Artists
142-787: The Mexican Inquisition was an extension of the Spanish Inquisition into New Spain . The Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire was not only a political event for the Spanish, but a religious event as well. In the early 16th century, the Reformation , the Counter-Reformation , and the Inquisition were in full force in most of Europe. The Catholic Monarchs of Castile and Aragon had just conquered
284-626: A Crypto-Jew prosecuted by the Inquisition was that of Luis de Carvajal y de la Cueva . Born Jewish in Mogadouro, Portugal in 1537, from what may have been an old, Spanish converso family. However, he was married to a woman, Guiomar de Rivera, who would not give up her Hebraic faith even though he tried to convert her. Finally, when she decided to stay behind as he went to the West Indies to trade wine, he moved on to New Spain. There he became
426-599: A businessman but was more noted as a soldier. He fought for the Spanish against the Indians in Xalapa and the Huasteca areas. Having made a name for himself, he brought a number of his family members over from Spain to live in the frontier state of Nuevo León . Raiding in that area, he was alleged to have made a fortune capturing and selling Indian slaves. It was rumored that the family were secretly practicing Judaic rites. He
568-556: A certain amount of appreciation for it. It was definitely different from the Islam that the Reconquista had subdued, toward which so much Christian hatred was directed. Instead, the indigenous religion was branded as paganism , but was regarded as an authentic religious experience that had been corrupted by demonic influences. Much of appreciation of the indigenous religion was helped by the fact that many parallels could be drawn between
710-467: A combined army between the two of them that could outmatch the military of most noble coalitions in the Peninsula. It was impossible to change the entire laws of both realms by force alone, and due to reasonable suspicion of one another, the monarchs kept their kingdoms separate during their lifetimes. The only way to unify both kingdoms and ensure that Isabella, Ferdinand, and their descendants maintained
852-648: A compromise between the two theological systems. This proposal met the opposition of the Pope for it gave recognition to Protestants and also elevated the secular Princes of Europe above the clergy on church matters. Faced with a Turkish attack, Charles held the support of the Protestant German rulers, all of whom delayed the opening of the Council of Trent. In the to-and-fro of medieval politics , Pope Pius II , in his bull Execrabilis (1460) and his reply to
994-585: A council. Yet when he proposed the idea to his cardinals , it was almost unanimously opposed. Nonetheless, he sent nuncios throughout Europe to propose the idea. Paul III issued a decree for a general council to be held in Mantua , Italy, to begin on 23 May 1537. Martin Luther wrote the Smalcald Articles in preparation for the general council. The Smalcald Articles were designed to sharply define where
1136-459: A fair amount of frequency were, to an extent, a folkish variation of Catholicism. Cultural influences on these practices derived from Spanish, indigenous, and African traditions. The use of "day to day magic" was not unusual. The types of magic practiced included "sorcery," which authors such as Laura de Mello e Souza define as needing a pact with the Devil. Other "magical practices" that do not require
1278-544: A fear of a second Muslim invasion, and in turn a second Muslim occupation, that was hardly unfounded. This fear may have been the base reason for the expulsion of those citizens who had either a religious reason to support the invasion of the Ottomans (Moriscos) or no particular religious reason to be against it (Jews). The Inquisition might have been part of the preparations to enforce these measures and ensure their effectiveness by rooting out false converts that would still pose
1420-467: A fervent proponent of absolute authority for the church over the kings. Carrillo actively opposed them both and often used Spain's "mixed blood" as an excuse to intervene. The papacy and the monarchs of Europe had been involved in a rivalry for power throughout the high Middle Ages that Rome already won in other powerful kingdoms, like France . Since the legitimacy granted by the church was necessary for both monarchs, especially Isabella, to stay in power,
1562-682: A general council due to partial support of the Protestant cause within France. Charles' younger brother Ferdinand of Austria , who ruled a huge swath of territory in central Europe, agreed in 1532 to the Nuremberg Religious Peace granting religious liberty to the Protestants, and in 1533 he further complicated matters when suggesting a general council to include both Catholic and Protestant rulers of Europe that would devise
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#17327654206341704-709: A large extent. Almost all of the events associated with the official establishment of the Palace of the Inquisition occurred in Mexico City , where the Holy Office had its own major building (which is now the Museum of Medicine of UNAM on República de Brasil street). The official period of the Inquisition lasted from 1571 to 1820, with an unknown number of individuals prosecuted. Although records are incomplete, one historian estimates that about 50 people were executed by
1846-601: A man who didn’t know the meaning of piety, but who made political use of it and would have achieved little if he had known it. He was Machiavelli’s main inspiration while writing The Prince . The hierarchy of the Catholic Church had made many attempts during the Middle Ages to take over Christian Spain politically, such as claiming the Church's ownership over all land reconquered from non-Christians (a claim that
1988-420: A nation. Machiavelli considered piety and morals desirable for the subjects but not so much for the ruler, who should use them as a way to unify its population. He also warned of the nefarious influence of a corrupt church in the creation of a selfish population and middle nobility, which had fragmented the peninsula and made it unable to resist either France or Aragon. German philosophers at the time were spreading
2130-632: A new bull (1482) categorically prohibiting the Inquisition's extension to Aragón , affirming that: ... in Aragon, Valencia, Mallorca and Catalonia the Inquisition has for some time been moved not by zeal for the faith and the salvation of souls, but by lust for wealth, and that many true and faithful Christians, on the testimony of enemies, rivals, slaves and other lower and even less proper persons, have without any legitimate proof been thrust into secular prisons, tortured and condemned as relapsed heretics, deprived of their goods and property and handed over to
2272-497: A new bull, threatening that he would otherwise separate the Inquisition from Church authority. Sixtus did so on 17 October 1483, naming Tomás de Torquemada Inquisidor General of Aragón, Valencia, and Catalonia . Torquemada quickly established procedures for the Inquisition. In 1484, based on Nicholas Eymerich 's Directorium Inquisitorum , he created a twenty-eight-article inquisitor's code, Compilación de las instrucciones del oficio de la Santa Inquisición (i.e. Compilation of
2414-596: A pact with the Devil are incredibly vast and based upon race and socioeconomic standing. These types of magic were used by people who were oppressed. Many enslaved people would use magic or expressions of blasphemy as a way to exert power against their masters. It was a way to take back some agency. By using magic, they felt they could create negative consequences for their masters' actions. Enslaved people would often use blasphemous cries as an opportunity to speak with Inquisitors and voice their complaints against their masters. For women, across class and ethnicity, an aim of magic
2556-582: A plague failed to take effect and the council was indefinitely prorogued on 17 September 1549. None of the three popes reigning over the duration of the council ever attended, which had been a condition of Charles V. Papal legates were appointed to represent the Papacy. Reopened at Trent on 1 May 1551 by the convocation of Pope Julius III (1550–1555), it was broken up by the sudden victory of Maurice, Elector of Saxony over Emperor Charles V and his march into surrounding state of Tirol on 28 April 1552. There
2698-481: A public auto de fe and banned from New Mexico for 10 years and government service for life. After a series of denunciations, authorities arrested 123 people in 1658 on suspicion of homosexuality. Although 99 of these managed to disappear, the Royal Criminal Court sentenced fourteen men from different social and ethnic backgrounds to death by public burning, in accordance to the law passed by Isabella
2840-525: A religious group defined as part of alumbradismo , and her sexual exploits eventually made her a target for the Mexican Inquisition. It should be stated that while many women in lower- or middle-class backgrounds were able to use the concepts of magic and satanic pacts as a way to create a sense of power or authority, some women did in fact experience the opposite effect. When women would use these magic practices, often they would be so moved by
2982-575: A saint) in Zaragoza on 15 September 1485 caused public opinion to turn against the conversos and in favour of the Inquisition. In Aragón, the Inquisitorial courts focused specifically on members of the powerful converso minority, ending their influence in the Aragonese administration. The Inquisition was extremely active between 1480 and 1530. Different sources give different estimates of
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#17327654206343124-495: A sermon and a long declaration of what constituted the true faith. The assembly was required to swear to this. The condemned were led onto the stage dressed in capes with marks showing their crime and their punishment. They also wore a hat that resembled a dunce cap . They were given a chance to repent, in many cases, to modify their sentences, such as strangulation instead of burning alive at the stake. Then sentences were carried out. The Inquisition remained officially in force until
3266-674: A threat of foreign espionage. In favor of this view, there is the military sense it makes, the many early attempts of peaceful conversion and persuasion that the Monarchs used at the beginning of their reign, and the sudden turn towards the creation of the Inquisition and the edicts of expulsion when those initial attempts failed. The conquest of Naples by the Gran Capitan is also proof of an interest in Mediterranean expansion and re-establishment of Spanish power in that sea that
3408-672: A tool to turn both actual Spain and the Spanish image more European and improve relations with the Pope. The alleged discovery of Morisco plots to support a possible Ottoman invasion was a crucial factor in their decision to create the Inquisition. At this time, the Ottoman Empire was experiencing rapid growth, and the Aragonese Mediterranean Empire was crumbling under debt and war exhaustion. Ferdinand reasonably feared that he would not be capable of repelling an Ottoman attack on Spain’s shores, especially if
3550-514: A total of nine people, were tortured and burned at the stake on the Zócalo in Mexico City. The most famous, a nephew, Luis de Carabajal the younger, a leader in the community of crypto Jews, tried to kill himself by jumping out a window to avoid further torture but was burned at the stake in 1596 with the rest of his family. Another case was that of Nicolás de Aguilar . Aguilar was a mestizo,
3692-444: A voluntary convert, and accordingly forbidden to revert to Judaism. After the public violence, many of the converts "felt it safer to remain in their new religion." Thus, after 1391, a new social group appeared and was referred to as conversos or New Christians . Many conversos , now freed from the anti-Semitic restrictions imposed on Jewish employment, attained important positions in fifteenth-century Spain, including positions in
3834-612: A woman's place in the private sphere. The approach also represented a metaphorical penetration of the male by the female as a way to hold power over the husband. Sometimes the idea of magic or mystical powers didn't play off Christian concepts of the Devil, but rather played off religious ideas of Jesus and God. A woman who could claim a special connection to Christ found herself uniquely able to advance her social and economic position. People in her community could come to her for advice and help. Many men of greater wealth would wish to spend time with such women to gain insights. An example of this
3976-497: Is Marina de San Miguel, who was brought before the Mexican Inquisition in 1599. Marina, as a beata (a woman who was beatified), was well known in her neighborhood for experiencing religious raptures and trances in which she communicated with saints and Christ himself. For that reason members of her community, "devoted laymen," and even clergy would come to Marina for advice. While these experiences at first gained her credibility, Marina's preoccupation with material gain, her involvement in
4118-695: The Apostle Thomas . However, not all native reactions were docile. There was strong resistance early on in Tlaxcala . The Oaxaca sierra violently resisted until the late 1550s. The Otomi and peoples in parts of Michoacán state as late as the 1580s also resisted. At the time of the discovery and conquest of the New World, Cardinal Adrian de Utrecht was the Inquisitor General of Spain. He appointed Pedro de Córdoba as Inquisitor for
4260-806: The Augustinians , provided most of the evangelization effort in Mexico. By 1560, the three orders had more than 800 clergy at work in New Spain. The Jesuits arrived in 1572. The number of Catholic clergy grew to 1,500 by 1580 and then to 3,000 by 1650. In the early years, the clergy's attention would be focused on the conversion of the Indigenous peoples. In the latter years, however, struggles between religious orders as well as segments of European society emerged and took precedence over conversion activities. A series of three ecclesiastical councils met during
4402-658: The Canary Islands , the Kingdom of Naples , and all Spanish possessions in North America and South America . According to some modern estimates, around 150,000 people were prosecuted for various offences during the three-century duration of the Spanish Inquisition, of whom between 3,000 and 5,000 were executed, approximately 2.7 percent of all cases. The Inquisition, however, since the creation of
Mexican Inquisition - Misplaced Pages Continue
4544-527: The Fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century, there followed almost seven centuries in which persecutions for heresy became very rare. Some of the old heresies survived, but in a weakened state, and they tended not to operate openly. No new schisms appeared to emerge during this period. The Episcopal Inquisition was created through the papal bull Ad Abolendam ("To abolish") at
4686-484: The Florentine School , with whom the kings were known to have contact ( Guicciardini , Pico della Mirandola , Machiavelli , Segni, Pitti, Nardi, Varchi, etc.) Both Guicciardini and Machiavelli defended the importance of centralization and unification to create a strong state capable of repelling foreign invasions and also warned of the dangers of excessive social uniformity to the creativity and innovation of
4828-581: The French Wars of Religion had occurred earlier in the year and the French Church, facing a significant and powerful Protestant minority in France, experienced iconoclasm violence regarding the use of sacred images. Such concerns were not primary in the Italian and Spanish Churches. The last-minute inclusion of a decree on sacred images was a French initiative, and the text, never discussed on
4970-601: The Middle Ages . In the Kingdom of Aragon , a tribunal of the Papal Inquisition was established by the statute of Excommunicamus et anathematisamus of Pope Gregory IX , in 1231, during the era of the Albigensian heresy, as a condition for peace with Aragon. The Inquisition was ill-received by the Aragonese, which led to prohibitions against insults or attacks on it. Rome was particularly concerned that
5112-635: The Protestant Reformation at the time, it has been described as the embodiment of the Counter-Reformation . The Council issued key statements and clarifications of the Church's doctrine and teachings, including scripture , the biblical canon , sacred tradition , original sin , justification , salvation , the sacraments , the Mass , and the veneration of saints and also issued condemnations of what it defined to be heresies committed by proponents of Protestantism . The consequences of
5254-533: The Santa Hermandad (the “Holy Brotherhood”, ancestor to the Guardia Civil , a law enforcement body answering to the crown that prosecuted thieves and criminals across counties in a way local county authorities could not), an institution that would guarantee uniform prosecution of crimes against royal laws across all local jurisdictions. The unusual authority wielded by the king over the nobility in
5396-587: The University of Cologne (1463), had set aside the theory of the supremacy of general councils laid down by the Council of Constance , which had also called for frequent ecumenical councils every ten years to cope with the backlog of reform and heresies. Martin Luther had appealed for a general council, in response to the Papal bull Exsurge Domine of Pope Leo X (1520). In 1522 German diets joined in
5538-482: The West Indies in 1520. He also had inquisitorial powers in Mexico after the conquest, but did not have the official title. When Franciscan Juan de Zumárraga became the first Bishop of Mexico in 1535, he exercised inquisitorial powers as bishop. One of Bishop Zumárraga's first acts as episcopal inquisitor was the 1536 prosecution of a Nahua man, baptized Martín, with the indigenous name of Ocelotl ("ocelot"). He
5680-561: The conversos . Torquemada eventually assumed the title of Inquisitor-General Ferdinand II of Aragon pressured Pope Sixtus IV to agree to an Inquisition controlled by the monarchy by threatening to withdraw military support when the Turks were a threat to Rome. The pope issued a bull to stop the Inquisition but was pressured into withdrawing it. On 1 November 1478, Sixtus published the Papal bull , Exigit Sincerae Devotionis Affectus ( Sincere Devotion Is Required ), through which he gave
5822-550: The "Tribunal de la Fe" (Tribunal of the Faith) in Mexico City. Through the Holy Office he transferred to Mexico the principles of the Inquisition set by Tomás de Torquemada in Spain. However, the full force of the Inquisition would be felt on non-Indian populations, such as the "Negro," "mulatto," and even certain segments of European colonial population. Historian Luis González Obregón estimates that 51 death sentences were carried out in
Mexican Inquisition - Misplaced Pages Continue
5964-437: The "evil" of their actions they would turn themselves in through confession, coming before Inquisitors crying in such a way they were frequently forgiven for their crimes. When Holy Office of the Inquisition had been established in New Spain in 1571, it exercised no jurisdiction over Indians, except for material printed in indigenous languages. Its first official Inquisitor was archbishop Pedro Moya de Contreras , who established
6106-508: The 1st day of the lunar month Tammuz (June). From there, the violence spread to Córdoba , and by the 17th day of the same lunar month, it had reached Toledo (called then by Jews after its Arabic name "Ṭulayṭulah") in the region of Castile . Then the violence spread to Mallorca , and by the 1st day of the lunar month Elul , it had also reached the Jews of Barcelona in Catalonia , where
6248-509: The 235–242 years that the tribunal was officially in operation. However, records from this time are very poor and accurate numbers cannot be verified. One group that suffered during this time were the so-called “ crypto-Jews ” of Portuguese descent. Jews who refused to convert to Christianity had been expelled from Spain in 1492 and from Portugal in 1497. When Spain and Portugal united shortly thereafter, many converted Portuguese Jews came to New Spain looking for commercial opportunities. Following
6390-517: The American courts, has never had jurisdiction over the indigenous. The King of Spain ordered "that the inquisitors should never proceed against the Indians, but against the old Christians and their descendants and other persons against whom in these kingdoms of Spain it is customary to proceed". The Inquisition was originally intended primarily to identify heretics among those who converted from Judaism and Islam to Catholicism. The regulation of
6532-681: The Catholic Holy Roman Emperor Charles V sacked Papal Rome in 1527, "raping, killing, burning, stealing, the like had not been seen since the Vandals ". Saint Peter's Basilica and the Sistine Chapel were used for horses. Pope Clement, fearful of the potential for more violence, delayed calling the council. Charles V strongly favoured a council but needed the support of King Francis I of France, who attacked him militarily. Francis I generally opposed
6674-465: The Catholic in 1497. The sentences were carried out together on one day, 6 November 1658. The records of these trials and those that occurred in 1660, 1673, and 1687 suggest that Mexico City, like many other large cities at the time, had an active gay underworld. The last group that had to be careful during this time was scholars. During the 1640s and 1650s the Inquisition ended early attempts to reform
6816-475: The Church; any authority who failed in this duty was to be excommunicated, removed from office, and stripped of all legal rights. Commercial boycotts would be imposed on cities that supported heretics and declined to participate. It was the start of a centralization process in the fight against heresy. There were a large number of tribunals of the Papal Inquisition in various European kingdoms during
6958-601: The European Jews applied to Spaniards in most European courts, and the idea of them being “greedy, gold-thirsty, cruel and violent” because of the “Jewish and Moorish blood” was prevalent in Europe prior to the discovery of America. Chronicles by foreign travelers circulated through Europe, describing the tolerant ambiance reigning in the court of Isabella and Ferdinand and how Moors and Jews were free to go about without risk of forced conversion. Past and common clashes between
7100-582: The German princes to oppose the papal Church at the time, if necessary with a council in Germany, open and free of the Papacy. After the Pope condemned in Exsurge Domine fifty-two of Luther's theses as heresy , German opinion considered a council the best method to reconcile existing differences. German Catholics, diminished in number, hoped for a council to clarify matters. It took a generation for
7242-472: The Holy Office of the Inquisition in 1478 with the permission of Pope Sixtus IV , combining secular and religious authority. Much of the zeal to reaffirm traditional Catholic tenets came from the history of the Reconquista . Those who overthrew Muslim domination of the peninsula were very committed to the goal of making Catholicism completely dominant wherever they could. After the discovery and conquest of
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#17327654206347384-485: The Iberian Peninsula's large Muslim and Jewish population would have a 'heretical' influence on Catholic citizens. Rome pressed the kingdoms to accept the Papal Inquisition after Aragon. Navarra conceded in the 13th century and Portugal by the end of the 14th, though its 'Roman Inquisition' was famously inactive. Castile refused steadily, trusting in its prominent position in Europe and its military power to keep
7526-469: The Iberian reputation of being too tolerant was a problem. Despite the prestige earned through the reconquest ( Reconquista ), the foreign image of Spaniards coexisted with an almost universal image of heretics and “bad Christians” due to the long coexistence between the three religions they had accepted in their lands. Anti-Jewish stereotypes created to justify or prompt the expulsion and expropriation of
7668-567: The Inquisition concerned sorcery or magic, and thus blasphemy and collusion with the Devil. Most of these cases were brought against female actors, rather than males, although there were cases of male sorcery brought before Inquisitors. The Inquisition in peninsular Spain was generally uninterested in and highly skeptical of accusations of witchcraft. In Spanish America, however, Inquisitors were concerned with delegitimizing women who were accused of and confessed to crimes of witchcraft. Some upper class women tried to avoid conviction by "proving" that
7810-460: The Inquisition required all six booksellers in the city to subject their lists to scrutiny under the threat of fine and excommunication . A unique and spectacular case prosecuted by the Inquisition was of Irishman William Lamport , who had transformed himself into Don Guillén de Lombardo, bastard half-brother of King Philip IV, and attempted to foment rebellion among dissident elements in Mexico City and have himself named as king. This would-be king
7952-634: The Inquisition was not formally established in New Spain until 1571. However, this is not to say that Inquisition-like tactics were never used after the execution of Nahua lord Don Carlos. Antagonism toward the Spanish led to the Maya resistance in the Yucatán in 1546–1547. The failure of this Maya movement prompted more aggressive evangelization, with the Franciscans finding out that despite their efforts many traditional beliefs and practices survived. Under
8094-509: The Jews in Spain, during which an estimated 200,000 Jews changed their religion or else concealed their religion, becoming known in Hebrew as Anusim , meaning "those who are compelled [to hide their religion]." Only a handful of the more principal persons of the Jewish community, those who had found refuge among the viceroys in the outlying towns and districts, managed to escape. Forced baptism
8236-467: The Kingdom of Castile contributed to the kingdom’s prosperity in Europe. This strong control kept the kingdom politically stable and prevented in-fighting that weakened other countries like England. Under the Trastámara dynasty , both kings of Castile and Aragon had lost power to the great nobles, who now formed dissenting and conspiratorial factions. Taxation and varying privileges differed from county to county, and powerful noble families constantly extorted
8378-433: The Lutherans could and could not compromise. The council was ordered by the Emperor and Pope Paul III to convene in Mantua on 23 May 1537. It failed to convene after another war broke out between France and Charles V, resulting in a non-attendance of French prelates . Protestants refused to attend as well. Financial difficulties in Mantua led the Pope in the autumn of 1537 to move the council to Vicenza , where participation
8520-480: The Mexican Inquisition. Included in that total are 29 people executed as " Judaizers " between 1571 and 1700 (out of 324 people prosecuted) for practicing Judaism . The Mexican Inquisition was an extension of the events that were occurring in Spain and the rest of Europe for some time. Spanish Catholicism had been reformed under the reign of Isabella I of Castile (1479– 1504), which reaffirmed medieval doctrines and tightened discipline and practice. She also introduced
8662-481: The New World, the effort to spread the faith included the belief that non-Christians would benefit from instruction in the "true faith." The Spanish crown had total domination of political and religious matters in New Spain. Pope Alexander VI in 1493 and later Pope Julius II in 1508 gave the crown extensive authority over New Spain, with the goal of converting the Indigenous peoples to Catholicism. Spanish officials appointed religious authorities in Mexico and even had
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#17327654206348804-447: The Ottomans had internal help. The regions with the highest concentration of Moriscos were those close to the common naval crossings between Spain and Africa. The weakness of the Aragonese Naval Empire combined with the resentment of the higher nobility against the monarchs, the dynastic claims of Portugal on Castile , and the two monarchs’ exterior politics that turned away from Morocco and other African nations in favor of Europe, created
8946-465: The Pope and the kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula regarding the Inquisition in Castile’s case and regarding South Italy in Aragon’s case also reinforced their image of heretics in the international courts. These accusations and images could have had direct political and military consequences, especially considering that the union of two powerful kingdoms was a delicate moment that could prompt fear and violent reactions from neighbors, more so if combined with
9088-409: The Pope's behalf, presumably) without the Pope's intervention. The Inquisition was, despite its title of "Holy", not necessarily formed by the clergy, and secular lawyers were equally welcome to it. If it was an attempt at keeping Rome out of Spain, it was an extremely successful and refined one. It was a bureaucratic body that had the nominal authority of the church and permission to prosecute members of
9230-405: The Pope's interventionism in check. England and Castile were the only Western European kingdoms that withstood the establishment of the Inquisition in their realms by the end of the Middle Ages. England’s success was because of its distance and the voluntary compliance of its people, while Castile, which would later become part of Spain, resisted because of its people’s resistance and the power of
9372-477: The Popes who had convoked the council, the emperor and the kings who had supported it, the papal legates, the cardinals, the ambassadors present, and the bishops, followed by acclamations of acceptance of the faith of the council and its decrees, and of anathema for all heretics. The French monarchy boycotted the entire council until the last minute when a delegation led by Charles de Guise, Cardinal of Lorraine finally arrived in November 1562. The first outbreak of
9514-545: The Spanish secular and religious authorities did not consider the prosecution of the case prudent. Zumárraga himself was reprimanded for it. For a number of reasons persecution of the Indians for religious offenses was not actively pursued. First of all, since many native practices had parallels in Christianity, and since this "paganism" was neither the Judaic or Islamic faiths that Spanish Christians had fought so zealously against, ecclesiastical authorities opted instead to push native practices in Christian directions. Also, many of
9656-520: The adherents of other cults — pagans, Jews, and heretics. Though only in the fourth century of its existence, Christianity had spread widely and was already beginning to experience a multiplicity of schisms within itself. Among the most significant of the heresies at this time were Arianism , Manichaeism , Gnosticism , the Adamites , the Donatists , the Pelagians , and Priscillianists . The Edict of Thessalonica issued on 27 February 380 by Emperor Theodosius I established Nicene Christianity as
9798-401: The appeal, with Charles V seconding and pressing for a council as a means of reunifying the Church and settling the Reformation controversies. Pope Clement VII (1523–34) was vehemently against the idea of a council, agreeing with Francis I of France . The history of the council is divided into three distinct periods: 1545–1549, 1551–1552 and 1562–1563. The number of attending members in
9940-408: The authority to reject papal bulls there. The evangelization process and later Inquisition had political motivations. The objective of Christian conversion was to strengthen alternative sources of legitimacy to the traditional authority of the tlatoani , or chief of the basic political unit of the city-state. Franciscan friars began the work of evangelization in the mid-1520s and continued under
10082-421: The book A History of the Jewish People , In 1482 the pope was still trying to maintain control over the Inquisition and to gain acceptance for his own attitude towards the New Christians which was generally more moderate than that of the Inquisition and the local rulers. In 1483, Jews were expelled from all of Andalusia . Though the pope wanted to crack down on abuses, Ferdinand pressured him to promulgate
10224-551: The bull Exigit sincerae devotionis affectus , permitting the monarchs to select and appoint two or three priests over forty years of age to act as inquisitors. In 1483, Ferdinand and Isabella established a state council to administer the inquisition with the Dominican Friar Tomás de Torquemada acting as its president, even though Sixtus IV protested the activities of the inquisition in Aragon and its treatment of
10366-466: The bull of creation was granted, the head of the Inquisition was the Monarch of Spain. It was in charge of enforcing the laws of the king regarding religion and other private-life matters, not of following orders from Rome, from which it was independent. This independence allowed the Inquisition to investigate, prosecute, and convict clergy for both corruption and treason of conspiracy against the crown (on
10508-519: The church, which the kings could not do, while answering only to the Spanish Crown. This did not prevent the Pope from having some influence on the decisions of Spanish monarchs, but it did force the influence to be through the kings, making direct influence very difficult. Other hypotheses that circulate regarding the Spanish Inquisition's creation include: Fray Alonso de Ojeda, a Dominican friar from Seville, convinced Queen Isabella of
10650-557: The council to materialise, partly due to papal fears over potentially renewing a schism over conciliarism ; partly because Lutherans demanded the exclusion of the papacy from the council; partly because of ongoing political rivalries between France and the Holy Roman Empire ; and partly due to the Turkish dangers in the Mediterranean. Under Pope Clement VII (1523–34), mutinous troops many of whom were Lutheran belonging to
10792-467: The council was delayed until 1545 and, as it happened, convened right before Luther's death. Unable, however, to resist the urging of Charles V, the pope, after proposing Mantua as the place of meeting, convened the council at Trent (at that time ruled by a prince-bishop under the Holy Roman Empire ), on 13 December 1545; the Pope's decision to transfer it to Bologna in March 1547 on the pretext of avoiding
10934-522: The council were also significant with regard to the Church's liturgy and censorship. The Council met for twenty-five sessions between 13 December 1545 and 4 December 1563. Pope Paul III , who convoked the council, oversaw the first eight sessions (1545–1547), while the twelfth to sixteenth sessions (1551–52) were overseen by Pope Julius III and the seventeenth to twenty-fifth sessions (1562–63) by Pope Pius IV . More than three hundred years passed until
11076-713: The course of the 16th century to give shape to the newly established Church in New Spain. In 1565, the Second Mexican Ecclesiastical Council met to discuss how to implement the decisions of the Council of Trent (1546–1563). The Catholicism being imposed here was heavily influenced by the Counter-Reformation and required total assent from its believers. Its main thrust was not on individual belief or conscience but on collective observance of clerically ordained precepts and practices. This combination of authoritarianism and collectivism
11218-465: The creation of the Spanish Inquisition may have been a way to concede to the Pope's demands and criticism regarding Spain's mixed religious heritage, while simultaneously ensuring that the Pope could hardly force the second Inquisition of his own and create a tool to control the power of the Roman Church in Spain. The Spanish Inquisition was unique at the time because it was not led by the Pope. Once
11360-636: The cult of the Virgin of Guadalupe . Franciscan Fray Bernardino de Sahagún suspected it was a post-Conquest adaptation of the Aztec cult of Tonatzin , a mother goddess. However, the archbishop of Mexico, Fray Alonso de Montúfar , who was a member of the Dominican Order, promoted the cult. There was even some speculation in the early colonial period that the Nahua god Quetzalcoatl was being refashioned as
11502-602: The descendant of a Spanish soldier and a Purépecha . He was appointed as a civil official in a district in New Mexico . He attempted to protect the Tompiro Indians from abuses by Franciscan priests. In 1662, due to complaints about him by the Franciscans, he was arrested, imprisoned, and charged with heresy. Tried in Mexico City, Aguilar vigorously defended himself but was convicted and sentenced to undergo
11644-566: The early 19th century. It was first abolished by decree in 1812. However, political tensions and chaos led to an abbreviated return between 1813 and 1820. It was abolished in 1820. Spanish Inquisition God Schools Relations with: The Tribunal of the Holy Office of the Inquisition ( Spanish : Tribunal del Santo Oficio de la Inquisición ) was established in 1478 by the Catholic Monarchs , King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile . It began toward
11786-443: The ecclesiastical hierarchy, at times becoming severe detractors of Judaism. Some even received titles of nobility and, as a result, during the following century, some works attempted to demonstrate many nobles of Spain descended from Israelites. According to this hypothesis, the Inquisition was created to standardize various laws and the numerous jurisdictions Spain was divided into. It would be an administrative program analogous to
11928-608: The educational curriculum when educators tried to keep pace with contemporary European influences. The central target was Fray Diego Rodriguez (1569–1668), who took the First Chair in Mathematics and Astronomy at the Royal and Pontifical University of Mexico in 1637, and tried to introduce the scientific ideas of Galileo and Kepler to the New World. For thirty years, he argued the removal of theology and metaphysics from
12070-797: The end of the Reconquista and aimed to maintain Catholic orthodoxy in their kingdoms and replace the Medieval Inquisition , which was under papal control. Along with the Roman Inquisition and the Portuguese Inquisition , it became the most substantive of the three different manifestations of the wider Catholic Inquisition . The "Spanish Inquisition" may be defined broadly as operating in Spain and in all Spanish colonies and territories, which included
12212-495: The end of the 12th century by Pope Lucius III , with the support of emperor Frederick I , to combat the Albigensian heresy in southern France. Heretics were to be handed over to secular authorities for punishment, have their property seized, and face excommunication. Holders of public office, counts, barons, and rectors in cities and other places were required to take responsibility for punishing heretics handed over to them by
12354-446: The enforcement of Catholicism across the realm might indeed be the result of simple religious devotion by the monarchs. (see § purely religious reasons ) The recent scholarship on the expulsion of the Jews leans towards the belief of religious motivations being at the bottom of it. However, considering the reports on Ferdinand’s political persona, that is unlikely the only reason. Machiavelli, among others, described Ferdinand as
12496-575: The existence of Crypto-Judaism among Andalusian conversos during her stay in Seville between 1477 and 1478. A report, produced by Pedro González de Mendoza , Archbishop of Seville, and by the Segovian Dominican Tomás de Torquemada —of converso family himself—corroborated this assertion. Spanish monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella requested a papal bull to establish an inquisition in Spain in 1478. Pope Sixtus IV granted
12638-552: The expansion of the Ottoman Turks on the Mediterranean. The creation of the Inquisition and the expulsion of both Jews and Moriscos may have been part of a strategy to whitewash the image of Spain and ease international fears regarding Spain's allegiance. In this scenario, the creation of the Inquisition could have been part of the Catholic Monarchs' strategy to "turn" away from African allies and "towards" Europe,
12780-408: The faith of newly converted Catholics was intensified following royal decrees issued in 1492 and 1502 ordering Jews and Muslims to convert to Catholicism or leave Castile , or face death, resulting in hundreds of thousands of forced conversions , torture and executions, the persecution of conversos and moriscos , and the mass expulsions of Jews and Muslims from Spain . The Inquisition
12922-477: The family might secretly be honoring the Sabbath), the buying of many vegetables before Passover, or the purchase of meat from a converted butcher. The court could employ physical torture to extract confessions . Crypto-Jews were allowed to confess and do penance, although those who relapsed were executed. In 1484, Pope Innocent VIII attempted to allow appeals to Rome against the Inquisition, which would weaken
13064-527: The first Bishop of Mexico, Fray Juan de Zumárraga in the 1530s. Many of the Franciscan evangelists learned the native languages and even recorded much of native culture, providing a great deal of our current knowledge of life in Mesoamerica. The Dominicans arrived in 1525. They were seen as both intellectuals and agents of the Inquisition, paralleling their role in Spain. These two orders, along with
13206-518: The floor of the council or referred to council theologians, was based on a French draft. Jus novum ( c. 1140 -1563) Jus novissimum ( c. 1563 -1918) Jus codicis (1918-present) Other Sacraments Sacramentals Sacred places Sacred times Supra-diocesan/eparchal structures Particular churches Juridic persons Philosophy, theology, and fundamental theory of Catholic canon law Clerics Office Juridic and physical persons Associations of
13348-574: The friars sent to evangelize the native peoples became protectors of them from the extremely cruel treatment at the hands of secular authorities. The lighter treatment of indigenous peoples contrasted sharply with treatment of European heretics later in the colonial period. However, as a practical matter it was probably not prudent to pursue rigid enforcement of ecclesiastical rules in an environment where native peoples vastly outnumbered their European conquerors, who also needed to rule through indigenous intermediaries. The above considerations help explain why
13490-660: The function of the institution as protection against the pope, but Ferdinand in December 1484 and again in 1509 decreed death and confiscation for anyone making use of such procedures without royal permission. With this, the Inquisition became the only institution that held authority across all the realms of the Spanish monarchy and, in all of them, a useful mechanism at the service of the crown. The cities of Aragón continued resisting and even saw revolt, as in Teruel , from 1484 to 1485. The murder of Inquisidor Pedro Arbués (later made
13632-618: The gods and the cults of the saints as well as the Virgin Mary . For this reason, evangelization did not result in a direct onslaught against indigenous beliefs. Rather the evangelizers attempted to shift existing belief into a Christian paradigm. While in theory Christianity was to have absolute supremacy in all things religious, in practice, the Church did not oppose any practices that did not directly conflict with doctrine. The native population more easily adjusted to aspects of Catholicism that were similar to their previous beliefs, including
13774-426: The government and the Church. Among many others, physicians Andrés Laguna and Francisco López de Villalobos (Ferdinand's court physician), writers Juan del Encina , Juan de Mena , Diego de Valera , and Alonso de Palencia, and bankers Luis de Santángel and Gabriel Sánchez (who financed the voyage of Christopher Columbus ) were all conversos . Conversos —not without opposition—managed to attain high positions in
13916-493: The historical literature as Don Carlos Ometochtzin . The trial record was published in 1910. It is the main source for this high-profile case. Don Carlos was likely a nephew of Nezahualcoyotl . Zumárraga accused this lord of reverting to worship of the old gods. Following a trial with indigenous witnesses and Don Carlos's own testimony, the Texcocan lord was declared guilty. He was burned at the stake on 30 November 1539. However,
14058-469: The importance of a vassal sharing the religion of their lord. The Inquisition may have just been the result of putting these ideas into practice. The use of religion as a unifying factor across a land that was allowed to stay diverse and maintain different laws in other respects, and the creation of the Inquisition to enforce laws across it, maintain said religious unity, and control the local elites were consistent with most of those teachings. Alternatively,
14200-484: The instructions of the office of the Holy Inquisition) , essentially unaltered for more than three centuries following Torquemada's death. A new court would be announced with a thirty-day grace period for self-confessions and denunciations, and the gathering of accusations by neighbors and acquaintances. Evidence that was used to identify a crypto-Jew included the absence of chimney smoke on Saturdays (a sign
14342-598: The kingdom. Within the context of medieval Europe, there are several hypotheses of what prompted the creation of the tribunal after centuries of tolerance . The Spanish Inquisition is interpretable as a response to the multi-religious nature of Spanish society following the reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula from the Muslim Moors . The Reconquista did not result in the total expulsion of Muslims from Spain since they, along with Jews, were tolerated by
14484-408: The kings to attain further concessions, particularly in Aragon. The main goals of the reign of the Catholic Monarchs were to unite their two kingdoms and strengthen royal influence to guarantee stability. In pursuit of this, they sought to unify the laws of their realms further and reduce the power of the nobility in certain local areas. They attained this partially by raw military strength by creating
14626-461: The last Muslim stronghold in the Iberian Peninsula , the kingdom of Granada , giving them special status within the Catholic realm, including great liberties in the conversion of the native peoples of Mesoamerica . When the Inquisition was brought to the New World , it was employed for many of the same reasons and against the same social groups as suffered in Europe itself, minus the Indigenous to
14768-593: The late 13th century and into the 14th century. England and France expelled their Jewish populations in 1290 and 1306 , respectively. During the Reconquista , Spain's anti-Jewish sentiment steadily increased. This prejudice climaxed in the summer of 1391 when violent anti-Jewish riots broke out in Spanish cities like Barcelona . To linguistically distinguish them from non-converted or long-established Catholic families, new converts were called conversos , or New Catholics. According to Don Hasdai Crescas , persecution against Jews began in earnest in Seville in 1391, on
14910-421: The leadership of Fray Diego de Landa , the Franciscans decided to make an example of indigenous people they considered back-sliders without regard to proper legal formalities. Large numbers of these people were subjected to torture and as many of the Maya's sacred books as could be found were burned. While there were many allegations against and executions of “ crypto-Jews ,” a large majority of cases brought to
15052-676: The monarchs exclusive authority to name the inquisitors in their kingdoms. The first two inquisitors, Miguel de Morillo and Juan de San Martín were not named until two years later, on 27 September 1480, in Medina del Campo . The first auto de fé was held in Seville on 6 February 1481: six people were burned alive. From there, the Inquisition grew rapidly in the Kingdom of Castile . By 1492, tribunals existed in eight Castilian cities: Ávila , Córdoba , Jaén , Medina del Campo , Segovia , Sigüenza , Toledo , and Valladolid . Sixtus IV promulgated
15194-790: The next ecumenical council, the First Vatican Council , was convened in 1869. On 15 March 1517, the Fifth Council of the Lateran closed its activities with a number of reform proposals (on the selection of bishops, taxation, censorship and preaching) but not on the new major problems that confronted the Church in Germany and other parts of Europe. A few months later, on 31 October 1517, Martin Luther issued his 95 Theses in Wittenberg . Luther's position on ecumenical councils shifted over time, but in 1520 he appealed to
15336-429: The nobility and high clergy among those investigated by the Inquisition supported this hypothesis, as well as the many administrative and civil crimes the Inquisition oversaw. The Inquisition prosecuted the counterfeiting of royal seals and currency, ensured the effective transmission of the orders of the kings, and verified the authenticity of official documents traveling through the kingdoms, especially from one kingdom to
15478-491: The nobility and local interests of either kingdom. According to this view, the prosecution of heretics would be secondary, or simply not considered different, from the prosecution of conspirators, traitors, or groups of any kind who planned to resist royal authority. Royal authority rested on the divine right and oaths of loyalty held before God, so the connection between religious deviation and political disloyalty would appear obvious. The disproportionately high representation of
15620-400: The notion of the intertwining of religious and secular authority. Many European and indigenous practices continued side-by-side with indigenous beliefs. Indigenous practices were redesigned with Christian names and references. Pre-Hispanic beliefs and practices therefore survived in the new religion and colored the new religion's expression. The most famous example of this may be the emergence of
15762-658: The number of trials and executions in this period; some estimate about 2,000 executions, based on the documentation of the autos de fé , the great majority being conversos of Jewish origin. He offers striking statistics: 91.6% of those judged in Valencia between 1484 and 1530, and 99.3% of those judged in Barcelona between 1484 and 1505 were of Jewish origin. The Inquisition had jurisdiction only over Christians. It had no power to investigate, prosecute, or convict Jews, Muslims, or any open member of other religions. Anyone who
15904-412: The only one with enough popular support that the nobility could not easily attack it. Through the Spanish Inquisition, Isabella and Ferdinand created a personal police force and personal code of law that rested above the structure of their respective realms without altering or mixing them and could operate freely in both. As the Inquisition had the backing of both kingdoms, it would exist independent of both
16046-465: The other. At a time in which most of Europe had already expelled the Jews from the Christian kingdoms , the "dirty blood" of Spaniards was met with open suspicion and contempt. As the world became smaller and foreign relations became more relevant to stay in power, this foreign image of "being the seed of Jews and Moors" may have become a problem. In addition, the coup that allowed Isabella to take
16188-452: The passage of the most important decrees, not more than sixty prelates were present. Although most Protestants did not attend, ambassadors and theologians of Brandenburg, Württemberg, and Strasbourg attended having been granted an improved safe conduct . Pope Paul III (1534–1549), seeing that the Protestant Reformation was no longer confined to a few preachers, but had won over various princes, especially in Germany, to its ideas, desired
16330-458: The populace turned out in their finest garb. The Church set up a stage with pulpits and rich furnishings for the noble guests. Tapestries and fine cloth served as decorative canopies over the stage. No expense was spared in order to show the power and authority of the ecclesiastical hierarchy. In addition, all nobles from the viceroy himself, his court, and all others in position of authority would be conspicuously in appearance. The ceremony began with
16472-457: The power of both kingdoms without uniting them in life was to find or create an executive, legislative, and judicial arm directly under the Crown empowered to act in both kingdoms. This goal, the hypothesis goes, might have given birth to the Spanish Inquisition. The religious organization capable of overseeing this role was obvious. Catholicism was the only institution common to both kingdoms and
16614-532: The previously explained category and could not be targeted, although they would have pleaded guilty to previously lying about being Christian. Council of Trent Clergy Monarchs Popes The Council of Trent ( Latin : Concilium Tridentinum ), held between 1545 and 1563 in Trent (or Trento), now in northern Italy , was the 19th ecumenical council of the Catholic Church . Prompted by
16756-606: The ruling Catholics, Jews, and Muslims. As historian Henry Kamen notes, the "so-called convivencia was always a relationship between unequals." Despite their legal inequality, there was a long tradition of Jewish service to the Crown of Aragon, and Jews occupied many important posts, both religious and political. Castile itself had an unofficial rabbi . Ferdinand's father, John II , named the Jewish Abiathar Crescas Court Astronomer . Antisemitic attitudes increased throughout Europe during
16898-501: The ruling Christian elite. Large cities, especially Seville , Valladolid , and Barcelona , had significant Jewish populations centered on Juderia , but in the coming years, the Muslims became increasingly alienated and relegated from power centers. Cultural historian Américo Castro has characterized post-reconquest medieval Spain as a society of relatively peaceful co-existence ( convivencia ) punctuated by occasional conflict among
17040-442: The secular arm to be executed, to the peril of souls, setting a pernicious example, and causing disgust to many. Outraged, Ferdinand feigned doubt about the bull's veracity, arguing that no sensible pope would have published such a document. He wrote the pope on May 13, 1482, saying: "Take care therefore not to let the matter go further, and to revoke any concessions and entrust us with the care of this question." According to
17182-423: The slain was approximately two-hundred and fifty. Indeed, many Jews who resided in the neighboring provinces of Lleida and Gironda and the kingdom of Valencia had also been affected, as were the Jews of Al-Andalus (Andalucía). While many died a martyr's death, others converted to save themselves. Encouraged by the preaching of Ferrand Martínez , Archdeacon of Ecija , the general unrest affected nearly all
17324-534: The state church of the Roman Empire. It condemned other Christian creeds as heresies of "foolish madmen" and approved their punishment. In 438, under Emperor Theodosius II , the Codex Theodosianus (Theodosian Code), a compilation of laws of the Roman Empire, already provided for the confiscation of property and the death penalty for heretics. The Spanish ascetic and theologian Priscillian
17466-408: The study of science. He was the leader of a small circle of academics that met semi-clandestinely in private homes to discuss new scientific ideas. Political struggles of the 1640s, however, brought the suspicions of the Inquisition down upon them and a series of investigations and trials followed into the middle of the 1650s. When academics worked to hide books banned by the Holy Office's edict in 1647,
17608-442: The supposed magic of which they were accused was in fact a female delusion. While this was a somewhat successful endeavor on the elite level, the prosecution of these women in fact created the environment for lower- and middle-class women to claim outlandish abilities and thus brought them a degree of power within their local communities. Within ethnically mixed communities, the types of "magic" women of Hispanic America would use with
17750-666: The three periods varied considerably. The council was small to begin with, opening with only about 30 bishops. It increased toward the close, but never reached the number of the First Council of Nicaea (which had 318 members) nor of the First Vatican Council (which numbered 744). The decrees were signed in 1563 by 255 members, the highest attendance of the whole council, including four papal legates, two cardinals, three patriarchs, twenty-five archbishops, and 168 bishops, two-thirds of whom were Italians. The Italian and Spanish prelates were vastly preponderant in power and numbers. At
17892-489: The throne from Joanna of Castile ("la Beltraneja") and the Catholic Monarchs to marry had estranged Castile from Portugal, its historical ally, and created the need for new relationships. Similarly, Aragon's ambitions lay in control of the Mediterranean and the defense against France. As their policy of royal marriages proved, the Catholic Monarchs were deeply concerned about France's growing power and expected to create strong dynastic alliances across Europe. In this scenario,
18034-576: The viceregal state staged the largest ever auto de fe in New Spain, in which twelve of the accused were burned after being strangled and one person, Tomás Treviño de Sobremontes, was burned alive, since he refused to renounce his Jewish faith. The Inquisition also tried accused Crypto-Jews who had already died, removing their bones from Christian burial grounds. At the Gran Auto de Fe of 1649, these deceased convicted Crypto-Jews were burned in effigy, along with their earthly remains. The best known case of
18176-499: The voluntary confession of one Crypto-Jew, Gaspar Robles, a younger member of a merchant family, his closest kin and other members of Mexico City's merchant families came under suspicion. In 1642, 150 of these individuals were arrested within three or four days, and the Inquisition began a series of trials. These people were accused and tried for being "judaisers," meaning they still practiced Judaism. Many of these were merchants involved in New Spain's principal activities. On 11 April 1649,
18318-400: Was abolished in 1834, during the reign of Isabella II , after a period of declining influence in the preceding century. The Roman Emperor Constantine legalized Christianity in 312. Having been severely persecuted under previous emperors, the new religion now felt capable of commencing its program of persecution. From the moment it was recognised and empowered, there were persecutions against
18460-417: Was begun especially as an attempt to prevent the formation of a general council including Protestants , as had been demanded by some in France. The council was reconvened by Pope Pius IV (1559–1565) for the last time, meeting from 18 January 1562 at Santa Maria Maggiore , and continued until its final adjournment on 4 December 1563. It closed with a series of ritual acclamations honouring the reigning Pope,
18602-468: Was bound to generate frictions with the Ottoman Empire and other African nations. Therefore, the Inquisition would have been created as a permanent body to prevent the existence of citizens with religious sympathies with African nations now that rivalry with them had been deemed unavoidable. The creation of the Spanish Inquisition was consistent with the most important political philosophers of
18744-561: Was brought before the Inquisition and had 22 chapters of charges, including slave trading, read against him but the main charge was reverting to the Judaic faith. He was convicted in 1590 and sentenced to a six-year exile from New Spain but died before the sentence could be imposed. Later, on 8 December 1596, most of his extended family, including his sister Francisca and their children, Isabel, Catalina, Leonor, and Luis, as well as Manuel Díaz, Beatriz Enríquez, Diego Enríquez, and Manuel de Lucena,
18886-415: Was contrary to the law of the Catholic Church and, theoretically, anybody who had been forcibly baptized could legally return to Judaism. Legal definitions of the time theoretically acknowledged that a forced baptism was not a valid sacrament but confined this to cases where it was administered by physical force: a person who had consented to baptism under threat of death or serious injury was still regarded as
19028-549: Was denounced to the Inquisition in 1642 and was executed at the auto de fe of 1659. He is considered by some as a precursor of Mexican Independence, and there is a statue of him inside the base of the Monument to Independence in Mexico City. Those sentenced under the Inquisition usually were punished. The most extreme punishment was execution, carried out in a ceremony called the auto de fe , almost all of which were carried out in Mexico City. For these events, notables and most of
19170-401: Was excommunicated in 380 after being accused of magic and libertinage. In response to the instigation of two Christian bishops, Emperor Magnus Maximus condemned Priscillian and his companions to death, though prominent figures such as Saint Martin of Tours and Saint Ambrose challenged this verdict. Priscillian has been described as the first martyr killed by a Spanish Inquisition. After
19312-673: Was extended to the Indies during the course of the 16th century. This sense of collectivism allowed for a certain amount of laxity in the conversion of the Native American population as many outward practices were indeed similar to Catholic practices. Both systems intertwined religious and secular authority, practiced a type of baptism with subsequent renaming of the child and the practice of communion had parallels with eating replicas of Aztec divinities with blood. Franciscan and Dominican studies of Native American culture and language led to
19454-488: Was frequently to change the balance of power within the marital sphere or create a situation where one might find a husband. Sometimes this was a simple kind of magic meant to make a husband stay "true" to his wife. Other times, the purposes of magic spells included aims of making the man impotent or obedient. Some women used their menstrual blood or water previously used to clean their genitals to "ensorcell" food. This approach played on powerful gender role restrictions regarding
19596-686: Was known to identify as either Jew or Muslim was outside of Inquisitorial jurisdiction and could be tried only by the King. All the Inquisition could do in some of those cases was to deport the individual according to the King's law, but usually, even that had to go through a civil tribunal. The Inquisition had the authority to try only those who self-identified as Christians (initially for taxation purposes, later to avoid deportation as well) while practicing another religion de facto. Even those were treated as Christians. If they confessed or identified not as judaizantes but as fully practicing Jews, they fell back into
19738-478: Was no hope of reassembling the council while the very anti-Protestant Paul IV was Pope. During the second period, the Protestants present asked for a renewed discussion on points already defined and for bishops to be released from their oaths of allegiance to the Pope. When the last period began, all intentions of conciliating the Protestants was gone and the Jesuits had become a strong force. This last period
19880-638: Was poor. The council was postponed indefinitely on 21 May 1539. Pope Paul III then initiated several internal Church reforms while Emperor Charles V convened with Protestants and Cardinal Gasparo Contarini at the Diet of Regensburg , to reconcile differences. Mediating and conciliatory formulations were developed on certain topics. In particular, a two-part doctrine of justification was formulated that would later be rejected at Trent. Unity failed between Catholic and Protestant representatives "because of different concepts of Church and Justification ". However,
20022-403: Was prosecuted as a nahualli , a priest with supernatural powers, as well as for heretical dogmatism and concubinage. The trial record of his case was published in 1912, This early case prosecuting a Nahua holy man attracted the attention of scholars. Another of Bishop Zumárraga's inquisitorial prosecutions was that of Nahua lord of Texcoco, who took the name of Carlos upon baptism. He is known in
20164-465: Was rejected by Castile but accepted by Aragon and Portugal). In the past, the papacy had tried and partially succeeded in forcing the Mozarabic Rite out of Iberia. Its intervention had been pivotal for Aragon's loss of Rosellon . The meddling regarding Aragon's control over South Italy was even stronger historically. In their lifetime, the Catholic Monarchs had problems with Pope Paul II ,
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