The Taşkışla Station is in walking distance to Taksim Square . There exist campuses of the Istanbul Technical University on both sides of the valley as well as a number of five-star hotels like ParkSA Hilton Hotel, Swissôtel Istanbul The Bosphorus Hotel at the Maçka side and Hilton Istanbul Bosphorus , Hyatt Regency , Divan Istanbul at the Taşkışla side. The Cemil Topuzlu Open-Air Theatre

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6292-411: The Textile Workers' Union ( Turkish : Tekstil İşçileri Sendikası ). A protest rally on the night of 6 September, organised by the authorities in Istanbul, on the Cyprus issue and the bombing of Atatürk's home was the cover for amassing the rioters. At 13:00, news reports of the bombing were announced by radio. However, most people at the time did not have radios, so they had to wait until 16:30, when

6413-459: The Turkish delegates that they should be stern. Turkish Foreign Minister Fatin Rüştü Zorlu launched a harsh opening salvo, stating that Turkey would reconsider its commitment to the Treaty of Lausanne unless Greece reconsidered its position on Cyprus. The Greek delegates, surprised by harshness of the speech, backed down during the negotiations, although they did not abandon the idea of enosis with Cyprus. Deflecting domestic attention to Cyprus

6534-411: The Turkish government to publicly express their support for Turkish-Cypriot cause, which they estimated would ensure the issue would not reach the UN Security Council. British reports from the period made disparate assessments on the state of Greco-Turkish relations; one by the British Embassy in August 1954 stated that the relationship was of a superficial nature and that a minor source of tension, such as

6655-408: The Venetians became more prominent in Pera. The Dominican Church of St. Paul (1233), today known as the Arap Camii , is from this period. In 1273 the Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos granted Pera to the Republic of Genoa in recognition of Genoa's support of the Empire after the Fourth Crusade and the sacking of Constantinople in 1204. Pera became a flourishing trade colony, ruled by

6776-435: The area was used by shepherds in the early medieval period, or from the word Galatai (meaning " Gauls "), as the Celtic tribe of Gauls were thought to have camped here during the Hellenistic period before settling into Galatia in central Anatolia , becoming known as the Galatians . The inhabitants of Galatia are famous for the Epistle to the Galatians and the Dying Galatian statue. The name may have also derived from

6897-423: The area, such as the Saint Mary Draperis church or centrally located Hagia Triada Church at the conjunction point between Istiklal Avenue and Taksim Square. It is the seat of the Chaldean Catholic Archeparchy of Diyarbakir . The only Jewish Museum of Turkey , which has been converted from a synagogue, is located in the Karaköy quarter, which was known as Galata in the medieval period. İstiklal Avenue

7018-442: The arson easier. Municipal and government trucks were placed in strategic points all around the city to distribute the tools of destruction (shovels, pickaxes, crowbars, ramrods and petrol), while 4,000 taxis were requisitioned from the Drivers Association and Motor Vehicle Workers' Trade Union ( Turkish : Şoförler Cemiyeti ve Motorlu Taşıt İşçileri Sendikası ) to transport the perpetrators. In addition, flags had been prepared by

7139-545: The avenue is lined with Neoclassical and Art Nouveau buildings. The nostalgic tram which runs on İstiklal Avenue, between Taksim Square and Tünel , was also re-installed in the early 1990s with the aim of reviving the historic atmosphere of the district. Some of the city's historic pubs and winehouses are located in the areas around İstiklal Avenue (İstiklal Caddesi) in Beyoğlu. The 19th century Çiçek Pasajı (literally Flower Passage in Turkish, or Cité de Péra in French, opened in 1876) on İstiklal Avenue can be described as

7260-420: The barricade. Mater later rose all the way to Commander of the Air Force , making him third in the military line of command. His son Tayfun, who witnessed the pogrom, maintains ties with those who survived and fled to Greece. While the pogrom was predominantly an Istanbul affair, there were some outrages in other Turkish cities. On the morning of 7 September 1955 In İzmir , a mob overran Kültürpark , where

7381-399: The bombing of the Turkish consulate in Thessaloniki , Macedonia , Greece , – the house where Mustafa Kemal Atatürk was born in 1881. The bomb was actually planted by a Turkish usher at the consulate, who was later arrested and confessed. The Turkish press was silent about the arrest, and instead, it insinuated that Greeks had set off the bomb. The pogrom is occasionally described as

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7502-443: The businesses were Greek-owned, 17% were Armenian-owned, 12% were Jewish-owned, and 10% were Muslim-owned; while 80% of the homes were Greek-owned, 9% were Armenian-owned, 3% were Jewish-owned, and 5% were Muslim-owned. Estimates of the economic cost of the damage vary from Turkish government's estimate of 69.5 million Turkish lira (equivalent to 24.8 million US$ ), a British estimate of 100 million GBP (about 200 million US$ ),

7623-431: The city, the Greek cemetery of Şişli , as well as the cemetery of the Patriarchates in Balıklı were targeted. Crosses and statues were vandalized, while sepulchers and burial vaults were opened and the remains of the dead were removed and dispersed by the fanatic mobs. At Balıklı cemetery, the sarcophaguses of the Greek Orthodox Patriarchs were desecrated. An eyewitness account was provided by journalist Noel Barber of

7744-517: The civilian population. The Turkish militia and police who coordinated the attacks refrained from protecting the lives and properties of the victims. Their function, instead, was to preserve adjacent Turkish properties. However, there were a few cases where police officers prevented criminal activity. On the other hand, the fire brigade, whenever it reached a fire, claimed that it was unable to deal with it. According to some sources, between 13 and 16 Greeks (including two clerics ) and 1 Armenian died as

7865-407: The claims, it is believed by scholars that Menderes assented to the organization of protests in Istanbul against the Greeks, but the extent of knowledge of Zorlu, who had been in London for the conference, is unclear. Interior Minister Namık Gedik was also accused of involvement, though he was not tried as he committed suicide before the trials started. According to Zorlu's lawyer at the Yassiada trial,

7986-410: The conference fell apart on 6 September, the first day the subject of Cyprus would be broached at the conference, when news broke of the bombing of the Turkish consulate (and birthplace of Atatürk) in Greece's second-largest city, Thessaloniki. The 1961 Yassıada Trial after 1960 coup d'état accused Menderes and Foreign Minister Fatin Rüştü Zorlu of planning the riots. Though both of them rejected

8107-427: The control of East Mediterranean territories and islands, they were keen on restoring their trade pacts once the wars were over, such as the renewed trade pacts of 1479, 1503, 1522, 1540, and 1575, following major sea wars between the two sides. The Venetians were also the first Europeans to taste Ottoman delicacies such as coffee , centuries before other Europeans saw coffee beans for the first time in their lives during

8228-408: The daily İstanbul Ekspres , which was associated with the DP and the National Security Service (NSS), repeated the news in print. According to a September 2005 episode of the weekly show Files on the Greek Mega Channel, the accompanying photographs were seen by Salonican photographer Yannis Kyriakidis on September 4 (two days before the actual bombing). The consul's wife had brought the film to

8349-428: The decline of the Ottoman Empire , as roughly 40% of the properties attacked belonged to other minorities. The pogrom has been compared in some media to the Kristallnacht , the 1938 pogrom against Jews throughout Nazi Germany . In 2009, Turkish then-Prime Minister Erdogan said that Turkey had committed mistakes, and that: "Those minorities with different ethnic identities were expelled from our country in

8470-406: The district. Apart from the hundreds of shops lining the streets and avenues of the district, there is also a business community. Odakule , a 1970s high rise building (the first "structural expressionism" style building in Turkey) is the headquarters of İstanbul Sanayi Odası (ISO) (Istanbul Chamber of Industry) and is located between İstiklal Avenue and Tepebaşı, next to the Pera Museum . Most of

8591-403: The economic potential of Greek businesspeople in Turkey. In the early 1950s, Turkey had close relations with Greece. In 1952, Paul of Greece became the first Greek Monarch to visit a Turkish head of state, which was soon followed by Turkish president Celal Bayar 's visit to Greece. However, the relations soured starting in 1953, when the armed struggle of the Greek Cypriots , the majority of

8712-561: The events in Cyprus led to the formation of a number of nationalist student and irredentist organizations in Istanbul, such as the National Federation of Turkish Students ( Turkish : Türkiye Milli Talebe Federasyonu ), the National Union of Turkish Students, and Hikmet Bil's (editor of the major newspaper Hürriyet ) "Cyprus is Turkish" Association ( Turkish : Kıbrıs Türktür Cemiyeti ), who had protested against

8833-592: The existing one in 1781, which later became the Italian Embassy following Italian unification in 1861, and the Italian Consulate in 1923, when Ankara became the capital of the Republic of Turkey . Once a predominantly Christian ( Armenians , Greeks , and Turkish Levantine ) neighbourhood, its population today mostly consists of Turks and Kurds who moved there after the Republic of Turkey

8954-497: The extent of the destruction is provided by the photographs taken by Demetrios Kaloumenos, then official photographer of the Ecumenical Patriarchate . Setting off just hours after the pogrom began, Kaloumenos set out with his camera to capture the damage and smuggled the film to Greece. Famous Turkish photojournalist of Armenian descent, Ara Güler , also took many photographs during the pogrom. In Greece, Oktay Engin and consulate employee Hasan Uçar were arrested on 18 September. Engin

9075-494: The fire of 1870, the theatre was purchased by the local Greek banker Hristaki Zoğrafos Efendi, and architect Kleanthis Zannos designed the current building, which was called Cité de Péra or Hristaki Pasajı in its early years. Yorgo'nun Meyhanesi (Yorgo's Winehouse) was the first winehouse to be opened in the passage. In 1908 the Ottoman Grand Vizier Sait Paşa purchased the building, and it became known as

9196-532: The founding of the republic and survived until recently. Pera and Galata in the late 19th and early 20th centuries were a part of the Municipality of the Sixth Circle ( French : Municipalité du VI Cercle ), established under the laws of 11 Jumada al-Thani (Djem. II) and 24 Shawwal (Chev.) 1274, in 1858; the organisation of the central city in the city walls, "Stamboul" ( Turkish : İstanbul ),

9317-401: The hills into Tophane and Tarlabasi, disagreements with more conservative elements in the neighborhoods have become common. The low-lying areas such as Tophane , Kasımpaşa and Karaköy, and the side-streets of the area consist of older buildings. Parallel to İstiklal Avenue runs the wide bi-directional boulevard named Tarlabaşı Caddesi, which carries most of the traffic through the area and

9438-413: The historic Balıkpazarı (Fish Market) is full of eateries offering seafood like fried mussels and calamari along with beer or rakı , or the traditional kokoreç . Beyoğlu also has many elegant pasaj (passages) from the 19th century, most of which have historic and classy chocolateries and patisseries along with many shops lining their alleys. There is also a wide range of fast-food restaurants in

9559-531: The island's population, aiming for political union of Cyprus with Greece, started. Soon after, Georgios Grivas formed the armed organization EOKA . This turn of events was politically exploited in Turkey by the Turkish nationalists of Kibris Türktür Cemiyeti (Cyprus is Turkish) organization, although EOKA had never targeted the Turkish Cypriot community before the anti-Greek pogrom events of September 1955. The Greek government had appealed in 1954 to

9680-446: The large Greek population of Beyoğlu and adjacent Galata as a result of Turkish pressure over the Cyprus conflict, during the 1950s and 1960s. The widespread political violence between leftist and rightist groups which troubled Turkey in the late 1970s also severely affected the lifestyle of the district, and accelerated its decline with the flight of the middle-class citizens to newer suburban areas such as Levent and Yeşilköy . By

9801-403: The late 1980s, many of the grandiose Neoclassical and Art Nouveau apartment-blocks, formerly the residences of the late Ottoman élite, became home to immigrants from the countryside. While Beyoğlu continued to enjoy a reputation for its cosmopolitan and sophisticated atmosphere until the 1940s and 1950s, by the 1980s the area had become economically and socially troubled. The first decades of

9922-442: The man was circumcised, he was saved. If not, he was doomed. Indeed, having lied, he could not be saved from a beating. For one of those aggressive young men would draw his knife and circumcise him in the middle of the street and amid the chaos. A difference of two or three centimetres does not justify such a commotion. That night, many men shouting and screaming were Islamized forcefully by the cruel knife. Among those circumcised there

10043-569: The mob. The most organized team rallied behind air force captain Reşat Mater . Mater happened to be off duty and visiting his home in Cevizli's Muhasebeciler Street, which was right next to the rally point, İstiklal Caddesi . Mater first hid some of his neighbors in his house, then he took to the street with his gun and his uniform. The boys in the neighborhood joined him, bringing domestic implements as substitute weapons. The mob passed by after seeing

10164-568: The most Westernized part of Constantinople, especially when compared to the Old City at the other side of the Golden Horn , and allowed for influxes of modern technology, fashion, and arts. Thus, Pera was one of the first parts of Constantinople to have telephone lines , electricity , trams , municipal government and even an underground railway, the Tünel , inaugurated in 1875 as the world's second subway line (after London's Underground ) to carry

10285-409: The museum also hosts visiting exhibitions, which included the works of renowned artists such as Rembrandt . Doğançay Museum , Turkey's first contemporary art museum dedicated to the works of a single artist, officially opened its doors to the public in 2004. While the museum almost exclusively displays the works of its founder Burhan Doğançay , a contemporary artists, one floor has been set aside for

10406-568: The needs of the Levantine population. During the 19th century it was again home to many European traders, and housed many embassies , especially along the Grande Rue de Péra (today İstiklâl Avenue ). Reyhan Zetler stated "Pera was considered to be a small copy of the [ sic ] 19th century Europe (especially Paris and London)." The presence of such a prominent European population - commonly referred to as Levantines - made it

10527-480: The neighbouring Viktor Levi , established in 1914, are among the oldest winehouses in the city and are located on Kalyoncu Kulluk Street near the British Consulate and Galatasaray Square. Cumhuriyet Meyhanesi (literally Republic Winehouse ), renamed in the early 1930s but originally established in the early 1890s, is another popular historic winehouse and is located in the nearby Sahne Street, along with

10648-475: The newspaper's average circulation of 30,000–40,000 (by comparison, the best-selling Hürriyet sold 70–80 thousand copies). Perin was arrested the next day. Gökşin Sipahioğlu later alleged the NSS had pressured him to do it, while Perin says Sipahioğlu himself was an agent. Perin's innocence, however, was cast into doubt after intrepid journalist Uğur Mumcu published an excerpt from a 1962 letter between Perin and

10769-514: The other for hauling the cabins. The cabins stop at the terminal, and they are accelerated to line speed at 4 m/s (13 ft/s) after leaving the terminal. In case of power supply cut, a standby generator ensures the travel of the cabins to the target station at a low speed. Fare is collected for both directions at the Maçka Terminal. Beyo%C4%9Flu Beyoğlu ( Turkish: [ˈbejoːɫu] ; Ottoman Turkish : بك‌اوغلی )

10890-532: The past. It was a result of fascist policy." Constantinople (modern Istanbul ) was the capital of the Byzantine Empire until 1453, when the city was conquered by Ottoman forces. A large indigenous Greek community continued to live in the multi-ethnic Ottoman capital city and enjoyed a relatively protected status under the Ottoman Millet system . The city's Greek population, particularly

11011-542: The people of Pera up and down from the port of Galata and the nearby business and banking district of Karaköy , where the Bankalar Caddesi ( Avenue of the Banks ), the financial center of the Ottoman Empire, is located. The theatre, cinema, patisserie and café culture that still remains strong in Beyoğlu dates from this late Ottoman period. Shops like İnci, famous for its chocolate mousse and profiteroles , predate

11132-422: The photo studio that belonged to Kyriakidis' father to be printed. The photographs were then photomontaged , according to the program. On the day of the event, the editor, Gökşin Sipahioğlu, called the owner, Mithat Perin, asking for permission for a second run. The weather was bad, so Perin declined thinking the prints would not get sold. The newspaper's main dealer, Fuat Büke, soon called and offered to pay for

11253-664: The possession of the Christians, for the largest genoese vessels may lie alongside the quay." Following the Ottoman siege of Constantinople in 1453, during which the Genoese sided with the Byzantines and defended the city together with them, the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II allowed the Genoese (who had fled to their colonies in the Aegean Sea such as Lesbos and Chios ) to return to the city, but Galata

11374-411: The procedure. Priests were also scalped and burnt in their beds. Nesin wrote: A man who was fearful of being beaten, lynched or cut into pieces would imply and try to prove that he was both a Turk and a Muslim. "Pull it out and let us see," they would reply. The poor man would peel off his trousers and show his "Muslimness" and "Turkishness": And what was the proof? That he had been circumcised. If

11495-561: The right-hand man of General Kemal Yamak who led the Turkish outpost of Operation Gladio under the Tactical Mobilization Group ( Turkish : Seferberlik Taktik Kurulu ), proudly reminisced about his involvement in the riots, calling them "a magnificent organization". Before the events in September 6, some buildings owned by Greeks and other non-Muslim minorities were marked with cross signs in order to make

11616-457: The run in advance. By the time Perin went to inspect the Tan Press, 180,000 copies had already been printed. Sensing something fishy, Perin tore up the paper and stopped the run. The prototype was still intact however, and the workers secretly resumed printing after Perin left. They had eventually printed 300,000 copies (on paper stocked in advance), of which 296,000 were sold. This was far above

11737-408: The rural population to the lifestyles of the urban minorities. The three chief destinations were the largest three cities: Istanbul, Ankara , and İzmir . Between 1945 and 1955, the population of Istanbul increased from 1 million to about 1.6 million. Many of these new residents found themselves in shantytowns ( Turkish : gecekondus ), and constituted a prime target for populist policies. Finally,

11858-417: The shops, while another 3 burned bodies were found in a sack in the region of Beşiktaş . Moreover, 32 Greeks were severely wounded. Men and women were raped and forced to convert to Islam, and according to accounts including those of the Turkish writer Aziz Nesin , men, including a priest, were subjected to forced circumcision by members of the mob. Moreover, an Armenian rite Christian priest died after

11979-482: The situation came soon out of control and the mobs were shouting "First your property. Then your life". The riot died down by midnight with the intervention of the Turkish Army and declaration of martial law . The police, who supported the attacks by preparing and organizing the operations, was ordered to hold a passive stance and leave the mob to roam the streets of the city freely and commit atrocities against

12100-471: The tombs of a number of ecumenical patriarchs were smashed open and desecrated. The abbot of the monastery, Bishop Gerasimos of Pamphilos , was severely beaten during the pogrom and died from his wounds some days later in Balıklı Hospital . In one church arson attack, Father Chrysanthos Mandas was burned alive. The Metropolitan of Liloupolis , Gennadios, was badly beaten and went mad. Elsewhere in

12221-432: The undersecretary of the NSS, Fuat Doğu, stating that in his 25 years of journalism, he had acted in full knowledge of the NSS and had not refrained from doing anything. At 17:00, the riots started in Taksim Square, and rippled out during the evening through the old district of Beyoğlu (Pera), with smashing and looting of Greek commercial property, particularly along Yüksek Kaldırım street. By six o'clock at night, many of

12342-566: The upper floors of the buildings in Beyoğlu are office space, and small workshops are found on the side streets. Istanbul Modern , located near Karaköy Port on the Bosphorus, frequently hosts the exhibitions of renowned Turkish and foreign artists. Pera Museum exhibits some of the works of art from the late Ottoman period, such as the Kaplumbağa Terbiyecisi (Turtle Trainer) by Osman Hamdi Bey . Apart from its permanent collection,

12463-498: The violence continued until the government declared martial law in Istanbul, called in the army and ordered it to put down the riots. The material damage was estimated at US$ 500 million, including the burning of churches and the devastation of shops and private homes. The pogrom greatly accelerated emigration of ethnic Greeks from Turkey, in particular the Greeks of Istanbul . The Greek population of Turkey declined from 119,822 in 1927, to about 7,000 in 1978. In Istanbul alone,

12584-610: The weeks leading up to the riots, increasing the number of branches from three in August to ten by the time the attacks took place. On September 4, Hikmet Bil ordered students at Taksim Square , the heart of the city, to burn Greek newspapers. The same day, Kamil Önal of the CTA ;– and the National Security Service ;– handed out to students twenty thousands banners emblazoned "Cyprus

12705-684: The works of the artist's father, Adil Doğançay. Hotel Pera Palace was built in the district in 1892 for hosting the passengers of the Orient Express . Agatha Christie wrote the novel Murder on the Orient Express in this hotel. Her room is conserved as a museum. S. Antonio di Padova , the largest Catholic church in Turkey, and the Neve Shalom Synagogue , the largest synagogue in Turkey, are also in Beyoğlu. There are other important Catholic and Orthodox churches in

12826-591: Was a staple of the Counter-Guerrilla . When opposition leader İsmet İnönü delivered a speech criticizing the government for rounding up innocent people instead of the actual perpetrators, the communists were released in December 1955. An angry Menderes said that İnönü would not be forgiven for his speech, pardoning the communists. 87 CTA leaders were released in December 1955, while 17 were taken to court on 12 February 1956. The indictment initially blamed

12947-462: Was also a priest. The material damage was considerable, with damage to 5317 properties, almost all Greek-owned. Among these were 4214 homes, 1004 businesses, 73 churches, 26 schools, two monasteries, and a synagogue. Over 4,000 Greek-owned businesses, over 1,000 Greek-owned homes, 110 hotels, 73 Greek (and other Christian) churches, 27 pharmacies, 23 schools, and 21 factories were badly damaged or destroyed. The American consulate estimates that 59% of

13068-415: Was appropriating their properties by force, our Rum Turkish citizens lived as free as we do, sometimes even more comfortably. We think that these Rums, who choose to remain silent in our struggle with Greece, are clever enough not to fall into the trap of four or five provocateurs. Tercüman , Yeni Sabah , and Gece Postası followed suit. The "Cyprus is Turkish" Association (CTA) stepped up activities in

13189-702: Was conquered by the Ottomans along with the rest of the city, after the Siege of Constantinople . During the Byzantine period, the Genoese Podestà ruled over the Italian community of Galata (Pera), which was mostly made up of the Genoese, Venetians , Tuscans and Ragusans . Venice, Genoa's archrival, regained control in the strategic citadel of Galata (Pera), which they were forced to leave in 1261 when

13310-514: Was constructed in the 1980s. The streets on either side of this road contain historic buildings and churches. The once cosmopolitan areas surrounding them have deteriorated. However, recent gentrification projects have seen some of the buildings restored. Istanbul's first beltway, the Kasımpaşa-Hasköy Tunnel , Piyalepaşa Avenue , Meclis-i Mebusan Avenue and Kulturuş Deresi Avenue are other major thoroughfares. Many Istanbul bus lines and

13431-418: Was first charged with executing the attack, but he presented an alibi so the charge was dropped to incitement. He was detained for nine months. Three months later, he escaped to Turkey before the Greek courts sentenced him to 3.5 years. In addition, Turkey refused Greece's extradition request. After the events, 3,151 people were immediately arrested, the number of arrested later rose to 5,104. On 7 September,

13552-482: Was founded in 1923 and after the Istanbul pogrom in 1955. The district encompasses other neighborhoods located north of the Golden Horn, including Galata (the medieval Genoese citadel from which Beyoğlu itself originated, which is today known as Karaköy ), Tophane , Cihangir , Şişhane, Tepebaşı, Tarlabaşı , Dolapdere and Kasımpaşa , and is connected to the old city center across the Golden Horn through

13673-798: Was in Galatasaray , Pera. After a fire in 1848 it temporarily moved to the Golden Horn . Lycée Saint-Joseph, Istanbul was in Pera after its establishment; its official founding year is 1870. Quarters within Beyoğlu There are 45 neighbourhoods in Beyoğlu District: In the Ottoman period the embassy of the United States to the Ottoman Empire was located in Pera. Istanbul pogrom The Istanbul pogrom , also known as

13794-520: Was in his second year, he was accused of incitement in the bombing incident. Engin said that he had been followed by Greek intelligence agents so closely from the start of his university education, that he could name one ("Triondafilos"). In his 2005 book, Speros Vryonis documents the direct role of the Demokrat Parti organization and government-controlled trade unions in amassing the rioters that swept Istanbul. Ten of Istanbul's 18 branches of

13915-461: Was never paid. They were accompanied by Eskişehir police, who were charged with coordinating the destruction and looting once the contingent was broken up into groups of 20–30 men, and the leaders of the party branches. While the DP took the blame for the events, it was revealed in 2005 that the riots were in actuality a product of the Turkey's Tactical Mobilization Group ; a clandestine special forces unit. Four star general Sabri Yirmibeşoğlu ,

14036-547: Was no longer run by a Genoese Podestà. Venice immediately established political and commercial ties with the Ottoman Empire, and a Venetian Bailo was sent to Pera as an ambassador, during the Byzantine period. It was the Venetians who suggested Leonardo da Vinci to Bayezid II when the Sultan mentioned his intention to construct a bridge over the Golden Horn, and Leonardo designed his Galata Bridge in 1502. The Bailo's seat

14157-646: Was not affected by these laws. All of Constantinople was in the Prefecture of the City of Constantinople ( French : Préfecture de la Ville de Constantinople ). The foreign communities also built their own schools, many of which went on to educate the elite of future generations of Turks, and still survive today as some of the best schools in Istanbul (see list of schools in Istanbul ). The rapid modernization which took place in Europe and left Ottoman Turkey behind

14278-596: Was politically convenient for the Menderes government, which was suffering from an ailing economy. Although a minority, the Greek population played a prominent role in the city's business life, making it a convenient scapegoat during the economic crisis in the mid-50s which saw Turkey's economy contract (with an 11% GDP/capita decrease in 1954). The DP responded first with inflationary policies, then when that failed, with authoritarianism and populism . DP's policies also introduced rural-urban mobility, which exposed some of

14399-406: Was presented in Beyoğlu during the winter of 2004–2005. The main thoroughfare is İstiklâl Caddesi , running into the neighbourhood from Taksim Square, a pedestrianised 1 mile (1.6 km) long street of shops, cafés, patisseries, restaurants, pubs, winehouses and clubs, as well as bookshops, theatres, cinemas and art galleries. Some of İstiklâl Avenue has a 19th-century metropolitan character, and

14520-499: Was symbolized by the differences between Beyoğlu, and the historic Turkish quarters such as Eminönü and Fatih across the Golden Horn, in the Old City. When the Ottoman sultans finally initiated a modernization program with the Edict of Tanzimat (Reorganization) in 1839, they started constructing numerous buildings in Pera that mixed traditional Ottoman styles with newer European ones. In addition, Sultan Abdülmecid stopped living in

14641-432: Was the "Venetian Palace", originally built in Beyoğlu in the early 16th century and replaced by the existing palace building in 1781; which later became the "Italian Embassy" after the unification of Italy in 1861, and the "Italian Consulate" in 1923, when Ankara became the new Turkish capital. The Ottoman Empire had an interesting relationship with the Republic of Venice . Even though the two states often went to war over

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