78,570
107-571: Mexican Civil War may refer to: Reform War (1858–1861), a civil war between the Liberal Party and the Conservative Party, resisting the legitimacy of the government Mexican Revolution (1910–1920), a national revolution including armed struggles that transformed Mexican culture and government Cristero War (1926–1929), a struggle in central and western Mexico against articles of
214-473: A constitution actually led to a conservative revolt against him led by General Echegaray . He resigned in favor of Manuel Robles Pezuela on 23 December. On 30 December a conservative junta in Mexico City elected General Miguel Miramón as president. President Miramón's most important military priority was now the capture of Veracruz, the liberals' stronghold. He left the capital on February 16, leading
321-522: A decree that the governors of Puebla and Veracruz should seize the properties of the church, except those being used for public worship, and sell them to pay for the damages caused by the rebellion. The first meeting of the congress which had been called on 16 October of the previous year under the Alvarez administration, occurred on 14 February. Nothing of substance was passed until the 21st when Alvarez's decree transferring executive power to Comonfort
428-455: A decree that was confirmed by Congress. Comonfort struggled against both the radical wing of his party and against clerical conservatives, both of which accused the president of conceding too much to the other. In June 1856, another major controversy emerged over the promulgation of the Ley Lerdo , named after the secretary of the treasury. The law was aimed at the collective ownership of
535-460: A draft of the statute. Meanwhile, the conservatives began to favor the moderate Comonfort for the presidency. Alvarez seriously considered stepping down from the presidency and handing it over to Comonfort, but the latter's enemies urged Alvarez to stay in office. On 4 December, Alvarez summoned a meeting of the most prominent members of the Liberal party for advice on how to proceed. He wavered on
642-552: A government mandated oath upholding the new constitution, which left Catholic civil servants with the choice of losing their jobs or being excommunicated. General Félix Zuloaga led army troops to the capital and closed congress and issued the Plan of Tacubaya on December 17, 1857. The constitution was nullified, President Comonfort was initially signed onto the plan and was retained in the presidency and given emergency powers. Some liberal politicians were arrested, including President of
749-435: A hostile demonstration by nervous merchants. The organic statute meanwhile had been passed on 15 May. The statue tended toward the centralization of the government by extending the action of the executive over everything, even municipalities. Limits were however placed on this wide authority. The constitutional congress clashed with the president over his claimed power to interfere in the proceedings. Comonfort wished to temper
856-482: A loan with the United States. He was reported to despair of Mexico's situation and saw some form of protection from the United States as the way forward and the way to prevent a resurgence of Spanish colonialism. Correspondence between Melchor Ocampo and Santos Degollado discussing Lerdo's attempt to negotiate a loan was captured and published by conservatives. Degollado was later to advocate mediation through
963-838: A military command. Former conservative president during the Reform War Manuel Robles Pezuela was also executed in 1862 by the Juarez government for attempting to help the French. Seeing the intervention as an opportunity to undo the Reform, conservative generals and statesmen who had played a role during the War of the Reform joined the French and a conservative assembly voted in 1863 to invite Habsburg Archduke Maximilian to become Emperor of Mexico. The Emperor, however, proved to be of liberal inclinations and ended up ratifying
1070-542: A new document more in accord with Mexican interests. In response, congress deposed President Comonfort, but Zuloaga's troops entered the capital on the 18th and dissolved congress. The following day, Comonfort accepted the Plan of Tacubaya, and released a manifesto making the case that more moderate reforms were needed under the current circumstances. The Plan of Tacubaya did not lead to a national reconciliation, and as Comonfort realized this he began to back away from Zuloaga and
1177-606: A pretext, and with the American Civil War preventing the enforcement of the Monroe Doctrine , Napoleon III invaded Mexico in 1862, and sought local help in setting up a monarchical client state. Former liberal president Ignacio Comonfort , who had played such a key role in the outbreak of the Reform War, was killed in action that year, having returned to the country to fight the French, and having been given
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#17327720512491284-808: A provision allowing changes to be made in accordance with the national will. Juan Álvarez was chosen as head of the movement. Comonfort, in charge of the fortress of Acapulco, resisted a siege by Santa Anna who appeared on 20 April 1854, but soon had to retreat. During the revolution, Comonfort went on an important mission abroad to gain war materiel. Comonfort later established his base of operations in Michoacan and prepared to march on Guadalajara . After months of fighting, Santa Anna resigned in August 1855, but Comonfort refused to recognize his government-appointed successor Martin Carrera , whom he viewed as an effort by
1391-423: A sally in force on 8 March, and a battle was fought at half past seven o'clock in the morning at Ocotlan. After two hours of fighting without any decisive results, Haro asked for a truce, and while he held a conference with Comonfort, Haro's troops retreated to Puebla. On 9 March, Comonfort began a siege which lasted until the 22nd when the insurgents finally surrendered. Comonfort refused to negotiate with Haro and
1498-580: A siege against two thousand indigenous troops. He was a deputy in Congress in 1842 and 1846. The 1842 Congress was dissolved by Santa Anna and the one in 1846 by Mariano Paredes . Comonfort took part in the revolt against the Paredes government in late 1846, during the early stages of the Mexican–American War which restored the federalist Constitution of 1824 . He was elected to the presidency of
1605-435: A war council, including in it prominent citizens to meet the crisis and by November 5 it was resolved to fight until the end. The conservatives were not struggling with a shortage of funds, due to looting the british legation of $ 700,000, but with increasing defections. Nonetheless, Miramon gained a victory when he attacked the liberal headquarters of Toluca on 9 December, in which almost all of their forces were captured. With
1712-472: The Battle of Antón Lizardo The ships were sent to New Orleans, along with the now imprisoned General Marin, depriving the conservatives of an attack force and the substantial artillery, guns, and rations that they were carrying onboard for delivery to Miramón. Miramón's effort to besiege Veracruz was abandoned on 20 March, and he arrived back in Mexico City on April 7. The conservatives also suffered defeats in
1819-544: The Ley Juarez [ es ] , which passed on 22 November 1855. Ecclesiastical courts were stripped of their right to judge civil law cases involving the Catholic clergy. They were allowed to continue judging clergy under canon law . Opponents of the measure accused government deputies of hypocrisy for claiming to support equality before the law while maintaining their immunity. The Archbishop protested against
1926-545: The McLane-Ocampo Treaty , which would have granted to the United States perpetual transit and extraterritorial rights in Mexico. This treaty was denounced by conservatives and some liberals, with Juárez countering that the territorial losses to the United States had occurred under the conservatives. With the liberal victory, Juárez's government was unable to meet foreign debt obligations, some of which stemmed from
2033-573: The Second Mexican Empire . After achieving independence in 1821, Mexico was alternatively governed by both liberal and conservative coalitions. The original Constitution of 1824 established the federalist system championed by the liberals, with Mexican states holding sovereign power and the central government being weak. The brief liberal administration of Valentín Gómez Farías attempted to implement anti-clerical measures as early as 1833. The government closed church schools, assumed
2140-635: The Three Years' War ( Spanish : Guerra de los Tres Años ), and the Mexican Civil War , was a complex civil conflict in Mexico fought between Mexican liberals and conservatives with regional variations over the promulgation of Constitution of 1857 . It has been called the "worst civil war to hit Mexico between the War of Independence of 1810-21 and the Revolution of 1910-20." Following
2247-576: The 1917 Constitution See also [ edit ] Chiapas conflict , the 1994 Zapatista uprising and 1995 crisis, and ongoing tensions between indigenous peoples and subsistence farmers in Chiapas Mexican Drug War , from 2006, ongoing asymmetric conflict between the Mexican government and drug trafficking syndicates Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with
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#17327720512492354-666: The Emperor, being executed by a firing squad on June 19, 1867. Santiago Vidaurri , once Juarez's commander in the north during the Reform War, had actually joined the imperialists, and was captured and executed for his betrayal on July 8, 1867. Leonardo Marquez would once again escape, this time to Cuba, living there until his death in 1913 and publishing a defense of his role in the empire. Ignacio Comonfort Ignacio Gregorio Comonfort de los Ríos ( Spanish pronunciation: [iɣˈnasjo komoɱˈfoɾ ðe los ˈri.os] ; 12 March 1812 – 13 November 1863), known as Ignacio Comonfort ,
2461-680: The Empire. While the main fighting in the Reform War was over by the end of 1860, guerilla conflict continued to be waged in the countryside. After the fall of the conservative government, General Leonardo Marquez remained at large, and in June, 1861, he succeeded in assassinating Melchor Ocampo . President Juarez sent the former head of his troops during the Reform War, Santos Degollado after Marquez, only for Marquez to succeed in killing Degollado as well. Having been influenced by Mexican monarchist exiles, and using Juarez's suspension of foreign debts as
2568-626: The Juárez law. In June, another major controversy emerged over the promulgation of the Lerdo law , named after the secretary of the treasury, Miguel Lerdo de Tejada . The law aimed at disentailing the collective ownership of real estate by the Roman Catholic Church and indigenous communities. It forced 'civil or ecclesiastical institutions' to sell any land that they owned, with the tenants receiving priority and generous terms for purchasing
2675-646: The Liberals by the United States and the Conservatives by France, the United Kingdom, and Spain. Liberals negotiated the McLane–Ocampo Treaty with the United States in 1859. If ratified the treaty would have given the liberal regime cash, but it would have also granted the United States perpetual military and economic rights on Mexican territory. The treaty failed to pass in the U.S. Senate, but
2782-630: The Mexican General Marin who was disembarking from Havana. The United States Navy however had orders to intercept it. Miramón arrived at Medellín on 2 March, and awaited Marin's attack in order to begin the siege. The U.S. steamer Indianola had been anchored near the fortress of San Juan de Ulúa , to defend Veracruz from attack. On March 6, Marin's squadron arrived in Veracruz, and was captured by U.S. Navy Captain Joseph R. Jarvis in
2889-492: The Mexican government lost their jobs for refusing the oath. Controversy over the constitution continued to rage, and Comonfort himself was rumored to be conspiring to form a new government. On December 17, 1857, General Félix Zuloaga proclaimed the Plan of Tacubaya , declaring the Constitution of 1857 nullified, and offered supreme power to President Comonfort, who was to convoke a new constitutional convention to produce
2996-626: The Mon-Almonte Treaty. When Juárez's government suspended payments, the pretext was used to inaugurate the Second French Intervention in Mexico . During the Reform War as the military stalemate continued, some liberals considered the idea of foreign intervention. The brothers Miguel Lerdo de Tejada and Sebastián were liberal politicians from Veracruz and had commercial connections with the United States. Miguel Lerdo, Juárez's Minister of Finance, attempted to negotiate
3103-508: The Reform laws. Regardless, the liberal government of Benito Juárez still resisted and fought the French and Mexican Imperial forces with the backing of the United States, which since the end of the American Civil War could now once again enforce the Monroe Doctrine. The French eventually withdrew in 1866, leading the monarchy to collapse in 1867. Former President Miguel Miramon and conservative general Tomas Mejia would die alongside
3210-478: The Rights of Man took into consideration the judicial thought and constitutions of the world's most advanced nations. Equality before the law was accepted as a fundamental right. The organization of Coahuila and Nuevo León was now an issue for the government. Governor Santiago Vidaurri had attempted to annex the greater part of Coahuila's towns to Nuevo León, but Comonfort on 15 April 1856, declared this act null,
3317-524: The Supreme Court of Justice, Benito Juárez . Comonfort, hoping to establish a more moderate government, found himself triggering a civil war and began to back away from Zuloaga. On 11 January 1858, Comonfort resigned and went into exile. He was constitutionally succeeded by president of the Supreme Court, Juárez. Mexican states subsequently chose to side with either the Mexico City based government of Zuloaga or that of Juárez which established itself at
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3424-482: The U.S. Navy still helped protect Juárez's government in Veracruz. Liberals accumulated victories on the battlefield until Conservative forces surrendered on 22 December 1860. Juárez returned to Mexico City on 11 January 1861 and held presidential elections in March. Although Conservative forces lost the war, guerrillas remained active in the countryside and would join the upcoming French intervention to help establish
3531-555: The city was mostly abandoned. After their evacuation, Parrodi laid siege to them on Magdalena Hill near the town of Cadereita. They retreated on 6 February 1857 and were routed in Tunas Blancas. Colonel Osollo was taken prisoner. A revolt broke out in Puebla on 12 December but was shortly taken care of. General Guitian then joined a revolt at Zacapoaxtla against Ley Juarez, though Bishop Labastida advised him to make peace with
3638-558: The commissions that had been made by Santa Anna. On 12 May, the Bishop of Puebla was exiled from Mexico for resisting the seizure of church properties. On 5 June, after a secret session, congress voted 70 to 14 to expel Jesuits from the country. Critics of the government accused this measure of hypocritically violating the liberal principle of freedom of religion . Conservatives feared another wave of anti-clerical legislation, as had occurred in 1833. The government also had to deal with
3745-480: The community-held land they cultivated. The law sought to undermine the economic power of the Church and to force create a class of yeoman farmers of indigenous community members. The law was envisioned as a way to develop Mexico's economy by increasing the number of indigenous private property owners, but in practice the land was bought up by rich speculators. Most of the lost indigenous lands community lands increased
3852-531: The conservative government was recognized swiftly by Spain and France. Neither conservatives nor liberals ever had official foreign troops as part of their respective armed forces. The conservative government signed the Mon-Almonte Treaty with Spain that promised to pay the Spanish government indemnities in exchange for aid. The liberals also sought foreign support from the United States. Mexico signed
3959-458: The conservatives and some liberals, the European press, and even members of Juarez's cabinet. The issue was rendered moot when the U.S. Senate failed to approve the treaty. Miramón was preparing another siege of Veracruz, leaving the conservative capital of Mexico City on February 8, leading his troops in person along with his war minister, hoping to rendezvous with a small naval squadron led by
4066-557: The conservatives. He resigned from the presidency and even began to lead skirmishes against the Zuloaga government, but after he was abandoned by most of his loyal troops, Comonfort left the capital on January 11, 1858, with the constitutional presidency having passed to the President of the Supreme Court, Benito Juárez . The Conservative government in the capital summoned a council of representatives that elected Zuloaga as president, and
4173-485: The constitution too radical and likely to trigger a civil war. The Lerdo Law forced the sale of most of the Church's rural properties. The measure was not exclusively aimed at the Catholic Church, but also Mexico's indigenous peoples , which were forced to sell sizeable portions of their communal lands. Controversy was further inflamed when the Catholic Church decreed excommunication to civil servants who took
4280-424: The constitution, but neither would an article making Mexico a confessional state as in previous constitutions, thus resulting in a type of de facto religious freedom. The constitutional congress wrapped up its work on 5 February 1857, and the fundamental code was signed and its support swore to by each congressman after which President Comonfort swore an oath to observe the constitution. After this, both Congress and
4387-484: The constitution. In Aguascalientes , Governor Lopez de Nava also cracked down on those refusing to take the oath by depriving them of political rights. Governor Alatiste of Puebla outright ordered public prayers for the success of the constitutional authorities. The clergy of Puebla were resolved to obstruct at all hazards the execution of the Lerdo Law, whereupon the government adopted stringent measures. The sale of
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4494-472: The diplomatic corps in Mexico to end the conflict. Juárez flatly refused Degollado's call to resign, since Juárez saw that as turning over Mexico's future to European powers. A French invasion and the establishment of the Second Mexican Empire followed almost immediately after the end of the Reform War, and key figures of the Reform War would continue to play roles during the rise and fall of
4601-467: The efforts of the deputies who in response to Santa Anna's recent dictatorship, intended to set up a government that Comonfort viewed as too weak. The draft of the new constitution had its first reading on 16 June, and the consideration of its clauses was begun at once. Like the Constitution of 1824, it embodied many principles borrowed from the Constitution of the United States . The Declaration of
4708-626: The end securing benefits to Mexico without actually concluding the treaty. In early December as the tide of war had clearly turned to the liberals, Juárez signed the Law for the Liberty of Religious Worship on December 4, the final step in the liberals' program to disempower the Roman Catholic Church by allowing religious tolerance in Mexico. General González Ortega approached Mexico City with reinforcements. The decisive battle took place on December 22, at Calpulalpan . The conservatives had 8,000 troops and
4815-459: The ever-present financial crisis, as Santa Anna's taxes had been lifted and the only source of revenue left was the excise taxes, that northern Governor Vidaurri objected to, duties from customs, which were not substantial, due to a lack of confidence from merchants. The Spanish sent a squadron to the Port of Vera Cruz with representative Miguel de los Santos Alvarez on board, and this was interpreted as
4922-550: The government. The first forces sent against them under General Ignacio de la Llave , Colonel Ortega and Lieutenant Colonel Calderon joined the rebels. They were also then joined by Miguel Miramón . Scattered conservative revolts followed in Oaxaca , Zacatecas , Querétaro , and Jalisco . Under the suspicion of sedition, Comonfort decreed the expulsion from the country of Antonio de Haro y Tamariz , Francisco Pacheco, and Agustín Zires [ es ] . Haro escaped and joined
5029-403: The hostile soldiers from shooting Juárez, an event now memorialized by a statue. As rival factions struggled to control the city, Juárez and other liberal prisoners were released on agreement after which Guadalajara was fully captured by conservatives by the end of March. Conservatives took the silver mining center of Zacatecas on 12 April. Juárez reconstituted his regime in Veracruz, embarking from
5136-495: The interior, losing Aguascalientes and San Luis Potosí before the end of April. Degollado was sent into the interior to lead the liberal campaign since their enemies had now exhausted their resources. He appointed José López Uraga as Quartermaster General Uraga split his troops and attempted to lure out Miramón to isolate him, but in late May Uraga then committed the strategic blunder of attempting to assault Guadalajara with Mirámon's troops behind him. The assault failed and Uraga
5243-614: The invasion by France that Mexican conservatives supported. Comonfort was killed in action in defense of the Republic on 13 November 1863. Ignacio Comonfort was born in Puebla on 12 March 1812. His parents were lieutenant colonel Mariano Comonfort and Maria Guadalupe de los Rios. At the age of 14, he began his studies at the Carolino College in Puebla, a school run by Jesuits. He was twenty years old in 1832 when he took part in
5350-423: The latter thus handed his command over to Castillo and Guitian, and they to Oronoz, who finally negotiated the surrender. Haro meanwhile escaped and went into hiding. In the final negotiations, the rank-and-file troops were allowed to remain in the government or to retire from service, and the officers were arrested to await their fate. Orders were issued for Haro's arrest. On 31 March, the federal government issued
5457-483: The lead of Manuel Maria Calvo revolted on 10 December 1856, and Rosas Landa was taken prisoner. There were rumors that a group of conservatives were directing these revolts from the capital. There were hostile movements in Michoacan and Tlaxcala , and Tomas Mejia still led troops around San Juan de los Llanos [ es ] . The Indians of Chapala revolted with instigation from Guadalajara . Osollo, pursued by Lamberg, went to San Luis Potosí to assume command of
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#17327720512495564-469: The liberal revolt which overthrew President Anastasio Bustamante and saw action at San Agustin del Palmar and Puebla . During the subsequent Siege of Mexico City , he was already a captain of the cavalry and fought at Tacubaya , Casas Blancas, Zumpango , San Lorenzo, and Posadas, and gave proof of his great military talent until Bustamante was overthrown and the Zavaleta Accords put an end to
5671-418: The liberals 16,000. Miramon lost and retreated back towards the capital. Another conservative war council agreed to surrender. The conservative government fled the city, and Miramón himself escaped to European exile. Márquez escaped to the mountains of Michoacan. The triumphant liberals entered the city with 25,000 troops on January 1, 1861, and Juárez entered the capital on January 11. After Zuloaga's coup,
5778-470: The liberals' overthrow of the dictatorship of conservative Antonio López de Santa Anna , liberals passed a series of laws codifying their political program . These laws were incorporated into the new constitution. It aimed to limit the political power of the executive branch, as well as the political, economic, and cultural power of the Catholic Church . Specific measures were the expropriation of Church property; separation of church and state ; reduction of
5885-449: The main church and chapels, sacred vessels ornaments, relics, and images which were handed over to the archbishop. Ezequiel Montes was dispatched in early October to Rome by the government to try to convince the pope to agree on the constitution. The archbishop was asked by the government to restrain the clergy who were urging disobedience to the government. Comonfort accepted the resignation of Puebla governor Traconis and replaced him with
5992-426: The matter and the following day accepted the resignation of his entire ministry and summoned Luis de la Rosa to organize another. The portfolios would remain empty for the rest of Alvarez's presidency. In Guanajuato , Manuel Doblado pronounced against the government of Juan Alvarez on 6 December, holding up the moderate Ignacio Comonfort as the new president. His proclamation accused Alvarez of attacking religion,
6099-547: The meantime passed laws establishing a civil state register and government-run cemeteries. On 17 March 1857, it was decreed that all civil servants had to publicly swear and sign an oath to the constitution. The Catholic Church decreed ex-communication for anyone that took the oath, and subsequently, many Catholics in the Mexican government lost their jobs for refusing the oath. The Franco-Mexican liberal paper Trait d'Union (Hyphen) proclaimed that war had been declared between church and state and featured stories on who had refused
6206-516: The measure and suggested that the question of the ecclesiastical fuero should be submitted to the pope, a suggestion the government rejected. The conservative generals Santa Anna and Blanco were officially stripped of their ranks and the liberals Santos Degollado and Moreno were commissioned as generals. Comonfort was now threatening to resign and only keep the office of general in chief. Álvarez directed his secretaries to lay before him proposals on how to proceed. He also directed his council to prepare
6313-660: The military and rebuilding it from the ground. Ocampo and Juarez were in favor while Comonfort was against, wishing instead to reform the military class, but not destroy it. This was just one example of the divisions that existed within the cabinet and Comonfort was publicly perceived as more moderate than his fellow ministers. Alvarez, who had meanwhile been governing from Cuernavaca , now moved himself and his troops to Mexico City. The filth and brutality of his troops, known as 'pintos' (mottled ones), caused general disgust and alarm and led to rumors that Alvarez would be overthrown in favor of Comonfort. Álvarez's cabinet, which included
6420-426: The more moderate Jose Maria Garcia Conde. The clerical uprisings did not make up the only insurgency that Comonfort had to deal with, as Governor Santiago Vidaurri of Nuevo León had revolted on the northern frontier, seizing Saltillo and Matehuala . Nearly all of the nation's available troops had to be sent to the north to deal with Vidaurri's uprising. The garrison of Querétaro City on 13 October fell into
6527-626: The nation and individuals for their illegal acts. Their estates were seized and placed at the disposal of the supreme court to meet damages. The ministry also promised legislation on personal rights, the press, police, the national guard and a moderate approach towards ecclesiastical affairs. Economic measures included opening ports to commerce, opening facilities for commerce, manufacturing, and mining, as well as for education. Foreigners were allowed to own real estate under certain conditions. A revolt now flared up at San Luis Potosí . Over 1,000 men of Rosas Landa's brigades returning from Nuevo León under
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#17327720512496634-419: The nation under the republican, democratic, and representative form, based upon a decree dating back to the - Bases of Tacubaya [ es ] in 1841. Alvarez would step down before this date, and it was Comonfort who was destined to be president during that fateful session. Due to the disorder, the military had caused throughout Mexican history, the idea began to be floated in the cabinet of dissolving
6741-559: The national territory, as Santa Anna had engaged in with the Gadsden Purchase, avoid civil war, use force only as a last resort, and convoke a constitutional congress at once to frame the constitution, and in the meantime publish an organic statute as a provisional constitution. The government set out to dismantle the remainder of Santa Anna's dictatorship. On 9 January 1856, a decree was passed to hold Santa Anna, his ministers, governors and other subordinates responsible for their to
6848-570: The north and led a liberal coalition in the interior headquartered in the town of Celaya . On March 10, 1858, liberal forces under Anastasio Parrodi , governor of Jalisco , and Leandro Valle lost the Battle of Salamanca , which opened up the interior of the country to the conservatives. Juárez was in Jalisco's capital Guadalajara at this time, when on 13-15 March part of the army there mutinied and imprisoned him, threatening his life. Liberal minister and fellow prisoner Guillermo Prieto dissuaded
6955-516: The number of private property owners, but in practice, the land was bought up by rich speculators. Most of the lost indigenous land went to haciendas . Meanwhile, the drafting of the new constitution continued amidst the opposition of the conservative press as well as opposition within the committee assigned to the task, two of whose members had given a dissenting vote on the current draft. Two other members approved it with reservations, and another declined to sign it. Many members of Congress advocated
7062-471: The oath, including judges and other federal civil servants. The press noted many cases of minor and local officials also refusing the oath. Others retracted their oaths to be able to receive the sacraments during Lent, which had begun that year shortly after the decree requiring an oath. Liberal officials however struck back at opposition to the oath and the constitution. Governor Juarez of Oaxaca expelled all priests who refused Christian burial to supporters of
7169-467: The one thing that bound Mexicans together. This proved redundant, as before news of the revolt even reached the capital, the elderly President Alvarez, who was not enjoying administrative tasks or the climate of Mexico City, decided to step down and announced this on 8 December. Alvarez met with Comonfort and officially transferred the presidency to him on 11 December at four o'clock in the afternoon. Comonfort appointed his cabinet two days after he assumed
7276-456: The possibility of a constituent congress. Negotiations broke down and hostilities resumed on the 12th after which Degollado was routed at the Battle of Las Vacas . On December 14, 1859, Melchor Ocampo signed the McLane–Ocampo Treaty , which granted the United States perpetual rights to transport goods and troops across three key trade routes in Mexico and granted Americans an element of extraterritoriality . The treaty caused consternation among
7383-564: The power of the Mexican Army by elimination of their special privileges ; strengthening the secular state through public education; and measures to develop the nation economically. The constitution had been promulgated on 5 February 1857 was to come into force on 16 September 1857. Predictably there was fierce opposition from Conservatives and the Catholic Church over its anti-clerical provisions, but there were also moderate liberals, including President Ignacio Comonfort , who considered
7490-458: The power of the executive branch of government by empowering the legislative branch. He had been dealing with revolts since the beginning of his administration and the new constitution left the president powerless to act. Hoping to reach compromise with the conservatives and other opponents of the constitution, he joined the Plan of Tacubaya , nullifying the constitution in December 1857. Congress
7597-566: The presidency in August. President Alvarez proceeded to form a cabinet and chose Ignacio Comonfort as Minister of War. Melchor Ocampo was made Minister of Relations, Guillermo Prieto was made Minister of the Treasury, and Benito Juarez of Justice and Ecclesiastical Affairs. Miguel Lerdo de Tejada was made Minister of Development. On 16 October, a call was made for a congress to assemble at Dolores Hidalgo in February 1856, to organize
7704-457: The presidency passed on to the liberal caudillo Juan Alvarez . Juan Álvarez assumed power in November, 1855. His cabinet was radical and included the prominent liberals Benito Juárez , Miguel Lerdo de Tejada , Melchor Ocampo , and Guillermo Prieto , but also the more moderate Ignacio Comonfort. Clashes in the cabinet led to the resignation of the radical Ocampo, but the administration
7811-431: The presidency. Luis de la Rosa was made Minister of Relations, Ezequiel Montes was made Minister of Justice and Ecclesiastical Affairs, Manuel Siliceo was made Minister of Development, Jose Maria Lafragua was made Minister of Interior Relations, Manuel Payno was made Minister of the Treasury, and Jose Yanez was made Minister of War and Marine. The ministers outlined their program, which was to avoid any dismemberment of
7918-464: The president addressed the nation and the new constitution was promulgated by Comonfort on 12 February. On that day the government also issued a comprehensive electoral law with 67 articles. The constitution was not meant to come into force until 16 September. Before the end of the year, Comonfort himself would have disavowed the constitution and civil war would have broken out. The constitutional congress closed its session on 17 February and Comonfort in
8025-569: The progressive state governors Benito Juárez and Melchor Ocampo, as well as the writer Guillermo Prieto , represented a new generation of liberals that had come of age since independence in 1821 and intended to pass unprecedented reforms in a period which began with the Álvarez administration and would eventually come to be known as the Liberal Reform . The reforms culminated in a new constitution in 1857, and open conflict with its opponents that did not entirely end until 1867. They began with
8132-425: The properties were likely to be bought by a few rich individuals, argued that the church had previously lent to the government during crises, and defended the church's record of treating tenants more generously than private owners. Minister of Interior and Foreign Relations Montez received him courteously, but his protests did not change government policy. The law was designed to develop Mexico's economy by increasing
8239-408: The property of the Catholic church, and suppressed the monasteries and convents, the sale of which provided the liberal war effort with new funds, though not as much as had been hoped for since speculators were waiting for more stable times to make purchases. Miramón met the liberal forces in November at which a truce was declared and a conference was held on the matter of the Constitution of 1857 and
8346-419: The property went on though slowly owing to conscientious objectors and fear of political persecution by others and the government exiled both military officers and ecclesiastics charged with sedition. On the night of 15 September, many Franciscans were arrested and their convent was occupied by troops, and on the 17th the government decreed the suppression of the convent and the seizure of all its property except
8453-409: The real estate. It forced 'civil or ecclesiastical institutions' to sell any land that they owned, with the tenants getting priority and generous terms for buying the land that they lived on. It was mostly aimed at the church, but the law was also aimed at Mexico's native communities who were forced to sell their communal lands, the ejidos . On 1 July, Archbishop Garza protested to the government that
8560-540: The rebels at Zacapoaxtla, demanding the re-establishment of the Bases Organicas of 1843. The rebels next attacked Puebla on 16 January 1855, and the governor surrendered without a fight. The revolution was now formidable, as the army had four thousand men, abundant supplies, and control of the second-largest city in the republic. Five thousand troops under generals Villareal, Traconis, Zuloaga, Gayosso, and Moreno marched out of Mexico City on 29 January to suppress
8667-451: The remainders of the administration to coopt the revolution. Comonfort entered Guadalajara on 22 August 1855 and published a circular arguing that only Juan Álvarez could be recognized as the leader of the revolution. By September, Comonfort was at Lagos conferring with the independent revolutionary leaders Antonio de Haro y Tamariz [ es ] and Manuel Doblado , effecting their recognition of Álvarez's leadership. Álvarez assumed
8774-407: The revival of the Constitution of 1824, while the distinguished statesman Luis de la Rosa also opposed the new constitution, congress as a whole approved it, 93 to 5. A debate on religious freedom began on 29 July, with 106 deputies present and a large crowd in the galleries. It lasted until 5 August when it decided not to put the article to a vote. Ultimately religious freedom would not make it into
8881-425: The revolt at Puebla. A thousand more men were expected from Guanajuato. Comonfort intended to conduct the operations himself. On 24 February, he had 11,500 men placed in the echelon and 4000 men of the national guard were stationed at the capital. He then set off for the front on 29 February and made his headquarters at Rio Prieto. The insurgents meanwhile retreated within the walls of Puebla. The Puebla garrison made
8988-456: The revolt there. The government dispatched 4,000 men under Anastasio Parrodi [ es ] which had been organized by the governors of Zacateca and Guanajuato . The insurgents soon found themselves short on resources and filled with dissension. One of their chiefs seized money from a British consul's house, but the leaders of the revolt ultimately concluded that they did not have enough men and resources to defend San Luis Potosí, and
9095-415: The revolution. He was named military commander of Izúcar de Matamoros . When General Mariano Arista as part of a conservative revolt against the administration of Valentín Gómez Farías besieged Puebla with a vastly superior force, Comonfort defended one of its most exposed points. Arista was repulsed and Comonfort returned to his job as a military commander. In 1834, he returned to defend Puebla against
9202-611: The right to make clerical appointments to the Catholic Church, and shut down monasteries. The ensuing backlash would result in Gómez Farías's government being overthrown and conservatives established a Centralist Republic in 1835 that lasted until the outbreak of the Mexican–American War in 1846. In 1854 there was a liberal revolt, known as the Plan of Ayutla against the dictatorship of Santa Anna . A coalition of liberals, including Benito Juárez , then governor of Oaxaca, and Melchor Ocampo of Michoacán overthrew Santa Anna, and
9309-679: The siege of General Guadalupe Victoria but lost. The victorious conservatives would turn the First Mexican Republic into the Centralist Republic of Mexico Comonfort left the city and returned to his family, where he remained for four years until he was named prefect and military commander of Tlapa in which he made many material improvements. He also had to deal with many southern indigenous revolts within his jurisdiction, including one case in which Comonfort, with twenty-four troops almost without ammunition, sustained
9416-485: The size of large landed estates, haciendas . The Constitution of 1857 was promulgated on February 5, 1857, and it integrated both the Juárez and the Lerdo Laws. It was meant to take into effect on September 16. On March 17 it was decreed that all civil servants had to publicly swear and sign and oath to it. The Catholic Church decreed excommunication for anyone that took the oath, and subsequently many Catholics in
9523-549: The states of Mexico proclaimed their loyalties to either the conservative Zuloaga or liberal Juárez governments. The Reform War had now begun. President Juárez and his ministers fled from Mexico City to Querétaro . General Zuloaga, knowing the strategic importance of the Gulf Coast state of Veracruz, tried to win over its governor, Gutierrez Zamora , who however affirmed his support for the government of Juárez. Santiago Vidaurri and Manuel Doblado organized Liberal forces in
9630-427: The strategic port of Veracruz . Initial choices for one side or the other often shifted over time. The first year of the war was marked by repeated conservative victories, but the liberals remained entrenched in the nation's coastal regions, including their capital at the port of Veracruz , which gave them access to vital customs revenue that could fund their forces. Both governments attained international recognition,
9737-488: The third ayuntamiento in the capital and was made prefect of western State of Mexico . He participated in the Mexican–American War, occupying the dangerous position of assistant to the commander-in-chief, and was part of the congress that met at Querétaro after the U.S. Army took the capital. He was elected senator the following year in 1848, and later made a customs official in the port of Acapulco , although he
9844-473: The tide turning to liberal victories, Juárez rejected the McLane-Ocampo Treaty in November, while the treaty had previously been rejected in the U.S. Senate May 31 and not ratified. Juárez had secured recognition from the U.S. government with the opening of negotiations with the United States, rejected outright sale of Mexican territory to the United States, and received aid from the U.S. Navy, in
9951-619: The title Mexican Civil War . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mexican_Civil_War&oldid=1163028383 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Reform War [REDACTED] 8,713 103 Americans killed by Mexican liberals The Reform War , or War of Reform ( Spanish : Guerra de Reforma ), also known as
10058-584: The town of Ayutla , Guerrero, condemning the dictatorship of Santa Anna, attacking measures such as military conscription, and the selling of the Mesilla valley to the U.S., known there as the Gadsden Purchase . The plan declared Santa Anna deposed and called for the convocation of a new president and a representative assembly to reorganize the government. The plan was ratified at Acapulco by Colonel Comonfort, among others, with some amendments, including
10165-540: The troops in person along with his minister of war. Aguascalientes and Guanajuato had fallen to the liberals. Liberal troops in the West were led by Degollado and headquartered in Morelia , which now served as a liberal arsenal. The conservatives fell ill with malaria , endemic in the Gulf Coast, and abandoned the siege of Veracruz by March 29. Liberal General Degollado made another attempt on Mexico City in early April and
10272-413: The west coast port of Manzanillo , crossing Panama, and arriving in Veracruz on May 4, 1858, making it the liberal capital. Juárez made Santos Degollado the head of the Liberal armies, who went on to defeat upon defeat. Miramón defeated him in the Battle of Atenquique on 2 July. On 24 July, Miramón captured Guanajuato , and San Luis Potosi was captured by the conservatives on 12 September. Vidaurri
10379-418: Was a Mexican politician and soldier who was also president during La Reforma . He played a leading role in the liberal movement under the Plan of Ayutla to overthrow the dictatorship of Santa Anna in 1855; he then served in the cabinet of the new president, Juan Álvarez . Comonfort was a moderate liberal and assumed the presidency when Álvarez stepped down after only a few months. The Constitution of 1857
10486-434: Was cut off from the rest of the country. Guadalajara was surrounded by 17,000 liberal troops while the conservatives in the city only had 7000. The conservative commander Castillo surrendered without firing a shot and was allowed to leave the city with his troops. General Leonardo Márquez was routed on 10 November, attempting to reinforce General Castillo without being aware of his surrender. Miramón on November 3 convoked
10593-479: Was defeated at the Battle of Ahualulco on 29 September. By October the conservatives were at the height of their strength. The liberals failed to take Mexico City on 14 October, but Santos Degollado captured Guadalajara on 27 October, after a thirty days siege that left a third of the city in ruins. This victory caused consternation at the conservative capital, but Guadalajara was taken back by Márquez on 14 December . The failure of Zuloaga's government to produce
10700-407: Was dissolved and Comonfort remained as president, only to be completely abandoned by his liberal allies. He backed out of the plan and resigned from the presidency. He was succeeded by the president of the Supreme Court, Benito Juárez . Comonfort went into exile as the bloody Reform War broke out, a civil war the conservatives lost in 1861. Comonfort returned to the country in 1862 to fight against
10807-607: Was drafted during his presidency, incorporating changes enacted in individual laws of the Liberal Reform . The constitution was met with opposition from conservatives its forceful anticlerical provisions to undermine the economic power and privileged status of the Catholic Church as an institution. Most notably the Lerdo law stripped the Church to hold property. The law also forced the breakup of communal land holdings of indigenous communities, which enabled them to resist integration economically and culturally. The controversy
10914-399: Was further inflamed when the government mandated that all civil servants take an oath to uphold the new constitution, which left Catholic public servants with the choice between either keeping their jobs or being excommunicated . Comonfort considered the anticlerical articles of the constitution too radical, likely to provoke a violent reaction. He also objected to the deliberate weakening of
11021-447: Was ratified by a majority of 72 votes to 7, thus granting Comonfort a substantial mandate. The congress was thoroughly progressive, echoing the radical congress of 1833 under Valentín Gómez Farías , but a measure to re-adopt the federalist Constitution of 1824 , which had long been championed by the liberals, failed to pass by one vote. Efforts began on a draft of a new constitution. Congress ratified Ley Juarez and nullified many of
11128-458: Was removed from this position during the last dictatorship of Santa Anna in 1854. Comonfort's liberal sympathies, military office, and presence in the South would lead him to play a key role in the Plan of Ayutla , unifying liberal opposition to Santa Anna, formulated by the dissident Colonel Florencio Villareal [ es ] on 1 March 1854. The plan proclaimed a revolutionary program in
11235-486: Was routed in the Battle of Tacubaya by Leonardo Márquez . Márquez captured a large amount of war materiel and gained infamy for including medics among those executed in the aftermath of the battle. On April 6, the Juárez government was recognized by the United States during the Buchanan administration. Miramón unsuccessfully attempted to besiege Veracruz in June and July. On July 12, the liberal government nationalized
11342-592: Was still determined to pass significant reforms. On November 23, 1855, the Juárez Law , named after the Minister of Justice, substantially reduced the jurisdiction of military and ecclesiastical courts which existed for soldiers and clergy. Further dissension within liberal ranks led to Alvarez's resignation and the more moderate Comonfort becoming president on December 11, who chose a new cabinet. A constituent congress began meeting on February 14, 1856, and ratified
11449-486: Was taken prisoner. Miramón was routed on August 10, in Silao , which resulted in his commander Tomás Mejía being taken prisoner, and Miramón retreated to Mexico City. In response to the disaster, Miramón resigned as president to seek a vote of confidence. The conservative junta elected him president again after a two days interregnum. By the end of August, liberals were preparing for a decisive final battle. The Mexico City
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