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50-647: The other, also chanted by Theravadin Buddhist monks at times, extols the benefits of the practice of mettā (Pali) and it is found in the Anguttara Nikaya (AN 11.15). is also referred to as Mettānisamsa Sutta . This article will focus on the first version. In Theravāda Buddhism's Pali Canon , mettā is one of the four "divine abodes" (Pali: brahmavihāra ) recommended for cultivating interpersonal harmony and meditative concentration (see, for instance, kammaṭṭhāna ). In later canonical works (such as

100-439: A Science Daily article states, may reduce inflammatory and behavioral responses to stress that have been linked to depression and a number of medical illnesses. Mettā meditation is a central practice within mindfulness-based pain management (MBPM), the effectiveness of which has been supported by a range of studies. A 2015 meta-analysis, synthesizing various high-quality experiments on loving-kindness meditation, found

150-615: A hell realm , or as an animal or hungry ghost . In another sutta in the Aṅguttara Nikāya , the laywoman Sāmāvatī is mentioned as an example of someone who excels at loving-kindness. In the Buddhist tradition she is often referred to as such, often citing an account that an arrow shot at her was warded off through her spiritual power. The four immeasurables are explained in The Path of Purification ( Visuddhimagga ), written in

200-416: A heavenly realm in their next life. In addition, if such a person is a Buddhist disciple (Pāli: sāvaka ) and thus realizes the three characteristics of the five aggregates , then after his heavenly life, this disciple will reach nibbāna . Even if one is not a disciple, one will still attain the heavenly life, after which, however depending on what his past deeds may have been, one may be reborn in

250-443: A long-term effect could be shown, though these effects might not hold true for everybody. In one proof-of-concept study, uncontrolled in sample selection and benchmarking, the researchers report therapeutic potential for psychological problems like depression or social anxiety, when combined with other reliable treatments. The application of mettā meditation for the treatment of psychological and other healthcare-related problems

300-474: A medium-sized[quantify] improvement to daily positive emotion, with meditation on the loving-kindness aspect of mettā having a greater effect than practices with a focus on compassion. The length of time meditating did not affect the magnitude of positive impact of the practice. S. R. Bishop, in a 2002 review, suggests caution on claims of benefits, and states, "what has been published has been rife with methodological problems. At present, we know very little about

350-633: A mind of benevolence one direction of the world, likewise the second, likewise the third, likewise the fourth, and so above, below, around and everywhere, and to all as to himself; one abides suffusing the entire universe with benevolence, with a mind grown great, lofty, boundless and free from enmity and ill will. So mettāsahagatena cetasā ekaṃ disaṃ pharitvā viharati. Tathā dutiyaṃ. Tathā tatiyaṃ. Tathā catutthiṃ. Iti uddhamadho tiriyaṃ sabbadhi sabbattatāya sabbāvantaṃ lokaṃ mettāsahagatena cetasā vipulena mahaggatena appamāṇena averena abyāpajjena pharitvā viharati. In

400-449: A mind of benevolence, then above, and below, and all around – the whole world from all sides, completely, with a benevolent, all-embracing, great, boundless, peaceful and friendly mind ... Just as a powerful conch-blower makes himself heard with no great effort in all four [cardinal] directions, so too is there no limit to the unfolding of [this] heart-liberating benevolence. This is a way to communion with Brahma. The Buddha then said that

450-473: A mother would protect her only child at the risk of her own life, even so, let him cultivate a boundless heart towards all beings. Let her thoughts of boundless lovingkindness pervade the whole world: above, below and across, without obstruction, without any hatred, without any enmity. ⋮ This they say is divine abiding here. She will surely not come again to any womb (rebirth in the sense-desire realm). Metta or lovingkindness here, states Harvey,

500-482: A person who, depending on tradition, may or may not be internally visualized. Two different methodological approaches have been discerned in recent review papers: practices that focus on compassion, and practices focusing on loving-kindness. Focusing on compassion means that meditation consists of the wish to relieve a being from suffering, whereas focusing on loving-kindness means wishing a being happiness. The practice gradually increases in difficulty with respect to

550-421: Is a Brahmavihara (divine abode) or an immeasurable that leads to a meditative state by being a counter to ill-will. It removes clinging to negative states of mind, by cultivating kindness unto all beings. The "far enemy" of mettā is hate or ill-will, a mind-state in obvious opposition. The "near enemy" (quality which superficially resembles mettā but is in fact more subtly in opposition to it),

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600-574: Is a Bonpo terma uncovered by Shenchen Luga ( Tibetan : གཤེན་ཆེན་ཀླུ་དགའ , Wylie : gshen-chen klu-dga' ) in the early eleventh century. A segment of it enshrines a Bonpo evocation of the four immeasurables. Martin (n.d.: p. 21) identifies the importance of this scripture for studies of the Zhang-Zhung language . Before the advent of the Buddha , according to Martin Wiltshire,

650-516: Is a heartfelt aspiration for the happiness of all beings. It is different from "lack of ill-will", and more an antidote to fear and hatred. It is the precept to conquer anger by kindness, conquer the liar by truth, conquer the stingy by giving, and conquer evil by good, says Harvey. In over a dozen discourses, the following description (in English and Pāli) is provided for radiating loving-kindness in six directions: One abides, having suffused with

700-530: Is a mention of four right sentiments: Maitri, pramoda, karunya, and madhyastha: Benevolence towards all living beings, joy at the sight of the virtuous, compassion and sympathy for the afflicted, and tolerance towards the insolent and ill-behaved. In the Pāli Canon , the term metta appears in many texts such as the Kakacupama Sutta and Karaniya Metta Sutta . Other canonical materials, such as in

750-530: Is a pre-Buddhist Brahminical concept, to which the Buddhist tradition gave its interpretation. The Digha Nikaya asserts that according to Buddha , " brahmavihārā is "that practice," and he then contrasts it with "my practice" as follows: ...that practice [namely, the mere cultivation of love and so forth, according to the fourfold instructions] is conducive not to turning away, nor to dispassion, nor quiet, nor to cessation, nor to direct knowledge, nor to enlightenment, nor nirvana, but only to rebirth in

800-506: Is a section entitled Mettākathā ( Ps . 2.4, "Story on Loving-Kindness"). In this instruction, a general formula (below, in English and Pāli), essentially identical to the aforementioned Cunda Kammaraputta Sutta verse (especially evident in the Pāli), is provided for radiating benevolence: In addition, this instruction categorizes twenty-two ways in which "the mind-deliverance of benevolence" ( mettācetovimutti ) can be radiated with Moreover,

850-557: Is a series of four Buddhist virtues and the meditation practices made to cultivate them. They are also known as the four immeasurables ( Pāli : appamaññā ) or four infinite minds ( Chinese : 四無量心 ). The brahmavihārā are: According to the Metta Sutta , cultivation of the four immeasurables has the power to cause the practitioner to be reborn into a " Brahma realm" (Pāli: Brahmaloka ). Brahmavihārā may be parsed as " Brahma " and " vihāra ", which

900-583: Is a topic of research. Hofmann et al. discuss the potential use for therapy and report insufficient data, with some promising studies so far. Those studies could show a positive impact on problems such as schizophrenia, depression, and anxiety. According to Hofmann et al. , there needs to be more rigorous research, especially with the application of Buddhist approaches to loving-kindness and compassion meditation. In an eight-week pilot study in 2005, loving-kindness meditation led to reduced pain and anger in people with chronic lower back pain. Compassion meditation,

950-411: Is attachment ( greed ): here too one likes experiencing a virtue, but for the wrong reason. Mettā meditation, or often "loving-kindness meditation", is the practice concerned with the cultivation of mettā , i.e. benevolence, kindness, and amity. The practice generally consists of silent repetitions of phrases such as "may you be happy" or "may you be free from suffering", for example directed at

1000-414: Is discussed in the Metta Sutta of Buddhism, and is also found in the ancient and medieval texts of Hinduism and Jainism as metta or maitri . Small sample studies on the potential of loving-kindness meditation approach on patients suggest potential benefits. However, peer reviews question the quality and sample size of these studies. Mettā is a Pali word, from maitrī which

1050-492: Is equitable, and "good volitional acts conduce pleasant situations, while bad volitional acts conduce unpleasant situations". The Maitri Upanishad teaches, states Juan Mascaró, that peace begins in one's own mind, in one's longing for truth, in looking within, and that "a quietness of mind overcomes good and evil works, and in quietness the soul is one: then one feels the joy of eternity." The Isha Upanishad similarly discusses universal amity and loving-kindness, but without

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1100-471: Is extended for all those born in the lower realms. The Pali canon says that there are a number of benefits from the practicing of metta meditation, including: The canon also upholds fully ripened metta development as a foremost antidote to ill will: Mettā meditation is regularly recommended to the Buddha 's followers in the Pali canon. The canon generally advises radiating metta in each of

1150-426: Is often rendered into English as "sublime" or "divine abodes". Apramāṇa , usually translated as "the immeasurables", means "boundlessness, infinitude, a state that is illimitable". When developed to a high degree in meditation, these attitudes are said to make the mind "immeasurable" and like the mind of the loving Brahma (gods). Other translations: The four brahmavihārā are: The brahmavihārā

1200-545: Is particularly discernible in the early Upanishadic thought, and it is unclear as to what extent and how early Upanishadic traditions of Hinduism and Sramanic traditions such as Buddhism and Jainism influenced each other, on ideas such as "four immeasurables", meditation, and Brahmavihara. In the Jain text, the Tattvartha Sutra (Chapter 7, sutra 11), which is accepted by all Jain sub-traditions as authoritative, there

1250-929: The Paṭisambhidāmagga , elaborate on it as a practice. Yet other canonical sources, such as the Abhidhamma , underline the key role of benevolence in the development of wholesome karma for better rebirths. This basic statement of intention and verse can also be found in several other canonical discourses. May all beings be happy and secure, may they be happy-minded. Whatever living beings there are—feeble or strong, long, stout or medium, short, small or large, seen or unseen (ghosts, gods and hell-beings), those dwelling far or near, those who are born or those who await rebirth may all beings, without exception be happy-minded. Let none deceive another nor despise any person whatever in any place; in anger or ill-will let them not wish any suffering to each other. Just as

1300-560: The Cariyāpiṭaka ), mettā is one of ten "perfections" ( pāramī ) that facilitates the attainment of awakening ( Bodhi ) and is a prerequisite to attaining Buddhahood . According to post-canonical Sutta Nipāta commentary , the background story for the Mettā Sutta is that a group of monks were frightened by the earth devas in the forest where the Buddha had sent them to meditate. When

1350-483: The "four immeasurables" and related metta -meditation were his unique ideas, states Harvey Aronson, in a manner similar to "cessation, quieting, nirvana". The pre-Buddha Chandogya Upanishad , states Jayatilleke, in section 8.15 teaches metta and ahimsa (doctrine of non-harm, esp. non-violence) to all creatures claiming that this practice leads to Brahmaloka . The shift in Vedic ideas, from rituals to virtues,

1400-516: The Atharvaveda, and various Upanishads. A major early Upanishad of Hinduism, named Maitri Upanishad , discusses universal kindness and amity. The Maitri Upanishad , states Martin Wiltshire, provides the philosophical underpinning, by asserting, "what one thinks, that one becomes, this is the eternal mystery". This idea, adds Wiltshire, reflects the assumption in the ancient thought that one influences one's own environment and situation, causality

1450-607: The Buddha. Post-Buddha, these same virtues are found in the Hindu texts such as verse 1.33 of the Yoga Sutras of Patañjali , wherein the word maitri is synonymous with metta . Loving-kindness ( maitri ), along with compassion and equanimity, are found in the early Upanishads of Hinduism, while loving-kindness ( metta ) is found in early Sutras of Jainism along with compassion, empathetic joy and equanimity. The ancient Indian Paccekabuddhas who are mentioned in

1500-696: The Buddhist scriptures acknowledge that the four brahmavihārā meditation practices "did not originate within the Buddhist tradition". The Buddha never claimed that the "four immeasurables" were his unique ideas, like "cessation, quieting, nirvana ". A shift in Vedic ideas, from rituals to virtues , is particularly discernible in the early Upanishad thought, and it is unclear as to what extent and how early Upanishad traditions and Sraman traditions such as Buddhism and Jainism influenced each other on ideas such as "four immeasurables", meditation, and brahmavihārā . In an authoritative Jain scripture,

1550-476: The Long Discourses", a group of young Brahmins consulted Lord Buddha about the methods to seek fellowship/companionship/communion with Brahma . He replied that he knows the world of Brahma and the way to it, and explains the meditative method for reaching it by using an analogy of the resonance of the conch shell of the aṣṭamaṅgala : A monk suffuses the world in the four directions with

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1600-527: The Mettā Sutta as part of their demonstration in September and October 2007 against the military in Burma . Translations Readings and chants Essays Mett%C4%81 Maitrī ( Sanskrit ; Pali : mettā ) means benevolence, loving-kindness, friendliness , amity, good will, and active interest in others. It is the first of the four sublime states ( Brahmaviharas ) and one of

1650-524: The ancient root Mid (love). These Vedic words appear in the Samhita , Aranyaka , Brahmana , and Upanishad layers of texts in the Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda. Speaking the truth I desire this: May I enjoy her lovingkindness as do ye, May not one of you supplant another, She hath enjoyed my lovingkindness, the all-knower. Similarly, the term appears in hymn 55 of Book 19 of

1700-515: The canon, this basic formula is expanded upon in a variety of ways. For instance, a couple of discourses provide the following description of how to gain rebirth in the heavenly realm of Brahmā ( brahmānaṃ sahavyatāya maggo ) : May all beings be free from enmity, affliction and anxiety, and live contentedly. Mettākathā ( Ps. 2.4) In the Khuddaka Nikāya ' s Paṭisambhidāmagga , traditionally ascribed to Sariputta ,

1750-546: The development of mettā . These include such qualities as being non-deceptive ( uju ), sincere ( suju ), easy to correct ( suvaco ), gentle ( mudu ) and without arrogance ( anatimānī ). In terms of meditative development, the discourse identifies: It is often recited as part of religious services in the Theravāda tradition, but is also popular within the Mahayana tradition. It has been reported that Buddhist monks chanted

1800-444: The directional pervasions can then be applied to each of the unspecific and specific pervasions. For instance, after radiating benevolence to all beings in the east ( Sabbe puratthimāya disāya sattā... ), one radiates it to all beings in the west and then north and then south, etc.; then, one radiates it to all breathing things in this fashion ( Sabbe puratthimāya disāya pāṇā... ), then all creatures, persons, and so forth until such

1850-475: The early Buddhist Suttas , those who lived before the Buddha, mention all "four immeasurables" and Brahmavihara, and they are claimed in the Suttas to be previous incarnations of the Buddha. According to Ian Harris, the Buddhist scriptures acknowledge that the metta -concept containing four Brahmavihara meditation practices "did not originate within the Buddhist tradition". The Buddha never claimed that

1900-765: The effectiveness of this [mindfulness-lovingkindness-compassion meditation] approach; however, there is some evidence that suggests that it may hold some promise." In a 2014 review of multiple studies, Galante et al. reach a similar conclusion, stating "results were inconclusive for some outcomes, in particular against active controls; the methodological quality of the reports was low to moderate; results suffered from imprecision due to wide CIs ( confidence intervals ) deriving from small studies" and that "the kindness meditation methods show evidence of individual and community benefits through its effects on their well-being and social interaction". Brahmavihara The brahmavihārā (sublime attitudes, lit. "abodes of Brahma")

1950-520: The fifth century  CE by the scholar and commentator Buddhaghoṣa . They are often practiced by taking each of the immeasurables in turn and applying it to oneself (a practice taught by many contemporary teachers and monastics that was established after the Pāli Suttas were completed), and then to others nearby, and so on to everybody in the world, and everybody in all universes. A Cavern of Treasures ( Tibetan : མཛོད་ཕུག , Wylie : mdzod phug )

2000-534: The four immeasurables, namely maitrī , karuṇā , and upekṣā , are found in the later Upanishads , while all four are found with slight variations – such as pramodā instead of muditā – in Jainism literature, states Wiltshire. The ancient Indian Paccekabuddhas mentioned in the early Buddhist Suttas – those who attained nibbāna before the Buddha – mention all "four immeasurables." According to British scholar of Buddhism Peter Harvey ,

2050-400: The monk must follow this up with an equal suffusion of the entire world with mental projections of compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity (regarding all beings with an eye for equality). In the two Metta Suttas of the Aṅguttara Nikāya , the Buddha states that those who practice radiating the four immeasurables in this life and die "without losing it" are destined for rebirth in

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2100-525: The monks sought the Buddha 's advice in dealing with the situation, the Buddha taught the monks the Mettā Sutta as an antidote to overcome their fear. The monks recited the sutta and radiated loving-kindness. Their good-will placated the earth devas to be at ease and stay quiet as well. The Mettā Sutta contains a number of recollections or recitations that promote the development of mettā through virtuous characteristics and meditation . The discourse identifies fifteen moral qualities and conditions conducive to

2150-477: The pre-Buddhist traditions of Brahmāloka , meditation, and these four virtues are evidenced in both early Buddhist and non-Buddhist literature. The Early Buddhist Texts assert that pre-Buddha ancient Indian sages who taught these virtues were earlier incarnations of the Buddha . Post-Buddha, these same virtues are found in the Hindu texts such as verse 1.33 of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali . Three of

2200-512: The six directions, to whatever beings there may be. A different set of practical instructions, still widely used today, is found in the 5th century  CE Visuddhimagga ; this is also the main source for the "near and far enemies" given above. In addition, variations on this traditional practice have been popularized by modern teachers and applied in modern research settings. Mettā is found in pre-Buddhist Vedic Sanskrit texts as Maitrī , Maitra , and Mitra , which are derived from

2250-576: The targets that receive the practitioner's compassion or loving-kindness. At first the practitioner is targeting "oneself, then loved ones, neutral ones, difficult ones, and finally all beings, with variations across traditions". According to Martin Wiltshire, prior to the advent of the Buddha , there existed traditions of Brahmaloka and of meditation with the four virtues of loving-kindness, compassion, empathetic joy, and equanimity. The early Buddhist texts assert that pre-Buddha ancient Indian sages who taught these virtues were earlier incarnations of

2300-558: The ten pāramīs of the Theravāda school of Buddhism . The cultivation of benevolence ( mettā bhāvanā ) is a popular form of Buddhist meditation . It is a part of the four immeasurables in Brahmavihara (divine abidings) meditation. Metta as "compassion meditation" is often practiced in Asia by broadcast chanting, wherein monks chant for the laity . The compassion and universal loving-kindness concept of metta

2350-546: The term mettā . These teachings of universal maitri influenced Mahatma Gandhi. In Jainism, Yogabindu – the 6th-century yoga text by Haribhadra – uses the Sanskrit word maitri in verses 402–404, in the sense of loving-kindness towards all living beings. Some pilot research studies on the effect of mettā meditation indicate an increase in positive emotions for practitioners. In particular, an immediate impact on positive emotions after practice as well as

2400-437: The world of Brahma. ...my practice is conducive to complete turning away, dispassion, cessation, quieting, direct knowledge, enlightenment, and nirvana – specifically the eightfold noble path (...) According to Richard Gombrich , an Indologist and scholar of Sanskrit , Pāli , the Buddhist usage of the brahmavihārā originally referred to an awakened state of mind, and a concrete attitude towards other beings which

2450-601: Was equal to "living with Brahman" here and now. The later tradition took those descriptions too literal, linking them to cosmology and understanding them as "living with Brahman" by rebirth in the Brahma world. According to Gombrich, "The Buddha taught that kindness – what Christians tend to call love – was a way to salvation . In the Tevijja Sutta , "The Threefold Knowledge" in the Digha Nikāya or "Collection of

2500-524: Was itself derived from mitra which, states Monier-Williams, means "friend". The term is found in this sense in the Vedic literature, such as the Shatapatha Brahmana and various early Upanishads, and Vedanga literature such as Pāṇini 's Aṣṭādhyāyī 5.4.36. The term appears in Buddhist texts as an important concept and practice. Buswell and Lopez, as well as Harvey, translate mettā as "loving-kindness". In Buddhist belief, this

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