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216-651: On 4 August 1936, Metaxas, with the support of King George II , suspended the Greek parliament and went on to preside over a conservative , staunchly anti-communist government. The regime took inspiration in its symbolism and rhetoric from Fascist Italy , but retained close links to Britain and the French Third Republic , rather than the Axis powers . Lacking a popular base, after Metaxas' death in January 1941

432-496: A corporatist economic system in order to promote national and social solidarity. This idea "harmonized perfectly with Metaxas' convictions on social and national solidarity as well as his rejection of individualism and class struggle". The plan for the creation of a corporatist state was manifest in the early days of the regime by public declarations by Metaxas and by government ministers. To this end, Deputy Premier and Finance Minister Konstantinos Zavitsianos "published details about

648-437: A founding member of NATO . President Óscar Carmona died in 1951 after 25 years in office and was succeeded by Francisco Craveiro Lopes . However, Lopes was not willing to give Salazar the free hand that Carmona had given him, and was forced to resign just before the end of his term in 1958. Naval Minister Américo Tomás , a staunch conservative, ran in the 1958 elections as the official candidate. General Humberto Delgado

864-966: A new Roman Empire in the Mediterranean directly clashed with Greek pretensions to control the Aegean Sea and the Dodecanese islands (then under Italian control) and to exert stronger influence in Albania. As tensions and threat of war increased in Europe just before World War II, the situation was almost exactly the same as the position before World War I, when Greece had strong pro-German affinities in government, but it depended on Great Britain for its security. Most observers were anticipating Greece would attempt to remain neutral. Metaxas indeed attempted to maintain strict neutrality, but Italian expansionism eventually led to an Italian ultimatum and to

1080-705: A "Third Hellenic Civilization". George, ruling jointly with Metaxas, oversaw a right-wing regime in which political opponents were arrested and strict censorship was imposed. Many books, such as the works of Plato , Thucydides and Xenophon , were banned. Though not branded as a fascist regime, Metaxas's dictatorship was arguably quasi-fascist and heavily imitated that of Benito Mussolini in Italy, whom Adolf Hitler had also been inspired by in Germany. George disliked dealing with both Greek politicians and ordinary Greeks, and preferred to let Metaxas undertake tours around

1296-647: A 16-year struggle to sustain parliamentary democracy under republicanism – the Portuguese First Republic (1910–1926). The 28 May 1926 coup d'état or, during the period of Estado Novo , the National Revolution ( Portuguese : Revolução Nacional ), was a military action that put an end to the chaotic Portuguese First Republic and initiated the Ditadura Militar (Military Dictatorship) which in 1928 transitioned into

1512-575: A Greek named Alexandros Scavani, whom she made her chamberlain to cover up the scandal. In exile, George stayed half the year in Romania with Elisabeth, and the other half living with his mother at Villa Bobolina in Tuscany , either with or without his wife. George eventually moved to the United Kingdom, where he had numerous extended family members and friends. On 16 September 1930, George

1728-491: A broader government of national consensus, and abolish the hated dictatorial regime—whose sole bastion of support he now was. Though urged to this step by the influential British ambassador, Michael Palairet , George refused. Instead, several names were put forward to head a government. George initially proposed Konstantinos Kotzias , one of Metaxas's ministers, but his ties to the regime made him an unfeasible choice. Instead, veteran Venizelist general Alexandros Mazarakis-Ainian

1944-427: A centralized state and devotion to the monarchy and Greek Orthodox Church . Metaxas considered António Salazar 's Estado Novo of Portugal his main inspiration and surrounded himself with elements from this and other dictatorial regimes of the time. Thus, his main ideological slogan was also "New State" ( Neon Kratos ) and 4 August regime used its own military-like uniforms, greetings, songs and rituals, including

2160-569: A clear break with the 4th of August Regime. He also resisted British pressure to promise to restore the constitution of 1911, under the grounds that doing so would be to admit he acted illegally in suspending parts of the constitution in 1936. As late as 1942, George kept on Cabinet ministers from the Metaxas regime, most notably Maniadakis. The Greek royals' presence in Egypt upset Farouk of Egypt and his pro-Italian ministry, forcing George to find

2376-465: A close relationship with Himmler on methods and techniques). The objective of Asfaleia was to secure public order. The regime also repressed the rebetiko music due to the uncompromising lyrics and favoured the traditional Greek folk music . Hashish dens, baglamas and bouzouki were banned, or at least playing in the eastern-style manner and scales. Probably inspired by the Völkisch movement ,

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2592-583: A compromise with the representatives of the old democratic political establishment. Metaxas imposed his regime primarily to fight the turbulent social situation prevalent in Greece in the 1930s, in which political factionalization had disrupted Greek parliamentary democracy . The sinking credibility of the Parliament was accompanied by several coup attempts; a Venizelist putsch failed in March 1935, and in

2808-455: A corporatist state representing interest groups rather than individuals. The leaders wanted a system in which the people would be represented through corporations, rather than through divisive parties, and where national interest was given priority over sectional claims. Salazar thought that the party system had failed irretrievably in Portugal. Unlike Mussolini or Hitler , Salazar never had

3024-600: A cottage built for his father. His sister, Catherine, lived with him there as well with her staff. George attempted to depict his lifestyle as modest during a time of high rationing, and spent most of his time working in his office and opening letters addressed to him. While the Greek Civil War began raging in the north, the Paris Peace Treaties on 10 February 1947 allows Greece to annex the Dodecanese islands , which had been Italian territories since

3240-453: A decade and eventually led to the restoration of monarchy. In just over ten years, Greece had twenty-three governments, thirteen coup d'états and one dictatorship. On average, each Cabinet lasted six months and a coup d'état was organised every 42 weeks. Having failed to restore political instability, the republicanism movement in Greece became criticised and opposed by the public. Gradually, there were more and more protests that voiced to restore

3456-434: A fast pace. Although Caetano was fundamentally authoritarian, he did make some efforts to open up the regime. Soon after taking power, he rebranded the regime as the "Social State", and slightly increased freedom of speech and the press. These measures did not go nearly far enough for a significant element of the population who had no memory of the instability which preceded Salazar. The people were also disappointed that Caetano

3672-520: A few weeks before a German airborne attack . Despite defense of the island by Greek, Australian and New Zealand forces, alongside the local population, Crete slowly succumbed to Nazi forces. Hitler had named George the "number one enemy of the Reich in Greece" and George had narrowly escaped German paratroopers , so he decided that the royals and the government were to evacuate. They escaped on HMS Decoy and fled to Egypt. For his actions on Crete, George

3888-415: A free hand since appointing him prime minister and continued to do so. Carmona and his successors would largely be figureheads as Salazar wielded the true power. Wiarda argues that Salazar achieved his position of power not just because of constitutional stipulations, but also because of his character: domineering, absolutist, ambitious, hardworking, and intellectually brilliant. The corporatist constitution

4104-461: A group of military officers organised a coup d'état against George I , the concurrent king and grandfather of George. The coup d'état became known as the Goudi coup and was led by Nikolaos Zorbas , who declared himself a monarchist, but campaigned for the dismissal of all princes from the army. Zorbas argued that dismissing princely soldiers would protect the popularity of the royal family. However, it

4320-553: A horizontal (according to branches of production), not vertical (according to social class), syndicalist organization" of the state. However, due to the external crisis with Italy, the plan had to be temporarily postponed with the result that it never fully materialized. Metaxas' government, initially unpopular, also gained popularity through an elaborate program to socialize the Greek economy, including: Many elements of this program persist in Greek economic policy. Metaxas' regime founded

4536-529: A large crowd and a Te Deum , celebrated by Damaskinos. Despite democracy being restored, the Greek population were still heavily suffering from the war. Van der Kiste estimates that 77% of the naval fleet was destroyed, 95% of railways destroyed and over 300 villages ransacked. George returned to find Tatoi Palace looted, the surrounding woods chopped down for fuel and corpses buried in shallow graves outside. His country also faced economic collapse. With his residencies having been badly damaged, George moved into

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4752-508: A liberalization of his regime and the restoration of parliamentary rule, but King George quashed these hopes when he retained the regime's machinery in place. In the meantime, Adolf Hitler was reluctantly forced to divert German troops to rescue Mussolini from defeat, and entered the Battle of Greece through Yugoslavia and Bulgaria on April 6, 1941. Metaxas' successor Prime Minister Alexandros Koryzis , committed suicide on April 18, 1941, when

4968-501: A massive promotion of the Greek folk music took place, though the radio and public festivals, mainly because of the animosity of the state towards the bouzoukis and the rebetiko music. On this point the Greek communist left agreed, considering the rebetiko as "reactionary". Soon after its inception the regime severely repressed the communists and leftists. About 15,000 people were arrested and jailed, or exiled for political reasons; some were subjected to torture. Metaxas' regime forced

5184-665: A mixed economy that was neither capitalist nor communist, and was instead organized along quasi-traditional framework of corporatism. There was extensive state regulation as well as dominance of private ownership of the means of production. Major industrialists of Portugal accepted extensive control in return for a guarantee of minimal public ownership, along with restrictions on economic competition. Salazar's economy organized employers and workers into guilds and syndicates, divided into industries such as transport, commerce and banking; guilds were also organized for farmers and rural workers, fishermen, and skilled professions. Within this framework,

5400-644: A mixed reception in Britain, where he was criticised for his relations with Wilhelm II. In London, George was finally reunited with Andrew and his wife. George also regularly attended hunting trips in Scotland with his companions and members of the British royal family , who he frequently went to pubs and antique dealers with. George became quite knowledgeable in old furniture and English silverware. George avoided mentioning his political views or any plans for restoring

5616-480: A monkey bite in 1920. Parliament continued to refuse the crown to either George or Constantine, so it was offered to Constantine's third son, Paul , who refused to break the legitimate line of succession. Greece was making no progress in the Greco-Turkish War and in the 1920 Greek legislative election , Venizelos was voted out of office. Dimitrios Rallis , a monarchist, was appointed prime minister and

5832-1010: A more modest villa on Victory Avenue . As regular guests of the Romanian sovereigns, George and Elisabeth took part in the ceremonies which punctuated the life of the Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen family. Despite the kindness with which his mother-in-law treated him, George felt idle in Bucharest and struggled to hide the boredom he felt from the splendors of the Romanian court. After their exile, financial difficulties and absence of children, George and Elisabeth's marriage deteriorated. Elisabeth carried out multiple extra-marital affairs with various married men. When visiting her sick sister, Maria, in Belgrade , she reportedly flirted with her own brother-in-law, Alexander I of Yugoslavia . Later, she began an affair with her husband's banker,

6048-521: A multicultural, multiracial, and pluricontinental nation since the 15th century, losing its overseas territories in Africa and Asia would dismember the country and end Portuguese independence. In geopolitical terms, losing these territories would decrease the Portuguese state's self-sufficiency. Throughout the 1930s and 1940s, Salazar had strongly resisted Freyre's ideas, partly because Freyre claimed

6264-661: A new place of refuge for the family. George VI of the United Kingdom opposed having Frederica in Britain out of worry that she would bring attention to the British royal family's German origins. After deliberation, George and Paul only were granted permission to reside in London, with the rest of the family relocating to Cape Town , South Africa. George, Wallach, Paul and Levidis stationed themselves at Claridge's in Mayfair. George and Tsouderos organised with Winston Churchill and

6480-520: A performance of Laurence Olivier 's Henry V at the British embassy in Athens as part of a charity gala. At lunch the following day, George told a servant that he felt tired. He was then discovered unconscious in his office in the New Royal Palace in Athens on 1 April 1947. At 4:00 pm, George's death was announced on the radio and his cause of death was given as arteriosclerosis . When

6696-418: A possible overthrow by Metaxas, George declared to the Greek ambassador to the United Kingdom that he supported Metaxas's policies, though he also voiced his concern. The Greeks are orientals. They consider moderation in the exercise of power as a weakness. They are the most democratic people in the world, but once they take power, they automatically become tyrannical. Everyone knows it and accepts it. Most of

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6912-529: A referendum and appoint a regent before he returned to Greece. It was suggested that the regent be the Archbishop of Athens and All Greece, Archbishop Damaskinos , who was a strong supporter of republicanism, and thus George heavily opposed this. Communists became the monarchy's main political opponent and a rival communist-led government, called the Political Committee of National Liberation ,

7128-424: A registered electorate of 1,330,258) counting as "yes". Hugh Kay points out that the large number of abstentions might be attributable to the fact that voters were presented with a package deal to which they had to say "yes" or "no" with no opportunity to accept one clause and reject another. In this referendum, women were allowed to vote for the first time in Portugal. Their right to vote had not been obtained during

7344-603: A renegade Portuguese government in opposition to Salazar in Luanda . Galvão released the passengers in negotiation with Brazilian officials in exchange for political asylum in Brazil. Later that year hijackers forced an aircraft to circle Lisbon to drop leaflets against the dictatorship. After that, the six hijackers forced the crew to fly them back to Morocco. In 1962, the Academic Crisis occurred. The regime, fearing

7560-466: A result of the war. Supporters of Venizelos still maintained a high degree of influence and power in the country, with Plastiras and Gonatas leading the country. George and Elisabeth were confined to Tatoi and were highly monitored by the government, while George worried about the growing instability in Greece and criticism from the former Allies, who had previously refused to recognise Constantine's second reign. Between 13 October and 28 November 1922,

7776-480: A result, George threatened to boycott the ceremony, but Metaxas advised him to attend to avoid further deterioration in Greco-Italian relations . On 2 June 1940 Frederica gave birth to the future Constantine II . Simultaneously, World War II began to spread across Europe and France collapsed to Nazi Germany under Blitzkrieg . Fascist Italy soon joined on 10 June as an Axis Power . Mussolini commenced

7992-544: A state funeral, which left George considering abdication. General Ioannis Metaxas , who was a supporter of the monarchy, encouraged George to stay in the country with the hope that instability would gradually reduce. Following a failed royalist coup d'état in October 1923, the Greek government, led by the republican prime minister, Gonatas, asked George to leave the country while the National Assembly considered

8208-517: A stronger, healthier new generation. The EON published a fortnightly magazine called Neolaia (Νεολαία, Greek for "Youth"), which had much influence both in schools and in higher education. Metaxas' vision was to create, through the youth, the "Third Hellenic Civilization", a continuity of the ancient Greek and Byzantine civilization. The EON was disbanded by the German-Italian occupying authority in Greece following its vigorous resistance of

8424-536: A successful counter-attack, eventually occupying the southern half of Italian Albania . Metaxas died on 29 January 1941 and George refused to set up a government of national unity , despite calls from both wings of politics to do so. George appointed Alexandros Koryzis as the new prime minister and he retained the dictatorial power that Metaxas did. The Invasion of the Balkans by the Axis Powers ensued and

8640-438: A total area of 2,168,071 square kilometres (837,097 sq mi), while other former colonial powers had, by this time, largely acceded to global calls for self-determination and independence of their overseas colonies. Although Portugal was a dictatorial country, it pursued economic policies aligned with those of democratic and developed nations. The first steps toward economic integration began in 1948 when Portugal joined

8856-1015: A villa on Kifisias Avenue in the former Presidential Mansion , which was the residence of the Crown Prince. The mansion is now the official residence of the President of Greece . As a child, George also made numerous visits to Great Britain, where he stayed for several weeks to visit his British relatives. The Greek royals often stayed in Seaford and Eastbourne . George also made visits to Germany to see his mother's family and they stayed in Schlosshotel Kronberg with his grandmother, Victoria, but also took summer holidays in Corfu and Venice , travelling on their private yacht, Amphritrite IV . George has been described by historians John Van der Kiste and Vicente Mateos Sáinz de Medrano as

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9072-458: A violent propaganda campaign against Greece and accused George, who had declared Greece's neutrality, of harbouring British ships in Greek waters. On 15 August an Italian submarine sunk the Elli , which was escorting a ship of pilgrims off Tinos . The Nazi government in Germany proposed mediation between Italy and Greece. Hitler promised that if George, who he saw as an anglophile , abdicated from

9288-478: A watershed of legislation in Portuguese history. Under Salazar's supervision, Teotónio Pereira , the Sub-Secretary of State of Corporations and Social Welfare, reporting directly to Salazar, enacted extensive legislation that shaped the corporatist structure and initiated a comprehensive social welfare system. This system was equally anti-capitalist and anti-socialist. The corporatization of the working class

9504-530: A week before his due date. During George's birth, his mother struggled and George's umbilical cord was strapped around his neck. A German midwife, who was sent specially by his grandmother, Victoria, Princess Royal , assisted in George's birth. George was baptised on 18 August [Old Style: 5 August] 1890 by multiple Godparents, including Queen Victoria. George was the eldest of six siblings, born between 1890 and 1913, and spent most of his childhood in Athens in

9720-478: Is all the People, except of the incorrigible communists and the reactionary old parties politicians. Having come to power intent on restoring public order, Metaxas' state largely achieved this goal, under the supervision of what can be described as its most fascist member, minister of public order Konstantinos Maniadakis . Maniadakis created a second fake "communist party", published a fake Rizospastis and achieved

9936-426: Is argued by Van der Kiste that many of the officers involved in the coup blamed the high-ranking princes for the defeat of Greece in the 1897 Greco-Turkish War . They particularly placed blame on George's father, Crown Prince Constantine, believing that the royal family was monopolising the highest army positions. Some of the officers involved in the coup believed that the country would be better off if King George I

10152-607: Is depicted in the English detective novel, A Royal Affair (1920), by Allisan Montclair. On the occasion of the restoration of George II as monarch in 1935, the rebetiko singer Markos Vamvakaris wrote a song titled "We welcome you, King" ( Greek : Καλώς μας ήρθες Bασιλιά , romanized :  Kalós mas írthes Vasiliá ). Estado Novo Portugal Prime Minister of Portugal Government Other The Estado Novo ( Portuguese pronunciation: [ɨʃˈta.ðu ˈno.vu] , lit.   ' New State ' )

10368-494: Is no doubt in our minds that the party representing the government view exercised undue influence in securing votes in support of the return of the King." The new prime minister, Konstantinos Tsaldaris , went to London to invite George II back to Greece. On 27 September, George returned to Elefsina , Greece, and met with Paul and Frederica. From there, they and other members of the royal family travelled to Athens and were greeted by

10584-572: The Ditadura Nacional (National Dictatorship). Salazar became prime minister in 1932, and in 1933 renamed it the Estado Novo (New State), defining Portugal as a corporative, single-party and multi-continental country. With fascist organizations being popular and widely supported across many countries (like Italian Fascism and National Socialism ) as an antagonist of communist ideologies, António de Oliveira Salazar developed

10800-491: The 1920 Greek referendum restored Constantine to the throne. According to Van der Kiste, the referendum was most likely rigged by Rallis. Before Venizelos fled to Constantinople in exile, he asked George's grandmother, Olga Constantinovna , to act as regent while Constantine returned to Greece. On 19 December, George returned to Greece as the crown prince under his father's second reign. Many portraits of Venizelos were torn down in state celebrations and replaced with photos of

11016-475: The Archbishop of Athens and All Greece , did not attend. The ceremony is kept secret from the public and there are no state celebrations that occur. Alexander, who was only 23 years old, was described as having a "broken voice" and teary eyes when he took the oath of loyalty to the constitution. Historians, such as Van der Kiste, argue that he was fearful of dealing with his opponents and the fact that his reign

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11232-673: The Armed Forces Movement (MFA) – led to the end of the Estado Novo . King Carlos I of Portugal confirmed colonial treaties of the 19th century that stabilized the situation in Portuguese Africa . These agreements were, however, unpopular in Portugal, where they were seen as being to the disadvantage of the country. In addition, Portugal was declared bankrupt twice – first on 14 June 1892 and again on 10 May 1902 – causing industrial disturbances, socialist and republican antagonism, and press criticism of

11448-676: The Church of the Nativity of Christ and St. Nicholas , a Russian Orthodox Church in Florence . After a brief stay in Rome with Victor Emmanuel III of Italy , the Greek royals boarded the cruiser Elli in Brindisi and returned to Phalerum in Athens on 25 November. Kondylis lost his status as Regent of Greece , but ensured that George kept him as prime minister, before awarding him with

11664-467: The Estado Novo as an alternative; Estado Novo a conservative authoritarian regime that was neither fascist nor totalitarian. Salazar's regime can be described as a syncretic corporatist government; Portuguese historian Ernesto C. Leal described the ideology of Salazar and his state as a combination of anti-liberalism, conservatism and authoritarian nationalism that featured social corporatism and Catholic corporatism . The basis of Salazar's regime

11880-643: The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in 1962. Under Marcelo Caetano , who replaced an aging Salazar as prime minister in 1968, the country continued to liberalize its economy and advance European integration. This effort culminated in the signing of a free trade agreement with the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1972. When after Portugal, under the Third Portugese Republic, finally joined

12096-700: The German invasion of the Soviet Union . From 1943 onward, Portugal favoured the Allies, leasing air bases in the Azores . Portugal reluctantly leased the Azores as a direct result of being threatened with invasion should Portugal not cater to the requests of the Allies. As an official neutral, Portugal traded with both sides. It cut off vital shipments of tungsten and rubber to Germany in 1944, after heavy pressure from

12312-611: The Greco-Italian War . However, Greek forces repelled the Italian invasion completely and pushed the Italians back into Albania , where the invasion had been launched. In fact, some territories in Albania where the Greek minority lives were claimed to be ' alliberated ' and Metaxas' plans were to unite them with the rest of Greece. Metaxas died suddenly in January 1941 among dark circumstances. His death raised hopes of

12528-535: The Greco-Italian War . Plastiras, head of the opposition-in-exile, proclaimed their support of George and Metaxas. George consequentially took charge of Greek armed forces and established contact with the Allies , while conducting daily war council meetings at the Hotel Grande Bretagne . George travelled up north to support soldiers as well. Greece successfully repelled the Italian invasion and launched

12744-594: The Greek-identifying Slavophones fought in the Hellenic Army in defense of Greece , whereas those who didn't, collaborated with the occupational forces following Greece's capitulation. Again, in contrast to some totalitarian regimes, no mass killings were ever instituted and there is no evidence that any were planned. One of 4 August government's main objectives was the repudiation of the old capitalist system and its replacement with

12960-709: The Italo-Turkish War between 1911 and 1912. George proclaimed Admiral Perikles Ioannidis , the second husband of his aunt, Maria , as the first governor of the Dodecanese. George also aimed to annex Northern Epirus and a resolution vote by the American Senate approved this, but he was ultimately unsuccessful. From the announcement of Princess Katherine's engagement to British Major Richard Brandram , George's health began declining without his doctors being concerned. On 31 March 1947, George attended

13176-603: The Luftwaffe conducted Operation Punishment on 6 April, in which Belgrade was bombed when the government denounced the Tripartite Pact . On 9 April the Metaxas Line was penetrated by German troops from Bulgaria and Thessaloniki was occupied. Greek forces had to retreat further south as the Axis Powers continued to make progress within Greek borders. On 20 April a squadron of the Greek army surrendered for

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13392-653: The Marshall Plan , and subsequently became a founding member of the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation (OEEC). In 1960, Portugal joined the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), which allowed the country to integrate its industries with European markets while protecting its agriculture and fisheries, where it could not compete with Northern European nations. Portugal also expanded its economic ties globally by joining

13608-427: The National parks of Greece , as an example of the physiolatry, promoted by the regime. However, during these years, Ilissos river was covered in Athens. There is some debate over how the regime relates to other far-right regimes of the 1930s, especially Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany . Some of the main and important differences of Metaxas' regime as compared to other far-right governments include: Foreign policy

13824-405: The Northern Hemisphere . Salazar suffered a stroke in 1968. As it was thought that he did not have long to live, Tomás replaced him with Marcelo Caetano, former rector of the University of Lisbon and prominent scholar of its law school, and despite his protest resignation in 1962, a supporter of the regime. Salazar was never informed of this decision, and reportedly died in 1970 still believing he

14040-431: The Portuguese First Republic (1910–1926). Following the First Republic, when not even public order had been achieved, this looked like an impressive breakthrough to most of the population; at this point, Salazar achieved the height of his popularity. This transformation of Portugal was then known as A Lição de Salazar  – "Salazar's Lesson". Salazar's program was opposed to communism , socialism , and liberalism . It

14256-434: The Prussian Guard at the age of 18, then serving in the Balkan Wars as a member of the 1st Infantry Regiment . George received a military education as the heir to the throne. He was trained at the Hellenic Military Academy in Athens, which allowed him to enroll in Greece's infantry as a second lieutenant on 27 May [Old Style: 14 May] 1909. However, a few months after he joined, on 15 August [Old Style: 2 August] 1909,

14472-407: The Roman salute (which Metaxas considered Greek in origin as a salutation to the sun god Apollo, and he referred to it as the "Hellenikos Hairetismos" ("Hellenic Hailing")). Metaxas' regime also developed characteristics typical of authoritarian states such as 1930s Italy and Germany: the regime's propaganda presented Metaxas as "the First Peasant", "the First Worker" and as "the National Father" of

14688-453: The Second Greco-Turkish War in 1919. Tension between Venizelos and the royal family remained high and was not helped when Alexander decided to marry aristocrat Aspasia Manos , rather than a foreign royal, which dismayed Venizelos. Venizelos saw this decision as a missed opportunity to move closer to Great Britain. According to historian Marlene Eilers Koenig, George was in love with his cousin Anastasia de Torby , however their relationship

14904-406: The Treaty of Sèvres to Ankara and suffered heavy defeats at the Battle of Sakarya in August and September 1921. The royal family became more criticised and Greek media turned against George and two of his uncles when they made comments critiquing Venizelos. Prince Andrew , the father of the future Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh , fled from Asia Minor before Greece's defeat at Sakarya, which

15120-434: The Trial of the Six took place and saw the punishment of numerous monarchist politicians who had opposed the Venizelos administration. The verdict of the trial resulted in former prime ministers Dimitrios Gounaris , Petros Protopapadakis and Nikolaos Stratos , as well as politicians Georgios Baltatzis , Nikolaos Theotokis and Georgios Hatzanestis , being shot on 28 November. All six of them had been strong supporters of

15336-509: The death of Adolf Hitler . After World War II (1939–1945), however, the corporatist economic model was less and less applicable. And after decolonization in the 1950s and 1960s, the Portuguese regime became also a source of criticism and dissent by most of the international community. Nevertheless, Salazar clung to it, thereby slowing the nation's long-term economic development. Salazar's postwar policy allowed some liberalization in politics, in terms of organized opposition with more freedom of

15552-484: The Allies. Lisbon was the base for International Red Cross operations aiding Allied POWs and was the main air transit point between Britain and the U.S. In 1942, Australian troops briefly occupied Portuguese Timor , but were soon overwhelmed by invading Japanese. Salazar worked to regain control of East Timor, which came about after the Japanese surrender in 1945. In 1945, Portugal declared two days of mourning for

15768-596: The Balkan Wars and also feared displeasing his brother-in-law, Wilhelm II. Opposition soon accused Constantine of supporting the Triple Alliance , made up of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy, and relations between him and Venizelos, who believed that Greece should side with the Triple Entente , made up of Great Britain, France and Russia, quickly deteriorated. The entire Greek government, supported by

15984-603: The British Cabinet the placement of Greek troops in the Middle East and the purification of the Greek army by eliminating communist and Venizelist ideals. However, this provoked republican groups and several mutinies within the army and navy were conducted, which disrupted the Allies' efficiency in the Levant . On 22 October 1941, George finally, yet reluctantly, drafted with his Cabinet-in-exile, due to pressure from

16200-466: The British government and republican Greek opposition, a decree that would establish a new parliamentary regime and the dissolution of Metaxas's dictatorship by restoring the previously abolished articles; articles 5, 6, 10, 12, 14, 20 and 95. The decree was signed on 4 February 1942, finally abolishing the 4th of August Regime. The following month, George and Tsouderos returned to Egypt to organise Greek troops and stayed there until June. George travelled to

16416-625: The Cabinet and organised Greece's entry into World War I. The family were financially strained and Constantine soon became ill. He almost died in 1918 upon also contracting the Spanish flu . At the Treaty of Sèvres and Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine , part of the end of World War I, Greece made territorial gains in Thrace and Anatolia. Although initially seen as gains to the country, Greece soon fell into

16632-559: The Communist party underground, and also attempted to dismantle the old system of loyalties of the Royalist and Venizelist parties. Those major forces however remained, as they had for the preceding decades, and re-emerged immediately after the four-year Metaxas regime. While Metaxas' regime did play up the communist threat in order to justify its repression, the regime is not known to have committed political murders and did not instate

16848-913: The EEC in 1986, most trade barriers with the rest of Western Europe had already been dismantled by the Estado Novo, with the exception of those relating to agricultural goods and fisheries and, more importantly, trade with Spain. On the political front, Portugal was a founding member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1949, and joined the United Nations (UN) in 1955. From 1950 until Salazar's death in 1970, Portugal saw its GDP per capita increase at an annual average rate of 5.7 per cent, leading to significant economic convergence with wealthier Western European nations. Despite this remarkable economic growth, by

17064-586: The First Republic, despite feminist efforts, and even in the referendum vote, secondary education was a requirement for female voters, whereas males only needed to be able to read and write. The right for women to vote was later broadened twice under the Estado Novo. The first time was in 1946 and the second time in 1968 under Marcelo Caetano, law 2137 proclaimed the equality of men and women for electoral purposes. The 1968 electoral law did not make any distinction between men and women. The year 1933 marked

17280-487: The Foreign Office wrote in March 1942 that the king was "under the extraordinary impression that the Foreign Office was 'pro-Republican and anti-himself'". The British ambassador to the government-in-exile, Sir Reginald Leeper , noted that the king's coldness did not win him many friends, writing: "Amongst these vivacious, talkative and intensely political southerners he is very much the reserved northerner who damps

17496-798: The French government, soon declared in October 1916 that siding with the Entente was their preferred option. Central Greece was occupied by the Western Allies , an extension of the Triple Entente, and a National Schism between supporters of Constantine and supporters of Venizelos broke out. Constantine refused to alter his opinion and his popularity heavily decreased. A fire in Tatoi Palace broke out on 14 July [Old Style: 1 July] 1916 and French agents were blamed for it. Multiple members of

17712-470: The German Kaiser. The following summer, George travelled to the United Kingdom with Christopher and was in London when he heard of the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria on 28 June 1914. The assassination sparked the outbreak of World War I , in which Constantine wished to maintain Greece's neutrality. Constantine believed that Greece was unready to fight after its involvement in

17928-459: The Germans approached Athens. On April 27, 1941, Athens was occupied by the Germans. Despite British assistance, by the end of May, the Germans had overrun most of the country. The 4th of August regime collapsed on May 29, 1941. The King and the government escaped to Crete, where they stayed until the end of the Battle of Crete . They then transferred to Egypt , where a Greek government in exile

18144-554: The Government". Either deliberately or accidentally, the version released for publication omitted the words "of the date", creating the impression that George had agreed to a further plebiscite on the monarchy, even though a retraction was issued. After Italy joined the Allies on 8 September 1943, communists in Greece seized weapons of the Axis and gained territorial power within the country. There were growing calls for George to hold

18360-521: The Grand Cross of the Order of George I . Almost immediately after being restored, George and Kondylis disagreed over the terms of a general amnesty that George wanted to declare, so Kondylis resigned on 30 November 1935 and George appointed Konstantinos Demertzis as interim prime minister. The 1936 Greek legislative election confirmed that communism was gaining popularity within the country. This

18576-399: The Greek culture. The Second Hellenic Republic was proclaimed by parliament on 25 March 1924, before being confirmed by the 1924 Greek republic referendum two and a half weeks later. George and Elisabeth were officially deposed and banished, along with all members of the royal family, who were stripped of their Greek citizenship. Royal properties were also confiscated by the government of

18792-482: The Greek monarchy, but made himself clear that he would return as monarch if asked to and that he still considered himself Greek. George attended the wedding of his cousin, Marina , and George, Duke of Kent , in Greek army uniform. After the wedding celebrations had concluded, George left on a trip to British India for several months. Under Freeman Freeman-Thomas , the Viceroy and Governor-General of India , George

19008-453: The Greek throne was opposed by the former Allies of World War I, and thus Greece received minimal support in the Greco-Turkish War against Mustafa Kemal 's Turkey. The former Allies stated that they were not ready to provide support, and continued to hold distaste against Constantine. For example, at the wedding of Princess Helen and Crown Prince Carol, the British ambassador and his wife refused to greet Constantine and Sophia. In response to

19224-690: The Greeks. Like his contemporaries Hitler with Führer and Mussolini with Duce, Metaxas adopted the title of Archigos , Greek for "leader" or "chieftain", and claimed that his regime had to lay the foundations for the appearance of a glorious "Third Hellenic Civilization" combining the best of ancient Greece and the Greek Byzantine Empire of the Middle Ages . The Metaxas regime sought to comprehensively change Greece, and therefore instituted controls on Greek society, politics, language, and

19440-567: The National Assembly—which was firmly controlled by the regime—serving as an electoral college . On 23 January 1961, military officer and politician Henrique Galvão led the hijacking of the Portuguese passenger ship Santa Maria . The terrorist operation was successful as anti-regime propaganda but killed one man in the process. Galvão claimed that his intentions were to sail to the Overseas Province of Angola to set up

19656-408: The Portuguese were more prone than other European nations to miscegenation . Salazar adopted lusotropicalism only after sponsoring Freyre on a visit to Portugal and some of its overseas territories in 1951 and 1952. Freyre's work, Aventura e Rotina ( Adventure and Routine ) resulted from this visit. Under the Estado Novo regime, Portugal's most notable sports star, Eusébio da Silva Ferreira , and

19872-790: The U.S.- and UK-aligned forces of the political right. This was the first major protracted combat of the Cold War , one of the first exercises in U.S. policy of Containment , and a subject of the Truman Doctrine of U.S. President Harry S. Truman . The alignments were quite different from the Venizelist-Monarchist National Schism, as most Venizelists supported the right-wing alliance during the civil war. George II of Greece George II ( Greek : Γεώργιος Β' , romanized :  Geórgios II ; 19 July [ Old Style : 7 July] 1890 – 1 April 1947)

20088-543: The United States and met with President Franklin D. Roosevelt , before flying to London and then Cairo. In Cairo in March 1943, an official government-in-exile was finally proclaimed. Perhaps deeply paranoid and insecure, George believed that the British government was plotting to prevent his return to Greece, despite all of the evidence to the contrary. Edward Warner of the Southern Department of

20304-701: The United States, many hundreds of thousands to Germany, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, Luxembourg, Venezuela, or Brazil. Political parties, such as the Socialist Party , persecuted at home, were established in exile. The only party which managed to continue (illegally) operating in Portugal during all the dictatorship was the Portuguese Communist Party. In 1964, Delgado founded the Portuguese National Liberation Front in Rome , stating in public that

20520-631: The Workers' Center (Εργατικό Κέντρο), which was established to look after workers' housing and recreation, among other things. The 4th of August regime initially stabilized the drachma , which had been suffering from high inflation. Exploiting the newfound solidity of the currency, Metaxas' government embarked on large public works programs (such as the Ellinikon International Airport ), including land drainage , construction of railways, road improvements, and modernization of

20736-415: The ardour of those who might otherwise acclaim him". Leeper noted that almost every meeting he had with the king, he had to listen to a lengthy litany of complaints. In particular, the king objected to BBC's Greek language service, whose main radio announcer, G.N. Soteriadis, was a Venizelist. George repeatedly asked that Soteriadis be replaced with a monarchist. One of George's few friends was Churchill, who

20952-426: The arts (theatrical, literary, musical, visual arts, etc.). He collaborated with significant intellectual figures of the era, like Stratis Myrivilis , Nikos Kazantzakis , Angelos Sikelianos , Manolis Kalomoiris , Angelos Terzakis , " Nelly's " (Elli Seraidari), and others, to promote the ideas of the regime, especially to the youth. Another notable policy was the use and promotion of Demotic Greek ( Demotiki ) in

21168-454: The balance between 143 Monarchists and 142 Liberals, Agrarians, and Republicans, created a deadlock. In May 1936, widespread agrarian unrest among tobacco farmers and industrial unrest in the north of the country erupted, which eventually brought General Metaxas to suspend the parliament on the eve of a major strike, on 4 August 1936. Endorsed by the King, Metaxas declared a state of emergency , decreed martial law , annulled various articles of

21384-513: The budget and stabilized Portugal's currency. Restoring order to the national accounts, enforcing austerity, and red-penciling waste, Salazar produced the first of many budgetary surpluses, an unparalleled novelty in Portugal. In July 1940, the American Life magazine featured an article on Portugal, and, referring to its recent chaotic history, asserted that "anyone who saw Portugal 15 years ago might well have said it deserved to die. It

21600-538: The building of a major oil processing center in Sines . The economy reacted very well at first, but into the 1970s some serious problems began to show, due in part to two-digit inflation (from 1970 and on) and to the effects of the 1973 oil crisis . However, the 1973 oil crisis had a potentially beneficial effect on Portugal because the largely unexploited oil reserves that Portugal had in its overseas territories of Angola and São Tomé and Príncipe were being developed at

21816-651: The city was ransacked and burned . An estimated tens of thousands of Greeks and Armenians were killed, which influenced a greater degree of republicanism in Athens. When the Turks again defeated Greece at the Battle of Dumlupınar , a sector of the military, led by colonels Nikolaos Plastiras and Stylianos Gonatas , demanded the abdication of Constantine and the dissolution of the parliament. To avoid more unrest, Constantine officially abdicated on 27 September [Old Style: 14 September] 1922 and moved to Italy with Sophia and his daughters in exile, while George prepared to become

22032-439: The compromise solution of a regency, demanding that he return to Greece at once to reclaim his throne. On 29 December 1944, at a meeting at 10 Downing Street , Churchill told the king "that if he did not agree to the matter would be settled without him, and that we should recognise the new government instead of him". George's private secretary recalled, "I could hear through the door the voices of Churchill and Eden , particularly

22248-431: The constitution, and established a crisis cabinet to put an end to the unrest and to restore the social order. In one of his first speeches, Metaxas announced: "I have decided to hold all the power I need for saving Greece from the catastrophes which threaten her." Thus the Metaxas dictatorship was born, and the period of time which would follow was named after the day Metaxas rose to absolute power: 4 August. The new regime

22464-498: The country. George complied and although he refused to abdicate, George departed on 19 December 1923 for exile in his wife's home nation of Romania. Before fleeing, George was described as a cold and aloof man, who rarely inspired love or affection from his subjects. Many commented that his moody, sullen personality seemed more appropriate for his ancestral homeland of Denmark than Greece. Furthermore, George's long years spent living abroad had caused him to struggle in identifying with

22680-489: The country. After facing pressure to marry, Paul wedded Frederica of Hanover , the daughter of his cousin, Victoria Louise, and Ernest Augustus, Duke of Brunswick , on 9 January 1938. Though a notable amount of dignitaries were in Athens for their wedding, many Greeks feared having another queen who was German and who was the granddaughter of Wilhelm II. Hitler, now the Führer of Nazi Germany , also wished to take advantage of

22896-479: The country.. George retained full control of the army and he was largely responsible for foreign policy making. Metaxas's support of the monarch has been likened to that of Venizelos with Alexander. Although his reign was mostly guaranteed under the dictatorship, George was weary of Metaxas' growing power and the influence of the army. George told his cousin, Princess Victoria Louise of Prussia , that he felt so isolated that he could not trust anyone in Greece. To avoid

23112-461: The countryside. Also, on the legislation sector the Greek civil code, was finally completed by a jurist commission; a plan pending since the years of Otto of Greece . Another organization established by the regime was for the first time a state radio station; the YRE (today ERT ), suitable also for the propaganda of the regime. Also, during the years of the regime, the first law was made to establish

23328-400: The coup continued until February 1910 and members of the royal family were forced to resign from the military in order to avoid a revolution. George, his siblings and his parents evacuated Greece and moved to Germany for three years in exile. To avoid controversy, their exile was branded as a three-year "education leave", which was approved and so George continued his military training, but with

23544-557: The death penalty. Dissidents were, rather, usually banished to tiny islands in the Aegean Sea . For example, the liberal leader George Papandreou was exiled to Andros . The Greek Communist Party (KKE), meanwhile, which had already been outlawed, remained intact. Legal restrictions against it finally were ended in 1974 during metapolitefsi . Metaxas was educated in the German Empire and admired German culture. He supported

23760-571: The dissolution of all the communist organizations. Metaxas' policies such as the censorship of the media, the banning of political parties and prohibition of strikes copied contemporary European authoritarian regimes. As its far-right contemporaries Italy and Germany, the Greek State also had its political police force, the Asfaleia , based upon the Gestapo (its chief Maniadakis maintained

23976-437: The economy. In each of these policy areas, the Metaxas government seemed more nearly an anticipation of Francoist Spain than to resemble its contemporaries Nazi Germany or Fascist Italy . Greece since the 4th of August became an anticommunist State, an antiparliamentary State, a totalitarian State. A State based on its farmers and workers, and so antiplutocratic. There is not, of course, a particular party to govern. This party

24192-716: The educational system (but in a conservative form), instead of Katharevousa . Manolis Triantafyllidis was appointed to create the Demotic grammar used. In order to keep and maintain the values of the regime in future years, Metaxas gave birth to the Ethniki Organosi Neolaias (Εθνική Οργάνωση Νεολαίας, National Organisation of Youth , EON). The EON brought together youths of all economic and social strata into one single body. Boys' education emphasized discipline and physical training, while girls were taught to become supportive wives and caring mothers to breed

24408-641: The fall of the Estado Novo in 1974, Portugal still had the lowest per capita income and the lowest literacy rate in Western Europe. However, this economic convergence slowed or even reversed after the end of the Estado Novo, as political and economic instability in the post-1974 period hampered further progress. On 25 April 1974, the Carnation Revolution in Lisbon , a military coup organized by left-wing Portuguese military officers –

24624-484: The family. We are against class warfare, irreligion and disloyalty to one's country; against serfdom, a materialistic conception of life, and might over right." however the Estado Novo adopted many fascist characteristics with the Legião Portuguesa , Mocidade Portuguesa , and Corporatism being the most prominent examples; after the end of World War II, Salazar distanced his regime from fascism. Portugal

24840-560: The finance ministry. He pleaded ill-health, devotion to his aged parents and a preference for the academic cloisters. In 1927, under the ministry of Sinel de Cordes , the public deficit kept on growing. The government tried to obtain loans from Baring Brothers under the auspices of the League of Nations , but the conditions were considered unacceptable. With Portugal under the threat of an imminent financial collapse, Salazar finally agreed to become its 81st finance minister on 26 April 1928 after

25056-410: The first time. Koryzis told George to accept capitulation, but George reportedly burst into anger and gave his intentions of never surrendering. Following Koryzis' suicide on 18 April 1941 in the face of the rapid German advance, George unable to find a speedy successor, found himself as the de facto head of government as well as head of the armed services. George had thus a unique opportunity to form

25272-530: The following October, elections reinforced the Royalist majority, which allowed the exiled King George II to return to Greece. The king re-established the monarchy in the country, but the parliament, split into incompatible factions, was unable to shape a clear political majority and form a government. Meanwhile, the increasing activity of the Communists , whose 15 deputies from the 1936 elections held

25488-472: The government was preparing to evacuate too. Most Cretans supported Venizelos but were generally seen as anti-monarchical, this appointment was seen as a sop to local sentiment. On 22 April most members of the royal family were evacuated from the Greek mainland to Crete, but George and Paul remained in Athens until the next day, when they and the government too fled. George established headquarters in Chania ,

25704-460: The gravity of the offence, were usually sent to jail or transferred from one university to another in order to destabilize oppositionist networks and their hierarchical organization. The students, with strong support from the clandestine Portuguese Communist Party , responded with demonstrations which culminated on 24 March with a huge student demonstration in Lisbon, which was vigorously suppressed by

25920-450: The growing popularity of both purely democratic and communist ideas among the students, carried out the boycott and closure of several student associations and organizations, including the important National Secretariat of Portuguese Students. Most members of this organization were opposition militants, among them many communists. Anti-regime political activists were investigated and persecuted by PIDE-DGS (the secret police), and according to

26136-400: The hardliners in the regime—most notably Tomás, who was not nearly as willing to give Caetano the free rein that he gave Salazar. Caetano was thus in no position to resist when Tomás and the other hardliners forced the end of the reform experiment in 1973. Portugal's overriding problem in 1926 was its enormous public debt. Several times between 1926 and 1928, Salazar turned down appointments to

26352-459: The impending Allied invasion at Piraeus , Constantine agreed to be placed in exile without having to abdicate. The Allies were against establishing a republic in Greece and thus looked for a replacement. George's name was put forward, but the Allies perceived him as a germanophile , like his father, due to his links to the Prussian army and German imperial family. George's uncle, Prince George ,

26568-526: The intention to create a party-state. Salazar was against the whole-party concept, he rejected the concept of a mass-mobilizing party that sought to control all aspects of life, as seen in fascist regimes and in 1930 he created the National Union , a single-party, but he created it as a non-ideological, non-party, a passive institution, serving more as a facade of political order rather than a power-holding organization in its own right. The National Union

26784-468: The invasion. As in most other totalitarian regimes, 4 August regime adopted a strong nationalistic program: although Metaxas was opposed to the invasion of Asia Minor as part of the Megali Idea , he used strong nationalist language concerning Greek minorities in neighbouring countries and in answering threats from Greece's neighbours in the still volatile southeast Europe. As with many nation states at

27000-408: The latter, raised in anger at the king. In this heated argument the door was flung open and the king stormed out, his face white and taut ... In the car as we drove back to the hotel the King would not trust himself to speak; after recovering his composure he went back to Downing Street and informed Churchill and Eden that had no choice but to acquiesce to their demands". Bowing to pressure, George

27216-610: The mansion to prevent them from leaving, so they had to escape in secret the following day. They reached the port of Oropos and fled the country due to the war. This was the final time that George had contact with his brother, Alexander. George and his family settled in Switzerland, first in Saint Moritz and then in Zürich . Almost all members of the royal family moved with them after Venizelos returned to power as head of

27432-596: The military, but George returned to Germany to continue training with the Prussian army. When the First Balkan War commenced in October 1912, George returned to Greece to fight against the Ottoman Empire . George and his brother, Alexander, served as officers on his father's staff. George served in numerous battles, which was criticised by the media as it put the country's future monarch as risk of being killed. One such battle that George participated in

27648-412: The monarch. George left for Bucharest to retrieve his wife and the pair returned to Greece to be crowned. George officially ascended to the throne as George II, but did not receive a happy reception and faced harsh criticism. In Greece, there had been greater political instability since the 1922 Greek coup d'état , which influenced Constantine's abdication, and a large influx of refugees from Asia Minor as

27864-512: The monarchy and their executions were to the dismay of George, who had lost his right to pardon and could not intervene in the trial. Continued opposition to the royal family was occurring, such as the arrest of Prince Andrew on 26 October at the royal residence of Mon Repos on Corfu. Andrew was later transported to Athens and imprisoned for "disobeying an order" and "acting on his own initiative" during battles in Anatolia. The Greek government

28080-407: The monarchy was set for 1 September. Between then and the referendum, the electoral registers were revised under Allied supervision. The announced results claimed 68.4% in favour of George's return on an 86.6% turnout. However, even Allied observers acknowledged that the official results were marked by significant fraud by monarchist supporters. The official Allied observation report recorded, "There

28296-419: The monarchy, George, who had been living at Brown's Hotel , demanded a plebiscite be held in order to determine whether he would be reinstalled. Kondylis thus arranged the rigged 1935 Greek plebiscite , both to approve his government and to bring an end to the republic. On 3 November 1935, almost 98% of the reported votes supported the restoration of the monarchy. The balloting was not secret, and participation

28512-524: The monarchy. Although most protestors wished to have George reinstalled, there were voices to have a new monarch from a new dynasty be inducted, such as George, Duke of Kent. On 10 October 1935, General Georgios Kondylis , a former supporter of Venizelos who had suddenly decided to support the monarchist forces, overthrew the government and appointed himself prime minister, replacing Panagis Tsaldaris and Zaimis, who were prime minister and president respectively. Aware of Kondylis' ultimate aim of restoring

28728-399: The monarchy. Carlos responded by appointing João Franco as prime minister and subsequently accepting parliament's dissolution. In 1908, Carlos I was assassinated in Lisbon by anti-monarchists. The Portuguese monarchy lasted until 1910 when, through the 5 October revolution , it was overthrown and Portugal was proclaimed a republic . The overthrow of the Portuguese monarchy in 1910 led to

28944-594: The most decorated military officer of the Portuguese Armed Forces, Marcelino da Mata , were both black Portuguese citizens born and raised in Portugal's African territories. The Estado Novo based its political philosophy around a close interpretation of the Catholic social doctrine , much like the contemporary regime of Engelbert Dollfuss in Austria. The economic system, known as corporatism ,

29160-421: The most introverted and distant of his siblings, having been aware of his role as heir from a young age. Van der Kiste presents George as a child who often misbehaved, especially during visits to Germany, but less turbulent than his younger brother, Alexander , who was described as mischievous, and less sporty his younger sister, Helen , who was seen as a tomboy. George pursued a military career, training with

29376-473: The new republic. Rendered stateless , they were issued new passports from their cousin, Christian X of Denmark . Exiled in Romania from December 1923, George and his wife settled in Bucharest, where Elisabeth's parents, King Ferdinand and Queen Marie, put at their disposal a wing of the Cotroceni Palace for some time. After several weeks however, the couple moved and established their residence in

29592-528: The news was announced some thought it to be an April Fool's Day joke. His funeral was held on 6 April at the Metropolitan Cathedral of Athens and he was buried at Tatoi Palace. He was succeeded by his younger brother, Paul. George's nephew, Constantine, thus became the crown prince. During World War II, the Allies used the figure of George II as an instrument of propaganda to reinforce Greek patriotic sentiment. Several short films centred on

29808-439: The newspaper that Elisabeth had filed for divorce after she accused him of "desertion from the family home". A court in Bucharest processed the divorce without inviting George to attend. After the abolition of the monarchy in 1924, leaders who opposed Venizelos, except for Metaxas, refused to recognise the new regime. This "regime issue" that arose just after the proclamation of the republic, haunted Greek politics for more than

30024-564: The official workers' syndicates that replaced free trade unions. According to Howard Wiarda, "The men who came to power in the Estado Novo were genuinely concerned with the poverty and backwardness of their nation, divorcing themselves from Anglo-American political influences while developing a new indigenous political model and alleviating the miserable living conditions of both rural and urban poor." The new constitution introduced by Salazar established an anti-parliamentarian and authoritarian government that would last until 1974. The president

30240-523: The ongoing war, Constantine quickly assumed the role of commander-in-chief of the army and resided in Asia Minor from May to September 1921. George served as a colonel, and later a major general in the war. He travelled with his father to Smyrna and other battlefronts, where he visited wounded Greek soldiers and civilians in hospital. Greece was pushed back from the Anatolian lands granted to them in

30456-542: The only way to end the Estado Novo would be by a military coup , while many others advocated a "national uprising" approach. Delgado and his Brazilian secretary, Arajaryr Moreira de Campos, were murdered on 13 February 1965 in Spain in an ambush by PIDE. According to some Portuguese right-wing scholars like Jaime Nogueira Pinto and Rui Ramos , Salazar's early reforms and policies allowed political and financial stability and therefore social order and economic growth, after

30672-467: The perpetuation of Portugal as a pluricontinental nation under the doctrine of lusotropicalism , with Angola , Mozambique , and other Portuguese territories as extensions of Portugal itself, it being a supposed source of civilization and stability to the overseas societies in the African and Asian possessions. Under the Estado Novo , Portugal tried to perpetuate a vast, centuries-old empire with

30888-500: The politically unstable and financially chaotic years of the Portuguese First Republic (1910–1926). Other historians, like left-wing politician Fernando Rosas , point out that Salazar's policies from the 1930s to the 1950s, led to economic and social stagnation and rampant emigration, turning Portugal into one of the poorest countries in Europe, that was also thwarted by scoring lower on literacy than its peers of

31104-405: The press. Opposition parties were tolerated to an extent, but they were also controlled, limited, and manipulated, with the result that they split into factions and never formed a united opposition. He permitted the formation of Movement of Democratic Unity ( Movimento de Unidade Democrática ) in 1945. It boycotted the election and Salazar won handily on 18 November 1945. In 1949 Portugal became

31320-448: The prestigious First Foot Guards Regiment of the Prussian army. This period of absence from Greece reduced his popularity as a potential replacement for his grandfather. As Greece became more politically stable as violent protests lessened, George, his siblings and his parents returned to Greece at the end of 1910. In 1911, Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos allowed members of the royal family to be given back their former ranks in

31536-463: The principle of the superiority of state political power in social life, [and] the propensity for organizing masses behind a single leader" as fundamental differences between fascism and the Catholic corporatism of the Estado Novo . Salazar's own party, the National Union , was formed as a subservient umbrella organization to support the regime itself, and therefore did not have its own philosophy. At

31752-426: The prospect of George's return caused dissensions both inside Greece and among the Greeks abroad. Although he effectively renounced the Metaxas regime in a radio broadcast, a large section of the people and many politicians rejected his return on account of his support of the dictatorship. In November 1943, George wrote to Tsouderos, "I shall examine anew the question of the date of my return to Greece in agreement with

31968-407: The question of the future form of government. Though most likely uninvolved, George was accused of initiating the coup d'état, and Plastiras and Theodoros Pangalos openly campaigned for the abolition of the monarchy for the first time. The 1923 Greek legislative election determined that Venizelos would replace Gonatas, however before the changeover in government, Gonatas demanded that George leave

32184-540: The regime hinged entirely on the King. Although Greece was occupied following the German invasion of Greece in April 1941 and the Greek government was forced into exile in the British-controlled Kingdom of Egypt , several prominent figures of the regime, notably the notorious security chief Konstantinos Maniadakis , survived for several months in cabinet until the King was forced to dismiss them in

32400-423: The republican and Freemason Óscar Carmona was elected president. However, before accepting the position, he personally secured from Carmona a categorical assurance that as finance minister he would have a free hand to veto expenditure in all government departments, not just his own. Salazar was the financial czar virtually from the day he took office. Within one year, armed with special powers, Salazar balanced

32616-585: The riot police. Marcelo Caetano , a distinguished member of the regime and the incumbent rector of the University of Lisbon , resigned. The reluctance of many young men to embrace the hardships of the Portuguese Colonial War resulted in tens of thousands of Portuguese citizens each year leaving to seek economic opportunities abroad in order to escape conscription. In over 15 years, nearly one million emigrated to France, another million to

32832-558: The royal family were close fatalities of it. Though George was not present at the time, his younger sister, Princess Katherine , who was only three years old, was carried into the palace woods for two kilometres to be saved. Between sixteen and eighteen people, made up of firefighters and palace staff, died. On 19 June [Old Style: 6 June] 1917, French politician and leader of the Entente Charles Jonnart ordered George's father, Constantine, to abdicate. Due to worry of

33048-641: The royal family's possessions had been either ransacked, lost or sold during the republic. For example, the Presidential Palace in Athens had been almost completely emptied, its furniture sold by the republican Greek government. When the monarchy was restored, George nor any member of the royal family requested compensation for their lost property. Lacking wealth, George took charge of the restoration and redecoration works of his residencies, which he refurnished by gaining items from auctions and markets. George continued his relationship with Wallach, but it

33264-410: The royal family. Upon their return, the royals made numerous balcony appearances to please the large crowd that had turned out to see them return. A few weeks later, on 27 February [Old Style: 14 February] 1921, George married Elisabeth in Bucharest. Two weeks after, George's younger sister, Helen, married Elisabeth's brother, Crown Prince Carol of Romania , in Athens. Constantine's restoration to

33480-679: The ship Averof and exhibited for the public for six days in the Metropolitan Cathedral of Athens . On 23 November, a small ceremony was held at the Church of the Resurrection at Tatoi. It was attended by members of the royal family and foreign European royals and nobles. George would go on, in 1940, to retrieve the remains of his aunt, Alexandra, who had died in Russia in 1891, from the Soviet Union . This satisfied

33696-579: The sovereign and his government were thus shot, such as Heroic Greece! by the American Frank Norton (1941). The romantic relationship of King George II and his mistress, nicknamed "Mrs. Brown", is briefly mentioned in the third episode ("The New King") of the British mini-series Edward & Mrs. Simpson , which features the king's cruise with Edward VIII and Wallis Simpson in the Greek Islands, in 1936. In addition, George

33912-437: The state exercised extensive authority regarding private investment decisions and the level of wages. A relocation or constructions of an industrial plan, as well as investments into machinery or equipment to increase the capacity of already existing enterprises, required government approval. According to Howard J. Wiarda , "in reality both labor and capital and indeed the entire corporate institutional network were subordinate to

34128-408: The telecommunications infrastructure. Metaxas' economic program met with initial success, with a marked rise in per capita income and temporary decline in unemployment in Greece between 1936 and 1938 (unemployment skyrocketed after 1938). Capitalizing on this success, the government instituted debt relief for farmers and instituted price floors on some agricultural goods to redistribute wealth to

34344-636: The throne as King Constantine I. George thus became the Crown Prince of Greece at age 23. In the early weeks of being crown prince, George and his family moved to their new residence, where George developed a close friendship with his uncle, Prince Christopher , who was only two years older than him. On 30 June [Old Style: 17 June] 1913, the Second Balkan War broke out between Bulgaria and its former allies, which included Greece. Relations between Greece and many of its Balkan allies grew during

34560-427: The throne, Germany would guarantee no Italian invasion of Greece and grant Greece territories off the coast of the Balkans . George was outraged at this proposition and stated, "[The Nazis] would do better to not stick their noses in the affairs of this country if they know what is good for them!" On 28 October 1940 Metaxas rejected an Italian ultimatum demanding the stationing of Italian troops on Greek soil, sparking

34776-439: The time, he used language exalting his people's race. Ethnic and linguistic (mainly Slavophone Greeks ) minorities were persecuted under Metaxas' rule. The regime, however, was tolerant to the Greek Jews , repealing the anti-Semitic laws of previous regimes. A large community of Sephardic Jews was present in the region of Thessaloniki which was annexed by Greece in 1913, and Jews were largely in opposition to Venizelism . Metaxas

34992-506: The time, many European countries feared the destructive potential of communism. Many members of the National Syndicalist Movement eventually joined the National Union. One overriding criticism of his regime is that stability was bought and maintained at the expense of suppression of human rights and liberties. The corporatist state had some similarities to Benito Mussolini 's Italian fascism, but considerable differences in its moral approach to governing. Although Salazar admired Mussolini and

35208-434: The war, notably with Romania, which paved the way towards the marriage between George and his future wife, Elisabeth of Romania , the daughter of King Ferdinand I and Queen Marie of Romania . When Greece and its allies won the war in August 1913, George and his family resumed their European trips. George accompanied his father on a state visit to Berlin and received the Order of the Red Eagle from his uncle, Wilhelm II ,

35424-418: The wedding by incorporating Nazi swastikas into the ceremony. George was quick to oppose this and managed to avoid any Nazi influence on the day. On 1 July 1939, George's sister, Irene, married Prince Aimone, Duke of Aosta , a cousin of Victor Emmanuel III and the future King of Croatia . Their wedding in Florence was to the dismay of Mussolini, who forbade the Greek flag from being raised on Italian soil. As

35640-401: The wishes of his grandmother. With George's divorce, his relationship with a commoner and his lack of offspring, Paul assumed the role of heir apparent to the throne, however he too was still single. Succession laws were semi-Salic , meaning that one of their uncles or cousins would have to inherit the throne after Paul, however all their uncles were aging and their cousins were estranged from

35856-430: Was King of Greece from 27 September 1922 until 25 March 1924, and again from 25 November 1935 until his death on 1 April 1947. The eldest son of King Constantine I of Greece and Princess Sophia of Prussia , George followed his father into exile in 1917 following the National Schism , while his younger brother Alexander was installed as king. Constantine was restored to the throne in 1920 after Alexander's death, but

36072-412: Was a platform of stability, in direct contrast to the unstable environment of the First Republic . According to some Portuguese scholars like Jaime Nogueira Pinto and Rui Ramos, his early reforms and policies changed the whole nation by permitting political and financial stability and therefore a calm social order and economic growth , after the politically unstable and financially chaotic years of

36288-447: Was a prince whom God had forgotten to complete. Her feelings remain the same when the pair meet in Switzerland, however she accepted on the basis of her own imperfections. Although George's family had lost most of their wealth in exile, the Romanian royal family swiftly invited George and Elisabeth to return to Bucharest , in Romania, to announce their engagement. George was in Romania when Alexander died following an infection from

36504-402: Was accompanied by strict legislation regulating business. Workers' organizations were subordinated to state control but granted a legitimacy that they had never before enjoyed and were made beneficiaries of a variety of new social programs. Nevertheless, it is important to note that even in the enthusiastic early years, corporatist agencies were not at the center of power and therefore corporatism

36720-431: Was agreed in the May 1944 Lebanon conference that the fate of the monarchy would be decided in a national referendum. George was very much opposed to a regency, and tried his best to turn Churchill against Archbishop Damaskinos, accusing him of being a communist and a Nazi collaborator. Finally, Greece is liberated from the Axis. As late as Christmas Eve 1944, during the height of the Dekemvriana , George had rejected

36936-502: Was also glorified as the first political unifier of the Hellenes. As its main symbol, the youth organization of the regime chose the labrys / pelekys , the symbol of ancient Minoan Crete . The traditional Greek values of "Country, Loyalty, Family and Religion", which Metaxas praised repeatedly, were also close to those of the ancient Spartans. The regime promoted the perceived Spartan ideals of self-discipline , militarism and collective sacrifice, while Byzantium provided an emphasis on

37152-424: Was approved in the national Portuguese constitutional referendum of 19 March 1933. A draft had been published one year before, and the public was invited to state any objections in the press. These tended to stay in the realm of generalities and only a handful of people, less than 6,000, voted against the new constitution. The new constitution was approved with 99.5% of the vote, but with 488,840 abstentions (in

37368-464: Was atrociously governed, bankrupt, squalid, ridden with disease and poverty. It was such a mess that the League of Nations coined a word to describe the absolute low in national welfare: 'Portuguese'. Then the Army overthrew the Republic which had brought the country to this sorry pass". Life added that ruling Portugal was difficult and explained how Salazar "found a country in chaos and poverty" and then reformed it". Under Salazar, Estado Novo featured

37584-525: Was awarded with the Distinguished Service Order , becoming the only monarch in history to be decorated with the award. Throughout the Axis occupation , George remained the internationally recognised head of state, backed by the Greek government-in-exile and the Free Greek Forces . However, the British Foreign Office found George exceedingly difficult to deal with. He was deeply obstinate about upholding what he regarded as his royal prerogatives. He proved notably unwilling to compromise with those who wanted

37800-424: Was backed by small extremist political parties, and by conservatives expecting a crackdown on the communists. The roots of Metaxas' "New State" were sought in Greece's classical history. Metaxas thought Greek nationalism would galvanize "the heathen values of ancient Greece , specifically those of Sparta , along with the Eastern Orthodox Christian values of the Medieval empire of Byzantium ". Ancient Macedonia

38016-427: Was based on similar interpretations of the papal encyclicals Rerum novarum ( Leo XIII , 1891) and Quadragesimo anno ( Pius XI , 1931), which were meant to prevent class struggle and transform economic concerns secondary to social values. Rerum novarum argued that labour associations were part of the natural order, like the family. The right of men to organize into trade unions and to engage in labour activities

38232-417: Was born at the royal villa at Tatoi , near Athens , the eldest son of Crown Prince Constantine of Greece and his wife, Sophia of Prussia . George was a great-grandson of both Christian IX of Denmark , the " father-in-law of Europe ", and of Queen Victoria , the " grandmother of Europe ". George was born nine months after his parents married. Queen Victoria speculated that George was premature, being born

38448-843: Was compulsory. As Time described it at the time, "As a voter one could drop into the ballot box a blue vote for George II and please General George Kondylis ... or one could cast a red ballot for the Republic and get roughed up." The organisation of the plebiscite discontented the Greek government. When the election results were announced, a delegation was sent to the Greek embassy in London to officially ask George and his younger brother, Paul, to return to Athens, which they accepted on 5 November 1935. Before returning to Greece, they first travelled to France and Italy. In Paris , George and Prince Andrew were greeted by French President Albert Lebrun and interviewed by French media. George and Paul then travelled to Villa Sparta, Italy, to retrieve their sisters and pay respects to their parents' graves at

38664-480: Was criticised by George V of the United Kingdom , Alfonso XIII of Spain and Pope Pius XI , before Andrew's sentence was reduced to capital banishment in order to avoid sanctions. On 5 December [Old Style: 22 November], a British ship was sent to transport Andrew and his family, including the young Prince Philip, out of Greece and to Britain, to the dismay of George. Constantine died in Palermo on 11 January 1923 [Old Style: 29 December 1922] without being granted

38880-409: Was deposed and replaced by another neutral candidate, such as by George, his grandson. Proposed candidates included the Austrian duke Francis of Teck or a member of the German royal House of Hohenzollern . However, George was the most desirable candidate as he was more popular than his father, was an adult and was politically inexperienced, so was seen as easily more controllable. Violence sparked by

39096-408: Was determined to see him restored and often backed the king's complaints against his own officials. In occupied Greece, however, the leftist partisans of the National Liberation Front (EAM) and National Popular Liberation Army (ELAS), now unfettered by Metaxas's oppression, had become the largest Greek Resistance movement, enjoying considerable popular support. As liberation drew nearer however,

39312-414: Was developed by António de Oliveira Salazar , who was President of the Council of Ministers from 1932 until illness forced him out of office in 1968. Opposed to communism , socialism , syndicalism , anarchism , liberalism and anti-colonialism , and fascism , the regime was conservative corporatist , and nationalist in nature, defending Portugal's traditional Catholicism . Its policy envisaged

39528-440: Was established in occupied Greece and a pro-EAM mutiny, the 1944 Greek naval mutiny , among the armed forces in the Middle East, occurs. On 8 April 1944, Tsouderis resigned and George appointed the liberal Sophoklis Venizelos . However, when Venizelos is discovered to have been involved in the mutiny, George appoints Georgios Papandreou as prime minister and Papandreou selects a Cabinet made up of multiple republican ministers. It

39744-427: Was established. An alternative destination of Cyprus was rejected by the British, who feared that it might reinforce Greek claims on the island. Meanwhile, in Greece a fascist puppet government was placed into power by the Axis powers. As the Axis occupation ended, Greece descended into civil war between the communist-dominated forces of the left, operating in Greece and from bases in the south of Yugoslavia, and

39960-430: Was expelled from the Portuguese military and took refuge in the Brazilian embassy before going into exile, spending much of it in Brazil and later in Algeria. Even though the electoral system was so heavily rigged in favour of the National Union that Tomás could not have possibly been defeated, Salazar was not willing to leave anything to chance. He abolished the direct election of presidents in favour of indirect election by

40176-411: Was firmly opposed to the irredentist factions of the Slavophones of northern Greece (most of whom were Bulgarians), some of whom underwent political persecution due to advocacy of irredentism with regard to neighbouring countries. Metaxas' regime continued repression of the use of Slavic languages both in public and in private and of expressions of Slavic cultural distinctiveness. During World War II ,

40392-631: Was forced to abdicate two years later in the aftermath of the Greco-Turkish War . George acceded to the Greek throne, but after a failed royalist coup in October 1923 he was exiled to Romania. Greece was proclaimed a republic in March 1924 and George was formally deposed and stripped of Greek nationality. He remained in exile until the Greek monarchy was restored in 1935, following a rigged referendum , upon which he resumed his royal duties. The king supported Ioannis Metaxas ' 1936 self-coup , which established an authoritarian, nationalist and anti-communist dictatorship known as 4th of August Regime . Greece

40608-399: Was forced to appoint Archbishop Damaskinos of Athens as regent in January 1945. Damaskinos immediately appointed a republican-dominated government. Ailing, exhausted and powerless, George bought a lease on a house in Chester Square , Belgravia , and made a home there with Wallach, his long-time mistress. Though World War II was over, political instability in Greece remained very high. There

40824-470: Was given the mandate to form a government, but returned it on 20 April, partly due to his refusal to collaborate with Metaxas's hated Security Minister Konstantinos Maniadakis . Other figures, such as the former dictator Pangalos, were also rejected. Finally, Emmanouil Tsouderos , former governor of the Bank of Greece , was chosen, chiefly on account of his known Anglophile sentiments, Venizelist past, and Cretan origin-where with mainland Greece being overrun,

41040-443: Was illegitimate according to succession laws. Neither Constantine nor George had renounced their rights to the throne, and Constantine told Alexander that he viewed him as the country's regent, not monarch. On the evening of the ceremony, Alexander moved from the future presidential mansion in inner Athens to Tatoi. George and all other members of the royal family had planned to leave for exile, however crowds of people protested outside

41256-497: Was influenced by his Labour Charter of 1927 , Salazar distanced himself from fascist dictatorship, which he considered a pagan Caesarist political system that recognized neither legal nor moral limits. Salazar also viewed German Nazism as espousing pagan elements that he considered repugnant. Just before World War II, Salazar made this declaration: "We are opposed to all forms of Internationalism, Communism, Socialism, Syndicalism and everything that may divide or minimize, or break up

41472-454: Was initiated into Freemasonry in London and became venerable master of the Wellwood Lodge in 1933. After the death of Sophia in 1932, George chose to permanently leave Bucharest and his wife to establish his residence in London . Accompanied by his squire, Major Dimitrios Levidis, and one of his servants, Mitso Panteleos, George rented a small suite with two rooms at Brown's Hotel in Mayfair . George still lacked much wealth and received

41688-795: Was jealous of the successes of her sister, Queen Maria of Yugoslavia . Elisabeth had been pregnant since her and George's marriage, but suffered a miscarriage while travelling to Smyrna. Some historians argue that her miscarriage was actually the abortion of an illegitimate child that was the result of an affair between her and British diplomat Frank Rattigan, the father of Terence Rattigan . Elisabeth soon contracted typhoid , pleurisy and depression, before returning to Bucharest. Though George and Elisabeth's mother were attempting to convince her to return to Greece, her health never fully recovered after her miscarriage. Simultaneously, Turkish forces had organised an invasion of Smyrna , which fell on 9 September [Old Style: 27 August] 1922. Around two weeks later,

41904-443: Was kept secret from the public and any possible marriage between the pair would not be allowed due to Wallach's commoner status. When engagements required a first lady to be present, George would call his sister Katherine or his sister Irene , who were both single at the time. George made very frequent visits back to London, at least once every year, typically at the end of the year, to reunite with his extended family and friends. He

42120-441: Was mocked by Turkish forces. In the next few months, Greek forces continued to be defeated and slowly retreated towards Smyrna, while George was stationed in Ionia and Elisabeth joined the Red Cross to help Christian refugees who had escaped villages that had fallen to the Turkish army. Elisabeth's distance from George furthers her struggles of integrating into the Greek culture. Mateos Sáinz de Medrano documents that Elisabeth

42336-439: Was not the true base of the whole system. In 1934, Portugal crushed the Portuguese Fascist Movement and exiled Francisco Rolão Preto as a part of a purge of the leadership of the Portuguese National Syndicalists , also known as the camisas azuis ("Blue Shirts"). Salazar denounced the National Syndicalists as "inspired by certain foreign models" and condemned their "exaltation of youth, the cult of force through direct action,

42552-423: Was offered the position, but he refused out of loyalty to Constantine. Ultimately, George's younger brother, Alexander, was chosen by Venizelos and the Entente to replace Constantine. On 10 June [Old Style: 28 May] 1917, Alexander officially ascended to the throne in a small ceremony that was only attended by George and former prime minister Alexandros Zaimis . In addition, Theocletus I  [ el ] ,

42768-428: Was officially neutral in the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939), but quietly furnished help to the nationalists of Francisco Franco . During World War II, 1939–1945, Portugal remained officially neutral , giving its highest priority to avoiding a Nazi invasion of the sort that was so devastating in most other European countries. The regime at first showed some pro- Axis sympathies; Salazar for example expressed approval for

42984-505: Was one of the main concerns of 4 August regime. Metaxas, who had studied in Germany as a youth, was pro-German, while the King was pro-British. This caused heated discussions between the two, but the reality of 1930s Europe was that Greece's security depended less on Germany than on her traditional ally and protector, the United Kingdom , which was the Great Power dominating the Eastern Mediterranean Sea with her fleet. In addition, Italian leader Benito Mussolini 's grandiose schemes to build

43200-439: Was opposed by George's mother, Sophia, as Anastasia was the result of a morganatic marriage . George later became engaged in October 1920 to Elisabeth of Romania, who had been in touch with George since 1911. George had previously asked Elisabeth to marry in 1914, but she declined off the advice of her great-aunt, Elisabeth of Wied , who thought of George as being two small and too English. Elisabeth herself had declared that George

43416-431: Was opposed by the country's communist forces, who were against his policies. Metaxas also told George that he wished to suspend certain articles of the constitution in order to establish a dictatorship. On 4 August 1936, George endorsed Metaxas's dictatorship, known as the " 4th of August Regime ", signing decrees that dissolved the parliament, banned political parties, abolished the constitution and purported to create

43632-451: Was overrun following a German invasion in April 1941, forcing George into his third exile. He left for Crete and then Egypt before settling in London, where he headed the Greek government-in-exile . George returned to Greece after a 1946 plebiscite preserved the monarchy following the end of the war. He died of arteriosclerosis in April 1947 at the age of 56. Having no children, he was succeeded by his younger brother, Paul . George

43848-445: Was perhaps due to the continuing large influx of refugees from Asia Minor, who had been arriving since 1922. In the election, the Communist Party of Greece (KKE) gained fifteen seats, which established it as a buffer between monarchists and republicans. Political instability ensued after the unexpected, but natural, deaths of Demertzis, Kondylis, Venizelos and Tsaldaris. George appointed Metaxas as prime minister on 13 April 1936. Metaxas

44064-419: Was prime minister. Most of the people hoped Caetano would soften the edges of Salazar's authoritarian regime and modernize the already growing economy. Caetano moved on to foster economic growth and made important social improvements, such as the awarding of a monthly pension to rural workers who had never had the chance to pay social security . Some large-scale investments were made at the national level, such as

44280-507: Was pro- Catholic , conservative , and nationalistic . Its policy envisaged the perpetuation of Portugal as a pluricontinental empire, financially autonomous and politically independent from the dominating superpowers , and a source of civilization and stability to the overseas societies in the African and Asian possessions . To support his colonial policies, Salazar eventually adopted Brazilian historian Gilberto Freyre 's notion of lusotropicalism by asserting that, since Portugal had been

44496-607: Was set up to control and restrain public opinion rather than to mobilize it; the goal was to strengthen and preserve traditional values rather than to induce a new social order. Ministers, diplomats, and civil servants were never compelled to join the National Union. The legislature, called the National Assembly, was restricted to members of the National Union . It could initiate legislation, but only concerning matters that did not require government expenditures. The parallel Corporative Chamber included representatives of municipalities, religious, cultural, and professional groups, and of

44712-410: Was tension and violence between communists and British forces, commanded by General Ronald Scobie . On 31 March 1946, under the surveillance of the American, British and French governments, the 1946 Greek legislative election was held and the United Alignment of Nationalists , a royalist party, won a strong majority of seats, aided by the abstention of the communists, and the 1946 Greek referendum on

44928-468: Was the corporatist Portuguese state installed in 1933. It evolved from the Ditadura Nacional ("National Dictatorship") formed after the coup d'état of 28 May 1926 against the unstable First Republic . Together, the Ditadura Nacional and the Estado Novo are recognised by historians as the Second Portuguese Republic ( Portuguese : Segunda República Portuguesa ). The Estado Novo , greatly inspired by conservative and autocratic ideologies,

45144-402: Was the capture of Thessaloniki on 8 November [Old Style: 26 October] 1912, which marked major progress for Greece in the war. On 18 March [Old Style: 5 March] 1913, George's grandfather and the reigning king, George I, was assassinated while taking his daily walk in Thessaloniki. Crown Prince Constantine, whose popularity had grown due to Greece's successes in the First Balkan War, acceded to

45360-486: Was the opposition candidate—the only time in both incarnations of the Second Republic that an opposition candidate was still in the race on election day. Delgado was credited with only around 25% of the votes with 52.6% in favour of Tomás. The election had initially been seen as little better than a pantomime of democracy before a reporter asked Delgado whether he would retain Salazar if elected. Delgado famously replied, " Obviamente, demito-o! " ("Obviously, I'll sack him!") He

45576-418: Was thus inherent and could not be denied by employers or the state. Quadragesimo anno provided the blueprint for the erection of the corporatist system. A new constitution was drafted by a group of lawyers, businessmen, clerics, and university professors, with Salazar as the leading spirit and Marcelo Caetano also playing a major role. The constitution created the Estado Novo ('New State'), in theory

45792-427: Was to be elected by popular vote for a period of seven years. On paper, the new document vested sweeping, almost dictatorial powers in the hands of the president, including the power to appoint and dismiss the prime minister. The president was elevated to a position of preeminence as the "balance wheel", the defender and ultimate arbiter of national politics. President Carmona, however, had allowed Salazar more or less

46008-495: Was treated as the sovereign of Greece and met numerous officials stationed there, while being enthusiastically interested in the Indian culture. During his stay, George fell in love with a young woman named Joyce Wallach , who was married to John Britten-Jones , the aide-de-camp to the Governor of India. Wallach filed for divorce and moved back to London with George, however would continue to have numerous affairs up until George's death in 1947. On 6 July 1935, George learned through

46224-466: Was unwilling to open up the electoral system. The conduct of the 1969 and 1973 elections was little different from past elections over the previous four decades. The National Union—renamed People's National Action—swept every seat, as before. Also as before, the opposition was still barely tolerated; opposition candidates were subjected to harsh repression. However, Caetano had to expend all of his political capital to wring even these meager reforms out of

46440-470: Was weary of Metaxas when taking these trips and would never be away from Greece for too long. His trips though allowed for the acquisition by Greece of more military equipment and vehicles from Britain. One of George's priorities was to retrieve the bodies of his mother and father from Italy. In November 1936, he sent Paul to Florence to recover the bodies of their parents, Constantine and Sophie, and of their grandmother, Olga. They were transferred to Greece by

46656-408: Was well aware that the president's ability to dismiss the prime minister was, on paper, the only check on Salazar's power. Delgado's rallies subsequently attracted vast crowds. Evidence later surfaced that the PIDE had stuffed the ballot boxes with votes for Tomás, leading many neutral observers to conclude that Delgado would have won had Salazar allowed an honest election. After the elections, Delgado

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