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164-599: The Mezquital Valley is located in the central Mexican Highlands about 60 kilometres (37 mi) north of Mexico City. It covers 7,000 km (2,700 sq mi) in the west of the state of Hidalgo and small portions extending into the State of Mexico and Querétaro . With an altitude of between 1,700 and 2,100 m (5,600 and 6,900 ft) above sea level, it is part of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt . The valley consists of smaller valleys such as

328-530: A mestiço to be classified as pardo or caboclo. In Brazil specifically, at least in modern times, all non-Indigenous people are considered to be a single ethnicity ( os brasileiros . Lines between ethnic groups are historically fluid); since the earliest years of the Brazilian colony, the mestiço group has been the most numerous among the free people. As explained above, the concept of mestiço should not be confused with mestizo as used in either

492-652: A Semite /Afro Asiatic. This term was first documented in English in 1582. Mestizo ( Spanish: [mesˈtiθo] or [mesˈtiso] ), mestiço ( Portuguese: [mɨʃˈtisu] or [mesˈtʃisu] ), métis ( French: [meti(s)] ), mestís ( Catalan: [məsˈtis] ), Mischling ( German: [ˈmɪʃlɪŋ] ), meticcio ( Italian: [meˈtittʃo] ), mestiezen ( Dutch: [mɛsˈtizə(n)] ), mestee ( Middle English: [məsˈtiː] ), and mixed are all cognates of

656-476: A castizo ; and a castizo and a Spaniard, a Spaniard. The admixture of Indian blood should not indeed be regarded as a blemish, since the provisions of law give the Indian all that he could wish for, and Philip II granted to mestizos the privilege of becoming priests. On this consideration is based the common estimation of descent from a union of Indian and European or creole Spaniard."   O’Crouley states that

820-468: A back plate in the shape of a solar disk. Another important site is Pañhú , located in the community of La Mesilla in the municipality of Tecozautla. It is a Classic period city which coexisted along with Teotihuacan. However, its architecture is different from that of the larger city, especially the substructure of the main pyramid which is unlike any other in Mesoamerica. This probably means that it

984-556: A blanket term that not only refers to mixed Mexicans but includes all Mexican citizens who do not speak Indigenous languages Sometimes, particularly outside of Mexico, the word "mestizo" is used with the meaning of Mexican persons with mixed Indigenous and European blood. This usage does not conform to the Mexican social reality where a person of pure Indigenous ancestry would be considered mestizo either by rejecting his Indigenous culture or by not speaking an Indigenous language, and

1148-455: A half and two-thirds of the population, while others use the culture-based definition, and estimate the percentage of mestizos as high as 90% of the Mexican population, several others mix-up both due lack of knowledge in regards to the modern definition and assert that mixed ethnicity Mexicans are as much as 93% of Mexico's population. Paradoxically to its wide definition, the word mestizo has long been dropped off popular Mexican vocabulary, with

1312-468: A limestone outcropping, with steep banks on three sides, making it defensible. War and sacrifice are prominent themes at the site, with images representing warriors such as jaguars and coyotes, as well as eagles eating human hearts. There are also images of serpents eating skeletal figures and skulls in various areas. The major attraction of the site is Pyramid B, also called the Pyramid of Quetzalcoatl or of

1476-443: A loanword from French, refers to persons of mixed French or European and Indigenous ancestry, who were part of a particular ethnic group. French-speaking Canadians, when using the word métis , are referring to Canadian Métis ethnicity, and all persons of mixed Indigenous and European ancestry. Many were involved in the fur trade with Canadian First Nations peoples (especially Cree and Anishinaabeg ). Over generations, they developed

1640-676: A number of sites, many have been damaged or destroyed by the irrigation works related to the Tula River, as well as areas in Ixmiquilpan, Actopan, Mixquiahuala, Tlahuililpan, and Ajacuba. In the Preclassic period , there were small settlements showing influence from Chupícuaro and Ticoman. The settlement of the northwest of the valley began in the Classic period by Xajay groups with possible Chupicuaro-Mixtlan connections. The southeast

1804-520: A person with none or very low Indigenous ancestry would be considered Indigenous either by speaking an Indigenous language or by identifying with a particular Indigenous cultural heritage. In the Yucatán Peninsula , the word mestizo has a different meaning to the one used in the rest of Mexico, being used to refer to the Maya -speaking populations living in traditional communities, because during

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1968-637: A person's life. Artwork created mainly in eighteenth-century Mexico, " casta paintings ," show groupings of racial types in hierarchical order, which has influenced the way that modern scholars have conceived of social difference in Spanish America. During the initial period of colonization of the Americas by the Spanish, there were three chief categories of ethnicities: Spaniard ( español ), American Indian ( indio ), and African ( negro ). Throughout

2132-407: A report on a genomic study of 300 mestizos from those same states. The study found that the mestizo population of these Mexican states were on average 55% of Indigenous ancestry followed by 41.8% of European, 1.8% of African, and 1.2% of East Asian ancestry. The study also noted that whereas mestizo individuals from the southern state of Guerrero showed on average 66% of Indigenous ancestry, those from

2296-567: A risk to farm workers and their families. Economic development includes industry especially in the south. Tula has a major oil refinery as well as an electrical plant. Fabric is woven in Tepeji , cement in Cruz Azul, Atotonilco. and Huichapan. Ixmiquipan and Actopan are important regional commercial centers. Traditional handcrafts include items made from ixtle fiber, baskets, weaving, pottery, and wood items. There are water parks and hiking areas in

2460-603: A separate culture of hunters and trappers, and were concentrated in the Red River Valley and speak the Michif language . In the Spanish colonial period , the Spanish developed a complex set of racial terms and ways to describe difference. Although this has been conceived of as a "system," and often called the sistema de castas or sociedad de castas , archival research shows that racial labels were not fixed throughout

2624-727: A significant number of sulfur and hot water springs such as La Cantera in Tula , Mixquiahual and Vito in Atotonilco , Tephé in Ejido Tephé, Humedades y Dios Padra in Ixmiquilpan and Tolantongo and Textacapa in Cardonal . There are three main climates in the state. The lowlands are hot with temperatures rising as high as 44C in the summer in places such as the municipality of Pisaflores . Temperate regions can have hot days but often

2788-682: A synonym for miscegenation , but with positive connotations. In the modern era, particularly in Latin America, mestizo has become more of a cultural term, with the term indio being reserved exclusively for people who have maintained a separate Indigenous ethnic and cultural identity, language , tribal affiliation, community engagement, etc. In late 19th- and early 20th-century Peru , for instance, mestizaje denoted those peoples with evidence of Euro-indigenous ethno-racial "descent" and access—usually monetary access, but not always—to secondary educational institutions. Similarly, well before

2952-601: A temperate climate with an average year round temperature of 15C. It is bordered by the Sierra de Tenango and the highlands of Apan. It is a large fertile valley with extensive agriculture. The very northern part of the Valley of Mexico is located within the state, which is separated from the area in which Mexico City is found by a series of low lying mountains. This part of the Valley extends from Tizayuca towards Pachuca . It

3116-417: Is a Spanish word that derives from Latino . Ladino is an exonym dating to the colonial era to refer to those Spanish-speakers who were not colonial elites ( Peninsulares and Criollos ), or Indigenous peoples. As of 2012 , most Costa Ricans are primarily of Spanish or mestizo ancestry with minorities of German, Italian, Jamaican, and Greek ancestry. European migrants used Costa Rica to get across

3280-711: Is a person of mixed European and Indigenous American ancestry in the former Spanish Empire . In certain regions such as Latin America , it may also refer to people who are culturally European even though their ancestors were Indigenous. The term was used as an ethno-racial exonym for mixed-race castas that evolved during the Spanish Empire . It was a formal label for individuals in official documents, such as censuses , parish registers , Inquisition trials, and others. Priests and royal officials might have classified persons as mestizos, but individuals also used

3444-448: Is a significant Arab population (of about 100,000), mostly from Palestine (especially from the area of Bethlehem), but also from Lebanon. Salvadorans of Palestinian descent numbered around 70,000 individuals, while Salvadorans of Lebanese descent is around 27,000. There is also a small community of Jews who came to El Salvador from France, Germany, Morocco, Tunisia, and Turkey. Many of these Arab groups naturally mixed and contributed into

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3608-568: Is also located in the Sierra Madre Oriental system and is characterized by small plains surrounded by stony peaks. There are five major canyons located here, which take their names from the rivers that form them, from south to north: Amajac , Meztitlan , Amolon, Mezquititlán and Tolantongo . Although lower than the temperate Sierra Alta, the Sierra Baja still has a temperate climate due to strong, moist winds which flow from

3772-407: Is called the "Danza de Xantolo", in which masked figures in robes dance in candlelight. In other communities, youths in costume will dance from house to house, to be invited in to eat dishes prepared for the occasion. Another tradition is to have bands play at the cemeteries on November 2, where tombs are cleaned and decorated with flowers, garlands and more. The Mezquital Valley has best preserved

3936-835: Is extensive mining, both of precious metals as well as lead and building stone, such as sandstone and marble. Over 38 million kilograms of silver and 200 tons of fine gold have been extracted since the Spanish colonial era began in the 16th century. That nearly equals the weight of the stone used to build the Tembleque Aqueduct. In additions to mines, the area is home to extensive forests of oyamel fir , pines. and oaks. Many of its peaks are rocky and barren such as Zumate in Omitlán , Peñas Cargadas in Real del Monte and Peña del Conejo in San Jerónimo. The Valley of Tulancingo has

4100-496: Is grown. There are also a number of fish farms , especially in Tezontepec de Aldama . About 61% of the population works in agriculture, which has been made possible by the diversion of wastewater from the neighboring Valley of Mexico through the Tula River. Sixty percent of the farmland is irrigated with wastewater. Thirty nine percent of the farmland is dependent on clean water sources such as wells and rain, and only 0.38 percent

4264-487: Is increasingly polluted and is causing damage to these northern zones. The state is negotiating federal and other help to treat and recycle this water so that it does not do further damage to state agriculture and environment. At least 93 people, including eight children, were killed, and 46 were injured when a clandestine gasoline pipe exploded in Tlahuelilpan on January 19, 2019. Several indigenous groups within

4428-483: Is irrigated with treated water. The areas most dependent on wastewater are: Actopan , Ajacuba , Alfajayucan, Atitalaquía , Atotonilco de Tula , Francisco I. Madero , Chilcuautla , Mixquihuala , San Salvador, Tasquillo, Tetepango , Tezontepec, Tlahuelilpan, and Tlaxcoapan . The areas that use wastewater are more productive, as the water contains phosphorus and nitrogen , but the products are more likely to have problems with contaminants. These contaminants also pose

4592-658: Is located in what is called the “Urban Industrial Corridor of the South," where most of the state's economic activity is located. Outside of this corridor, the economy remains based on subsistence farming and has high levels of poverty, with the per capita income only 61.5% of the national average. Industry accounts for more than 25% of the state's gross domestic product. Mestizo Mestizo ( / m ɛ ˈ s t iː z oʊ , m ɪ ˈ -/ mest- EE -zoh, mist- , Spanish: [mesˈtiθo] or [mesˈtiso] ; fem. mestiza , literally 'mixed person')

4756-769: Is located within the pre-Hispanic region of Mesoamerica . Numerous migrations of indigenous people took place through here, mostly arriving or passing through from the north, with many eventually settling in the Valley of Mexico. The Toltecs initially settled in Xochicoatlán , now the municipality of Molango , at the beginning of the 7th century. From here they dispersed to locales such as Huejutla and Tollatzingo (now called Tulancingo ) where they eventually had their capital of Tollan, today known as Tula. The Toltecs were eventually overrun by Chichimecas , who established their capital in Metztitlán . The Aztecs arrived in

4920-405: Is more commonly connected to language families in both urban and rural vernacular. During the colonial era of Mexico, the category Mestizo was used rather flexibly to register births in local parishes and its use did not follow any strict genealogical pattern. With Mexican independence, in academic circles created by the " mestizaje " or " Cosmic Race " ideology, scholars asserted that Mestizos are

5084-415: Is noted for its use of insect projects such as escamoles (ant eggs/larvae) and mezcal worms . These are often eaten in tacos or gorditas , along with various sauces. Another important food is the nopal cactus, as well as seeds and flowers from other cactus species. The Muestra Gastronómica del Valle del Mezquital, which began in 1980, is an annual demonstration of the gastronomic and cultural diversity of

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5248-661: Is one of Mexico's smaller states. The state contains a number of ecotourism, cultural and archeological attractions including the Huasteca area, the ruins of Tula , natural hot water springs, old haciendas and mountain ranges. Prehistoric artifacts have been found in the Hidalgo regions of Tepeapulco , Tulancingo , Actopan and Huichapan . Their antiquity ranges from 14,000 to 2,500 B.C.E. The oldest evidence of Hidalguense occupation has been found in Huapalcalco in

5412-425: Is one of the 31 states which, along with Mexico City , constitute the 32 federal entities of Mexico . It is divided into 84 municipalities and its capital city is Pachuca de Soto . It is located in east-central Mexico and is bordered by San Luis Potosí and Veracruz on the north, Puebla on the east, Tlaxcala and State of Mexico on the south and Querétaro on the west. In 1869, Benito Juárez created

5576-647: Is over 102 hectares of land on the border between Ixmiquilpan and El Cardonal, which has led to paramilitary groups taking over areas. The town of Ixmiquilpan is the center of the Mezquital Valley, especially its Otomi population. The center of this town is its parish church, named after the Archangel Michael . It is noted for its large series of murals done in the 16th century by native artists depicting Eagle and Jaguar warriors in battle, along with other pre-Hispanic imagery. This parish church

5740-628: Is part of the Sierra Madre Oriental mountain system, and in the temperate climate zone of the state. Some of Hidalgo's main peaks are located here, including Cerro del Aguila, Cerro del Santo Roa, and Cerrro de Agua Fria. There is also Cerro la Aguja de Calnali, a volcanic cinder cone . Many of Hidalgo's caves are located here, such as Texcatete in Zacualtipan ; Texcapa in Tepehuacán ; and Tecamachal and Villacastla in Molango . The Sierra Baja

5904-410: Is separated from the Valley of Mezquital by the Sierra de Tezontlalpan and from the rest of the Valley of Mexico by the low lying Sierra de los Pitos. The climate here is temperate and semi arid with occasional freezes. Except for the forests on the mountain tops, the flora and fauna are those found in more arid regions such as maguey, yucca , rabbits, armadillos and mesquite trees. Since many of

6068-586: Is severe enough in places to be seen and smelled. Nevertheless, the water is an important source for irrigated farming, especially in the Tula and Alfajayucan areas, with the water "treated" by letting it soak through the soil. The water causes contamination of groundwater , including water that eventually becomes part of the Pánuco River , affecting coastal lagoons on the Gulf of Mexico . The valley covers 33.7% of

6232-681: Is still made and can be sampled. The area also contains many of the state's former colonial monasteries as well as civic constructions such as the Padre Tembleque Aqueduct . The Sierra and Huasteca Corridor covers this mountain range which is home to the Huastec people . The area includes ecotourism activities, camping and fishing in an area filled with dense vegetations and heated water sources. Municipalities featured here include Huejutla de Reyes , Zacualtipán and Molango where many indigenous people live. The cuisine of

6396-827: Is still smothered in the alcoholic beverage pulque and wrapped in maguey leaves for flavor. This preparation of barbacoa is considered to be the state dish. The state secretary of tourism has divided the state's attraction into "corridors" with similar themes. The Corridor de la Montaña (Mountain Corridor) is devoted to ecotourism and includes a number of different climates and ecosystems. These areas favor activities such as camping, extreme sports and well as family activities. They include places such as old mining haciendas, archeological sites and state parks. Municipalities which are promoted under this category include Mineral del Monte , Huasca de Ocampo and Mineral del Chico . The Corridor de los Balnearios (Water Park Corridor) list most of

6560-400: Is the mining district in the mountains around Pachuca and Real del Monte . Cerro de las Navajas is located here, a mountain made primarily of obsidian . The mining district and mountains extend from Pachuca north towards the municipality of Huasca, then east towards Actopan. From Pachuca it also extends a short ways south to Mineral de la Reforma and Comarca . In most of this region there

6724-510: Is typical of the fortress-style churches built by the Augustinians in the 16th century. The facade is Plateresque style with paired columns and with a window in the choir area. The bell tower is annexed and joined with the facade. It has a crown and bell gables . Imagery that is repeated here is that of holy war with Eagle and Jaguar warriors, as well as images associated with the sun and moon gods. The Jaguar and Eagle warriors were some of

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6888-532: The Araucanian ... In Chile, from the time the Spanish soldiers with Pedro de Valdivia entered northern Chile, a process of 'mestizaje' began where Spaniards began to intermarry and reproduce with the local bellicose Mapuche population of Indigenous Chileans to produce an overwhelmingly mestizo population during the first generation in all of the cities they founded. In Southern Chile, the Mapuche, were one of

7052-493: The Caste War of Yucatán of the late 19th century those Maya who did not join the rebellion were classified as mestizos. In Chiapas, the term Ladino is used instead of Mestizo. Due to the extensiveness of the modern definition of mestizo, various publications offer different estimations of this group, some try to use a biological, racial perspective and calculate the mestizo population in contemporary Mexico as being around

7216-535: The Hacienda system. A number of haciendas (Spanish plantations) owned by the Spanish, with permission from the Spanish Crown, controlled vast lands and great number of workers from where earnings were generated through ranching, agriculture and property rental. Naturally, colonial social and economic life circled around each hacienda , where Hacienda Demiñho was one of the most important and influential in

7380-595: The Latin word mixticius . The Portuguese cognate , mestiço , historically referred to any mixture of Portuguese and local populations in the Portuguese colonies . In colonial Brazil , most of the non-enslaved population was initially mestiço de indio , i.e. mixed Portuguese and Native Brazilian . There was no descent-based casta system, and children of upper-class Portuguese landlord males and enslaved females enjoyed privileges higher than those given to

7544-566: The Mexican Revolution , local armed groups, such as the one led by Francisco P. Mariel in Huejutla, faced off against government troops. Forces led by Nicolas Flores took Jacala and threatened Zimapan and Ixmiquilpan in 1911. Later that same year Gabriel Hernández took Tulancingo and Pachuca, forcing the then-governor out of power. After Porfirio Díaz fled the country, several factions vied for power here. The government of

7708-560: The Mezquital Valley area. However, no major battles of the Mexican War of Independence were fought in the state. Instead, a number of smaller operations against local Spaniards were conducted. When the war ended in 1821, the country was divided into a number of states. The modern state of Hidalgo was initially part of the very large territory called “Mexico” (which extended in all directions from Mexico City), which eventually

7872-654: The Sierra Madre Oriental pine-oak forests habitat, with Mexican pine ( Pinus pseudostrobus ) in the higher mountains. Wildlife includes 31 species of reptiles , thirteen species of duck, six of doves, and three of falcons , as well as mammals such as skunks, spider monkeys , wild boar , anteaters , and gray foxes. A small habitat in the state is the Huasteca highland rainforest . It has plants blooming nearly year-round. Forests include tree species such as: “Tlacuilo,” Oaks ( Quercus species) , Copaifera , “Zuchiate,” Mahogany ( Swietenia macrophylla ) , and Mexican white cedar ( Cupressus lusitanica ) . The area has one of

8036-550: The Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Hidalgo in 1961, with the purpose of turning out engineers and other professionals to provide the impetus for the development of industry. These efforts soon paid dividends and construction growth, especially of suburban subdivisions for workers in newly built factories. The growth of the Greater Mexico City area reached the southern border of Hidalgo state in

8200-590: The municipality of Tulancingo The first settlers of these territories were Olmec groups, who exploited deposits of jade and serpentine . Exploitation of obsidian cobbled relief, as in the deposits of the Sierra de las Navajas , developed during the Mesoamerican Preclassic period . The first evidence of social stratification in Hidalgo has been found at La Loma in the municipality of Tepeji del Río de Ocampo . The modern day state of Hidalgo

8364-637: The 12th century, initially establishing themselves in Mixquiahuala , then founding Tizayuca later. Eventually, the Aztecs took over most of what is now the southern portion of the state, incorporating it into the Aztec Empire . After the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire , the conquistadors carved out territories for themselves from Aztec lands. Hernán Cortés took possession of lands to

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8528-506: The 1920s with the reconstruction of telephone lines and the construction of highways within the state. In the 1930s, a number of companies such as Cruz Azul Cement were expropriated and popular credit schemes such as the Banco de Credito Ejidal were created. Over 130 schools in rural areas were also built. Construction and modernization of infrastructure would continue through the rest of the 20th century. This wave of mining activity declined in

8692-602: The 19th century with the oldest notable writers being Ignacio Rodríguez Galván and José María Rodríguez y Cos . Rodríguez Galván was born in 1816 in Tizayuca and is considered to be the first Mexican Romance writer. He wrote poetry and plays as well as founding a newspaper called Año Nuevo. Rodríguez y Cos was born in 1823 in Tulancingo and represents Positivism in Mexico, writing poetry and plays. The most important poet from

8856-454: The 2020 Census, 1.58% of Hidalgo's population identified as Black, Afro-Mexican , or of African descent. Population of the state historically has risen and fallen based on the state of the economy especially, the health of the mining sector. When mining activity fell in the mid-20th century, the population fell as well. The population began to recover in the 1980s. From then until 2000, the population grew from 1,547,493 to 2,235,591, leaving

9020-412: The 20th century is Efrén Rebolledo from Actopán, who lived from 1877 to 1929. Other important writers from this century include Xavier Sorondo , Margarita Michelena , Gabriel Vargas , Ricardo Garibay , Gonzalo Martré and Miguel Ángel Granados Chapa Notable painters appear in the 20th century including Byron Galvez , Yadira Gutiérrez and José Hernández Delgadillo . The best known musician from

9184-523: The 20th century, Euramerican "descent" did not necessarily denote Iberian American ancestry or solely Spanish American ancestry (distinct Portuguese administrative classification: mestiço ), especially in Andean regions re-infrastructured by Euramerican "modernities" and buffeted by mining labor practices. This conception changed by the 1920s, especially after the national advancement and cultural economics of indigenismo . To avoid confusion with

9348-543: The 4 elements Corridor) is named for its major location of Tulancingo and the sports that are promoted here. Sporting activities are classed under the elements of air, water, fire and earth and include hot air ballooning , fishing, boating, rustic ironwork produced in Apulco and hiking in the natural landscapes. The area extends from the municipality of Tulancingo to the municipality of Huehuetla . (4 elementos) The Corridor de las Haciendas (Haciendas Corridor) contains most of

9512-842: The Actopan, Ixmiquilpan, and the Tasquillo, along with some flatlands. What unifies the region is its waterways, such as the Tula and Alfajayucan rivers, as well as streams such as the Alfajayucan, Arroyo Zarco, Rosas and Salado, as well as history and culture. It is one of the four main arid/semi arid regions of Mexico, along with Baja California , the Tehuacán-Cuicatlán Valley , and the Chihuahua Desert . These four regions together account for 60 percent of Mexico's territory. The average annual precipitation of

9676-571: The Inquisition. The first sizable group of self-identified Jews immigrated from Poland, beginning in 1929. From the 1930s to the early 1950s, journalistic and official antisemitic campaigns fueled harassment of Jews; however, by the 1950s and 1960s, the immigrants won greater acceptance. Most of the 3,500 Costa Rican Jews today are not highly observant, but they remain largely endogamous. Costa Rica has four small minority groups: Mulattos , Afro , Indigenous Costa Ricas , and Asians . About 8% of

9840-730: The Jewish faith. Many of these claim ancestry from Sephardi Jews who came to New Spain in the 16th century to escape the Inquisition in Spain. When it reached New Spain , these people moved to the rural hills to continue their practice clandestinely. These are mostly concentrated in the community of Venta Prieta . While their claims have not been proven, there are indications that they are true. Most practitioners in Venta Prieta are Conservative . Hidalgo's literary history extends back to

10004-435: The Mezquital Valley. During the Mexican War of Independence , insurgent forces under Ignacio López Rayón made camp to Ixmiquilpan and also defeated royalist forces in the nearby village of Tamaleras, now called López Rayón. In 1854 a local uprising, especially in the communities of Orizabita and Remedios, arose in response to the excessive taxes levied by Ixmiquilpan authorities. The protesters were led by Sotero Lozano, who

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10168-581: The Morning Star. It is a five-tiered structure similar to the Temple of the Warriors at Chichen Itza . At the top of Pyramid B are four massive columns, each carved in the likeness of Toltec warriors which once supported the roof of the temple on top of the pyramid. Each warrior figure is of basalt, 4 metres (13 ft) high, with an atlatl or spear thrower, incense, a butterfly-shaped chest plate, and

10332-523: The Otomis, in part because of Otomi tendency to be nomadic . However, there was trade between the two peoples. Aztec records indicate that cotton was collected in part of the area as tribute, but this has been debated because of the area's dry climate. Only after the Spanish conquest did the Otomi of the valley become more settled, although to this day there are some fringe groups which still maintain much of

10496-874: The Otomis. From the 1980s, many Otomis migrated away from the valley to the United States, with large communities from this area settling in Clearwater, Florida and Las Vegas . However, in 2011, the head of the Otomi Supreme Council in Ixmiquilpan stated that migration to the US from the area's Otomi had diminished, principally due to the US's poor economy. The valley has also had recurring conflicts over land and water resources, especially in Cardonal, Ixmiquilpan, and Tasquillo. The disputes have resulted in numerous protests and affected local elections. While

10660-501: The Republic of Spaniards ( República de Españoles ) comprised the Spanish (Españoles) and all other non-Indian peoples. Indians were free vassals of the crown, whose commoners paid tribute while Indigenous elites were considered nobles and tribute exempt, as were Mestizos. Indians were nominally protected by the crown, with non-Indians (Mestizos, blacks, and mulattoes) forbidden to live in Indigenous communities. Mestizos and Indians in Mexico habitually held each other in mutual antipathy. This

10824-433: The Spanish-speaking world or the English-speaking one. It does not relate to being of Indigenous American ancestry, and is not used interchangeably with pardo , literally "brown people". (There are mestiços among all major groups of the country: Indigenous, Asian, pardo , and African, and they likely constitute the majority in the three latter groups.) In English-speaking Canada, Canadian Métis (capitalized), as

10988-533: The State of Hidalgo and made Pachuca its capital city; "de Soto" was added later in recognition of Manuel Fernando Soto  [ es ] , who is considered the most important driving force in creating the state. The state was named after Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla , the initiator of the Mexican War of Independence . The indigenous peoples of the state, such as the Otomi , retain much of their traditional culture . In addition to Mexicans of Spanish descent , there are also notable immigrant cultures: those of

11152-479: The Tula River for irrigation began, with the Tecolote Dam built along with the El Morelos and El Moro Canals. Later the Capula Dam was built, along with another canal to bring wastewater in from the Valley of Mexico. In the 1940s the Mexico City/ Laredo highway was built through the area, which gave the valley more connection with the outside world. In 1951, by presidential decree, the Patrimonio Indígena del Valle de Mezquital (Valley of Mezquital Indigenous Heritage)

11316-435: The United States Mining Smelting and Refining Company. Pulque haciendas , primarily selling to nearby Mexico City , were prosperous in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The prosperity of the state was best seen in the capital of Pachuca with the construction of many civic structures, but many rural areas were still quite impoverished. This situation would make the state favor the oncoming Mexican Revolution . During

11480-427: The Valley of Tulancingo and extends down to the Huasteca region of the states of Puebla and Veracruz . The range is also known as the Sierra de Huayacocotla, with low lying mountains of a humid, cloudy temperate climate with frequent rain in the summer. Two of Hidalgo's main dams, the Tejocotal and the Omitemetl, are located on the rivers here, and are part of the Necaxa Hydroelectrical System. La Comarca Minera

11644-409: The Valley of Mexico and its influence has been found in artifacts as far away as the current U.S. Southwest . It is believed that aguamiel was first extracted around 1100 CE, which led to the making of pulque. The last Toltec ruler was Topilzin Ce-Acatl Quetzalcoatl, who came to power in 1085. Stories about Tula were an important part of Aztec lore, with the god Quetzalcoatl possibly a deification of

11808-420: The area from the neighboring Valley of Mexico. The wastewater comes from drainage projects that carry water out of the Valley of Mexico and dump it into the Tula River, with most of the water not treated adequately or not treated at all. The wastewater is a mix of residential and industrial water, which includes contaminants such as bacteria (such as cholera) from fecal matter and toxic chemicals. This contamination

11972-589: The area had not been fully subjugated by the 18th century, especially in the Sierra Gorda and Sierra Baja areas. These groups and others manage a significant amount of success in maintaining cultural, political and economic autonomy through the colonial period. Much of the state still maintains a number of strong indigenous identities. Many in Hidalgo, especially the indigenous, supported Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla 's cause, providing leaders such as José María Correa and José Antonio Magos, both of whom were active in

12136-623: The area is also emphasized. The Tolteca Corridor centers on the archeological site of Tula , which was the home of one of the principal pre-Hispanic civilizations of Mexico. Many of the oldest monasteries of the state, founded in the 16th century, are located here. Hacienda Demiñho , which was once one of the most important and largest haciendas in the state, is located in this area. Featured municipalities include Tula de Allende , Atotonilco de Tula , Tepeji del Rio , Mixquiahuala , Tlahuelilpan , Tlaxcoapan and Tezontepec . Main article: Geografía del Estado de Hidalgo . The terrain of

12300-664: The areas of Mexico with the highest levels of malnutrition. The valley averages 2000 meters above sea level and has a temperate climate with freezes being rare. Principal rivers include the Tula , Amajac and the Metztitlan. Other rivers in the state flow into these three, such as the Rosas, Cuautitlan, Guadalupe and Salado, which flow into the Tula River . One exception to this is the San Juan River, which forms part of

12464-464: The armies that the Spanish fought during the Conquest; they wore resplendent apparel. Few explicit pictorial references to these warriors were permitted afterwards. The murals at Ixmiquilpan are an exception. The murals here appear in a series of polychrome frescos, which have structure in a large and coherent way. The parish church was declared a national monument in 1933. The city of Tula de Allende

12628-815: The average Mexican mestizo was predominantly European (64.9%), followed by Indigenous American (30.8%), and African (4.2%). The European ancestry was more prevalent in the north and west (66.7–95%) and Indigenous American ancestry increased in the centre and south-east (37–50%), the African ancestry was low and relatively homogeneous (0–8.8%). The states that participated in this study were Aguascalientes, Chiapas, Chihuahua, Durango, Guerrero, Jalisco, Oaxaca, Sinaloa, Veracruz and Yucatán. A study of 104 mestizos from Sonora, Yucatán, Guerrero, Zacatecas, Veracruz, and Guanajuato by Mexico's National Institute of Genomic Medicine, reported that mestizo Mexicans are 58.96% European, 31.05% Indigenous American, and 10.03% African. Sonora shows

12792-463: The child was raised in the Indigenous world of the mother if he did not. As early as 1533, Charles V mandated the high court ( Audiencia ) to take the children of Spanish men and Indigenous women from their mothers and educate them in the Spanish sphere. This mixed group born out of Christian wedlock increased in numbers, generally living in their mother's Indigenous communities. Mestizos were

12956-553: The colonial times, eventually came to mix and merged into the much larger and vaster Mestizo mixed European Spanish/Native Indigenous population creating Pardo or Afromestizos who cluster with Mestizo people, contributing into the modern day Mestizo population in El Salvador, thus, there remains no significant extremes of African physiognomy among Salvadorans like there is in the other countries of Central America. Today, many Salvadorans identify themselves as being culturally part of

13120-609: The contemporary sense has been the closest to the historical usage from the Middle Ages. Because of important linguistic and historical differences, mestiço (mixed, mixed-ethnicity, miscegenation, etc.) is separated altogether from pardo (which refers to any kind of brown people) and caboclo (brown people originally of European–Indigenous American admixture, or assimilated Indigenous American). The term mestiços can also refer to fully African or East Asian in their full definition (thus not brown). One does not need to be

13284-452: The days around November 2 honor the dead with altars and offerings, although each community has its own variations. One area which is known for its traditions is Huejutla de Reyes , where altars dedicated to the dead are especially large and profusely decorated with flowers, colored paper and traditional foods, with the intention of counteracting mourning. In a number of areas, rituals based on Huasteca traditions are also performed. One of these

13448-538: The descendants of Cornish miners from Cornwall (located in South West England ) who arrived in the 19th century, a few self-proclaimed Italian descendants, and a small Jewish enclave which claims to be descended from Sephardi Jews which came to New Spain in the 16th century. Hidalgo is known for its mountainous terrain, though part of the state is on a coastal plain. With a population of 2.858 million and an area of roughly 20,813 square km, Hidalgo

13612-421: The economic backbone of the area through the colonial period and into most of post Independence period. The fortunes of the mining industry would rise and fall during the colonial period; one of the most productive eras came under the control of Pedro Romero de Terreros in the 18th century. Despite Spanish control and evangelization efforts since the 16th century, many of the Otomi and other indigenous groups of

13776-402: The family Asteraceae . It has significant biodiversity in its fauna but much is relatively unstudied. Economic development in the 20th century has caused environmental problems, especially in the south of the valley. These include air and soil pollution from an important refinery and electric power plant near the city of Tula. The most serious problem comes from wastewater which is pumped into

13940-498: The fastest growing in Mexico by the National Commission of Population. Much of the reason for this is the existence of a refinery and a thermoelectric plant. The city is centered around the parish and former monastery of San Jose, with the oldest part built between 1546 and 1556. The main facade has three arches, pilasters with reliefs, a curved pediment, and a chapel annex that takes from the 17th century. The cloister of

14104-699: The first group in the colonial era to be designated as a separate category from the Spanish (Españoles) and enslaved African blacks ( Negros ) and were included in the designation of "vagabonds" ( vagabundos ) in 1543 in Mexico. Although Mestizos were often classified as castas , they had a higher standing than any mixed-race person since they did not have to pay tribute, the men could be ordained as priests, and they could be licensed to carry weapons, in contrast to negros , mulattoes, and other castas. Unlike Blacks and mulattoes, Mestizos had no African ancestors. Intermarriage between Españoles and Mestizos resulted in offspring designated Castizos ("three-quarters white"), and

14268-423: The following definition: "The Ladino population has been characterized as a heterogeneous population which expresses itself in the Spanish language as a maternal language, which possesses specific cultural traits of Hispanic origin mixed with Indigenous cultural elements, and dresses in a style commonly considered as western." Initially colonial Argentina and Uruguay had a predominantly mestizo population like

14432-504: The governorship of the area by Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán . By the 18th century, the economy of the Hidalgo area was dominated by mining and agricultural haciendas . Much of the agricultural production during the colonial period was centered on livestock such as sheep and pigs as well as the making of pulque from the native maguey plant. However, the mining of silver, gold and other metals in the Pachuca / Real del Monte area would prove to be

14596-907: The higher mountain areas. The lower valley floor is semi-arid except for areas along riverbanks which have some tropical vegetation. In some canyons, thermal inversion also allows for a more humid climate. Dominant vegetation includes various cacti , mesquite , and maguey , as most of the valley is dry. Other important wild species include cypresses ( Taxodium mucronatum and Cupressus spp.), pine ( Pinus spp.), willow ( Salix spp.), oak ( Quercus spp.), huisache ( Vachellia farnesiana ), cardón ( Ilex or Pachycereus spp.), barrel cactus ( Echinocactus spp.), yucca ( Yucca spp.), huapilla ( Hechtia spp.), cucharilla ( Dasylirion spp.), cat's claw ( Mimosa spp.), zacate ( Setaria spp. or Muhlenbergia macroura ), chipil ( Crotalaria spp.), pasto de agua ( Potamogeton pusillus ), reeds ( Scirpus or Typha spp.), and various species of

14760-527: The highest European contribution (70.63%) and Guerrero the lowest (51.98%) which also has the highest Indigenous American contribution (37.17%). African contribution ranges from 2.8% in Sonora to 11.13% in Veracruz . 80% of the Mexican population was classed as mestizo (defined as "being racially mixed in some degree"). In May 2009, the same institution (Mexico's National Institute of Genomic Medicine) issued

14924-414: The hunter-gatherer traditions. The Tula area was initially ruled for the Spanish by Pedro Miahuazochil in Tula and Pedro Rodríguez de Escobar in Ixmiquilpan. The ecology of the valley began to change dramatically in the colonial period, mostly due to logging and the introduction of grazing animals, especially sheep, causing erosion and other damage. The colonial period in the valley was heavily influenced by

15088-590: The idea of "(racism) not existing here (in Mexico), as everybody is mestizo." Anthropologist Federico Navarrete concludes that reintroducing racial classification, and accepting itself as a multicultural country, as opposed to a monolithic mestizo country, would bring benefits to Mexican society as a whole. A 2012 study published by the Journal of Human Genetics found that the Y-chromosome (paternal) ancestry of

15252-556: The important Indigenous male mortality during the conquest. The genetics thus suggests the Native men were sharply reduced in numbers due to the war and disease. Large numbers of Spaniard men settled in the region and married or forced themselves with the local women. The Natives were forced to adopt Spanish names, language, and religion, and in this way, the Lencas and Pipil women and children were Hispanicized. This has made El Salvador one of

15416-649: The isthmus of Central America as well to reach the U.S. West Coast ( California ) in the late 19th century and until the 1910s (before the Panama Canal opened). Other ethnic groups known to live in Costa Rica include Nicaraguan, Colombians, Venezuelans, Peruvian, Brazilians, Portuguese, Palestinians , Caribbeans, Turks, Armenians, and Georgians. Many of the first Spanish colonists in Costa Rica may have been Jewish converts to Christianity who were expelled from Spain in 1492 and fled to colonial backwaters to avoid

15580-532: The last Toltec ruler. While the Otomi presence is notable since the Epiclassic period , the valley became dominated by this ethnicity in the Postclassic period , when the rise of the Aztec Empire drove many southern Otomi into the valley. They have remained the dominant indigenous population to the present day. While the Aztecs held sway of much of the valley in the south, they never completely subjugated

15744-415: The late 20th and early 21st century with the municipality of Tizayuca formally added into the region in 2005. One problem the extreme southern part of the state has had in the past decade is the contamination of water from the drainage of the Valley of Mexico . Mexico City pumps out excess water from the area, as the valley has no natural drainage, to the north into Mexico and Hidalgo states. This water

15908-435: The latter 20th century, the valley has become an important agricultural center for the state of Hidalgo, growing corn, beans, wheat, onions, tomatoes, cactus fruit, and peaches; the valley also produces one-quarter of all green chili peppers grown in Mexico. It also produces alfalfa , principally used to feed the area's cattle. A small but important quantity of lettuce, cabbage, cilantro , radishes, carrots, spinach, and parsley

16072-548: The lower classes, such as formal education. Such cases were not so common and the children of enslaved women tended not to be allowed to inherit property. This right of inheritance was generally given to children of free women, who tended to be legitimate offspring in cases of concubinage (this was a common practice in certain Indigenous American and African cultures). In the Portuguese-speaking world,

16236-441: The major water parks, spas, natural pools and thermal springs in the state. Hidalgo ranks second in Mexico for the number of thermal springs. These springs have an average temperature of 38C but some reach as high as 80C. They exist due to rivers of magma that flow under the surface. Municipalities promoted under this category include Ixmiquilpan , Actopan and Cardonal . The Corridor Tulancingo y los 4 elementos (Tulancingo and

16400-527: The majority Salvadoran mestizo population, even if they are racially European (especially Mediterranean), as well as Indigenous people in El Salvador who do not speak Indigenous languages nor have an Indigenous culture, and tri-racial/pardo Salvadorans or Arab Salvadorans. The Ladino population in Guatemala is officially recognized as a distinct ethnic group, and the Ministry of Education of Guatemala uses

16564-591: The majority are tri-racial Pardo Salvadorans who largely cluster with the Mestizo population. They have been mixed into and were naturally bred out by the general Mestizo population, which is a combination of a Mestizo majority and the minority of Pardo people, both of whom are racially mixed populations. A total of only 10,000 enslaved Africans were brought to El Salvador over the span of 75 years, starting around 1548, about 25 years after El Salvador's colonization. The enslaved Africans that were brought to El Salvador during

16728-404: The marriage of a castizo/a to an Español/a resulted in the restoration of Español/a status to the offspring. Don Alonso O’Crouley observed in Mexico (1774), "If the mixed-blood is the offspring of a Spaniard and an Indian, the stigma [of race mixture] disappears at the third step in descent because it is held as systematic that a Spaniard and an Indian produce a mestizo ; a mestizo and a Spaniard,

16892-482: The mestizo process or diseases brought by the Spaniards. Mestizo culture quickly became the most successful and dominant culture in El Salvador. The majority of Salvadorans in modern El Salvador identify themselves as 86.3% Mestizo roots. Historical evidence and census supports the explanation of "strong sexual asymmetry", as a result of a strong bias favoring children born to European man and Indigenous women, and to

17056-458: The mid-20th century, causing the deterioration of the state's economy, especially in the Pachuca area. In the 1950s and 1960s efforts were undertaken to shift the state's economy from agriculture and mining to manufacturing. In 1952, an automotive motor production facility called Diesel Nacional (DINA) was constructed. The old Instituto Científico Literario Autónomo de Hidalgo was converted to

17220-649: The mining sector fell again. In 1861, the government of the vast State of Mexico was centered in Toluca , west of Mexico City. The distance of the capital was one of the reasons why the state of Hidalgo would eventually separate. When French forces invaded central Mexico in 1862 , the large territory of Mexico was divided into three military sectors for defence. The second district had its capital in Actopan and its borders were roughly commensurate with that of modern Hidalgo. The French succeeded in placing Maximilian I on

17384-665: The modern Salvadoran Mestizo population. Pardo is the term that was used in colonial El Salvador to describe a person of tri-racial or Indigenous, European, and African descent. El Salvador is the only country in Central America that does not have a significant African population due to many factors including El Salvador not having a Caribbean coast, and because of president Maximiliano Hernández Martínez , who passed racial laws to keep people of African descent and others out of El Salvador, though Salvadorans with African ancestry , called Pardos, were already present in El Salvador,

17548-427: The monastery has two levels with arches and fresco murals. Inside the main church, a modern mural called "Jesus" is located at the main altar. It was named a cathedral in 1961. The most important archeological site of the valley is Tula , although this is overshadowed by its predecessor Teotihuacan and one of its successors, Tenochtitlan. Much of the site's historical importance comes from the fact that its civilization

17712-587: The mountain areas, which mostly attract families from the state of Hidalgo. These include El Xicuco (between Tula and Tlahuililpan), El Hualtepec (near Huichapan), and Los Frailes (near Actopan). The valley has been populated at least since the Mesoamerican period, especially in the south around what is now Tula . It is considered to be the northern edge of Mesoamerica, with evidence of agriculture on terraces and some irrigation, at least in Tula, as well as hunter-gatherer communities. While there has been work on

17876-401: The mountain tops of the peaks. Despite this, the region is considered to be Hidalgo's granary, growing corn, beans, wheat, tomatoes, onions, oats, olives, cactus fruit, tejocote and much more. It produces more than half of the alfalfa and green chili peppers in Mexico. Due to the lack of rainfall, irrigation from the areas above and below ground streams is important. However, it is also one of

18040-633: The mountains surrounding Pachuca lack tree cover, little slows the prevailing winds which can reach speeds of up to 120 km per hour. This gives the capital city the nickname of La Bella Airosa (Beautiful Windy City). The Valley of Mezquital is three valleys called the Actopan , the Ixmiquilpan and the Tasquillo as well as flat areas known as Tula and Alfajayucan . The vegetation is mostly that of semi arid regions with mesquite trees and various types of cacti growing. The only areas with tree cover are those near streams and other water sources and on

18204-521: The nation. In Central America , intermarriage by European men with Indigenous women, typically of Lenca , Cacaopera and Pipil backgrounds in what is now El Salvador happened almost immediately after the arrival of the Spaniards led by Pedro de Alvarado . Other Indigenous groups in the country such as Maya Poqomam people , Maya Ch'orti' people , Alaguilac , Xinca people , Mixe and Mangue language people became culturally extinct due to

18368-515: The nationalization of Quechuan languages and Aymaran languages as "official languages of the State...wherever they predominate" has increasingly severed these languages from mestizaje as an exonym (and, in certain cases, indio ), with indigenous languages tied to linguistic areas as well as topographical and geographical contexts. La sierra from the Altiplano to Huascarán , for instance,

18532-472: The northeast of Mexico City extending into modern Hidalgo state. Evangelization efforts followed soon thereafter with the first Franciscans arriving in 1523. This changed the social, economic and cultural structure of the areas as the Spanish took control of natural resources — especially minerals — and the labor the Indians provided. It also led to a massive decrease in the native population, especially during

18696-622: The northeast. The Sierra Gorda mountain range is a branch of the Sierra Madre Oriental which crosses northwest Hidalgo and ends in San Luis Potosí . These are mostly mountains of volcanic origin. The Tula and Moctezuma Rivers meet here, whose waters then cut the Moctezuma Canyon, which has walls up to 480 meters high. The Sierra de Tenango or Sierra Norte de Puebla mountain range begins to one side of

18860-688: The northern state of Sonora displayed about 61.6% European ancestry. The study found that there was an increase in Indigenous ancestry as one traveled towards to the Southern states in Mexico, while the Indigenous ancestry declined as one traveled to the Northern states in the country, such as Sonora. The Ladino people are a mix of Mestizo or Hispanicized peoples in Latin America , principally in Central America . The demonym Ladino

19024-468: The offspring of a castizo/a [mixed Spanish - Mestizo] and an Español/a could be considered Español/a, or "returned" to that status. Racial labels in a set of eighteenth-century Mexican casta paintings by Miguel Cabrera : In the early colonial period, the children of Spaniards and American Indians were raised either in the Hispanic world, if the father recognized the offspring as his natural child; or

19188-484: The only Indigenous tribes in the Americas that were in continuous conflict with the Spanish Empire and did not submit to a European power. But because Southern Chile was settled by German settlers in 1848, many mestizos include descendants of Mapuche and German settlers. A public health book from the University of Chile states that 60% of the population is of only European origin; mestizos are estimated to amount to

19352-584: The original usage of the term mestizo , mixed people started to be referred to collectively as castas . In some Latin American countries, such as Mexico , the concept of the Mestizo became central to the formation of a new independent identity that was neither wholly Spanish nor wholly Indigenous. The word mestizo acquired another meaning in the 1930 census, being used by the government to refer to all Mexicans who did not speak Indigenous languages regardless of ancestry. In 20th- and 21st-century Peru,

19516-431: The population is of African descent or mulatto (mix of European and African) who are called Afro-Costa Ricans , English-speaking descendants of 19th century Afro- Jamaican immigrant workers. By the late 20th century, allusions in textbooks and political discourse to "whiteness," or to Spain as the "mother country" of all Costa Ricans, were diminishing, replaced with a recognition of the multiplicity of peoples that make up

19680-536: The pre-Hispanic and colonial periods. These particularly apply to Otomi communities. However, there have been problems with these, with sanctions deemed severe and authorities accused of being arbitrary. There have also been problems with tribal law conflicting with the rights guaranteed by the Mexican Constitution . For example, in Ixmiquilpan, Tasquillo, Nopala , Huichapan, and Chapantongo , women are not allowed to vote for community authorities. Since

19844-509: The raw materials and sell the finished products. Many Otomis still use garments made of undyed cotton called "manta". Women wear a blouse or shirt with a square neckline, which has embroidery. Over this many wear quechquemitls , of blue, purple, or black wool, as well as rebozos in similar colors and designs. The lower half of the body is covered by a wraparound skirt. Women usually braid their hair with ribbons or strips of fabric, and wear huarache sandals. The Otomi municipality of Ixmiquilpan

20008-439: The rest of the Spanish colonies, but due to a flood of European migration in the 19th century and the repeated intermarriage with Europeans, the mestizo population became a so-called Castizo population. With more Europeans arriving in the early 20th century, the majority of these immigrants coming from Italy and Spain , the face of Argentina and Uruguay has overwhelmingly become European in culture and tradition. Because of this,

20172-409: The result of the mixing of all the races. After the Mexican Revolution the government, in its attempts to create an unified Mexican identity with no racial distinctions, adopted and actively promoted the "mestizaje" ideology. The Spanish word mestizo is from Latin mixticius , meaning mixed. Its usage was documented as early as 1275, to refer to the offspring of an Egyptian/ Afro Hamite and

20336-554: The same juncture, after almost a century as a genre. Because the term had taken on a myriad of meanings, the designation "Mestizo" was actively removed from census counts in Mexico and is no longer in official nor governmental use. Around 50–90% of Mexicans can be classified as "mestizos", meaning in modern Mexican usage that they identify fully neither with any European heritage nor with an Indigenous ethnic group, but rather identify as having cultural traits incorporating both European and Indigenous elements. In Mexico, mestizo has become

20500-458: The same process of restoration of racial purity does not occur over generations for European-African offspring marrying whites. "From the union of a Spaniard and a Negro the mixed-blood retains the stigma for generations without losing the original quality of a mulato." The Spanish colonial regime divided groups into two basic legal categories, the Republic of Indians ( República de Indios ) and

20664-468: The sector. The British introduced steam-powered machinery and other modern techniques as well as a large quantity of Cornish miners . Many of these Cornish miners stayed and English names and foods such as pasties (called “ pastes ” in Spanish) help define the state, especially in the Pachuca and Real del Monte areas. These Englishmen were forced to sell their interest to Mexican capitalists in 1849, and

20828-571: The situation is not as dire as in various municipalities in the state of Guerrero , there have been reports of armed groups in the valley. These exist generally to protect a certain segment of the population rather than an entire community. These groups have been influenced by events in Guerrero since the 1990s, especially by the Popular Revolutionary Front. However, violent conflicts go back further than this. One major dispute

20992-469: The state had a new constitution. In 1920, the first airmail flight took place with a biplane piloted by Horacio Ruiz Gaviño taking off from Pachuca and landing in Mexico City 53 minutes later carrying 543 letters, 61 postcards and other items. The war left the mining industry in ruins again and the desertion of same by the American companies. Modernization of the nearly destroyed infrastructure began in

21156-524: The state have managed to maintain a relatively strong independent cultural identity since the Conquest. These ethnic groups include the Nahua , the Otomis and the Tepehuas , each still speaking their own language. The largest group is the Otomi, which has over 250,000 speakers in the state. The total number of people who speak an indigenous language of any kind was estimated at 320,029 in 2005. According to

21320-425: The state is Nicandro Castillo , who wrote mostly popular music in the mid-20th century. As part of a performing group called Los Plateados, his work became part of a number of Mexican films, including Cuando habla el corazón , Seda, sangre y sol and Así se quiere en Jalisco . Other important musicians from the state include Abundio Martínez and Demetrio Vite Hernández . The best known celebrity and artist from

21484-513: The state is Rodolfo Guzmán Huerta, better known as El Santo . Born in Tulancingo in 1917, not only was he Mexico's best known lucha libre wrestler, he experienced success in the movies, playing his lucha libre character battling evil. He never took off his mask in public, until a few weeks before his death in 1984. Day of the Dead in the state is referred to as the "Xantolo" which extends from October 31 to November 2. Like in other parts of Mexico,

21648-500: The state is very rugged. At its lowest point it is only a few meters above sea level, and at its highest it is over 3,300 meters above sea level. The state is divided into three geographical regions: the Atlantic Coastal Plain, the Sierra Madre Oriental (mountain ranges), and the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt , which contains the highest peaks. Each of these regions is distinct from the rest. The Sierra Alta region

21812-555: The state of Hidalgo and is divided politically into 27 municipalities, with a population of about 420,000. While most inhabitants are mestizo , the Otomi people have been the dominant indigenous ethnicity since the Classic period of the Mesoamerican era. The center of the Otomi community is Ixmiquilpan . The weaving trade was a way to survive in the harsh environment before the introduction of irrigated farming. The Otomi language of

21976-399: The state shares with most of the rest of Mexico such as tacos, tamales , moles and a specialty of central Mexico, mixiote . Another common central Mexican dish popular in the state is barbacoa . This dish has its origins in the pre-Hispanic period, when it was meat cooked in an underground pit. Today, it is most often cooked in pots in more conventional ovens, but the meat, today mostly pork,

22140-489: The state until the Porfirio Díaz period, the economy, especially the mining sector was erratic. In the late 1880s, a number of modern inventions, such as the telegraph , telephone and railroad helped the Hidalgo economy. It also brought in another wave of foreign investment in the mining industry. By the mid-1900s, much of the mining production in Pachuca and Real del Monte was controlled by U.S. based interests such as

22304-516: The state was seized in 1915 by Agustin Sangins, who declared himself in favor of Victoriano Huerta , prompting opponents to take up arms in the Huasteca area, Jacala and Tulancingo. Victory initially went to those in support of Huerta. When Huerta's government fell, the state had a chaotic succession of governors, each of whom supported different factions. When the war finally wound down by 1920,

22468-853: The state with a large number of people under the age of thirty. The mining sector has also been responsible for immigration to the state, most notably that of the Cornish in the 19th century in the Pachuca and Real de Monte areas. While most descendants of these Cornish immigrants now are monolingual Spanish speakers, many have retained the Protestant faith. The Cornish have influenced the cuisine here as well, with one of Hidalgo's signature dishes being “pastes” (pa-stays) , which are Cornish dough pockets filled with Mexican style meat, vegetable and sweet fillings. Over 70% identify themselves as Catholic with significant minorities as Protestant or Evangelical. Another significant minority are those who practice

22632-451: The state's 176 former haciendas which were constructed between the 16th and the 19th centuries. Most were devoted to mining or the making of pulque . Many contain the original buildings, including the main residences as well as tours. Many of these are in rural municipalities, which conserve old traditions. In the Apan area, most of the old haciendas were devoted to the making of pulque, which

22796-410: The state's border with Querétaro . This river flows into the Pánuco River in San Luis Potosí . The Amajac begins in the Sierra de Pachuca and flows southeast. The Metztitlan River begins at the state's border with Puebla state and eventually flows into Metztitlan Lake. Principal lakes in the state are the Metztitlán , Zupitlan or Tulancingo, San Antonio, Pueblilla and Carrillos. The state also has

22960-717: The state's indigenous (especially Otomi ) culinary heritage based a number of traditional native animal and vegetable products. One of these is the use of a number of edible insects , many of which are considered delicacies such as escamoles (ant eggs) and maguey larvae as well as others such as larvae found on nopal plants, “chacas” (beetles) and “chicharras” ( cicadas ). Other local animals still used for food include tadpoles (called atepocates), salamanders and their larvae, squirrels and rabbits. Plant species still commonly used include mesquite beans, nopal and other cactus, and various cactus fruit such as “tunas” (cactus pears) and “ xoconostle .” These are often prepared in dishes that

23124-470: The state. The second region averages about 800 meters above sea level and is more temperate in climate. The coldest climates at the highest areas are the most populated and average about 2,000 meters above sea level. Major elevations in the state include Cerro la Peñuela (3,350 masl), Cerro el Jihuingo (3,240masl), Cerro la Paila (3,200 masl), Cerro las Navajas (3,180 masl), Cerro el Agual Azul (3,040 masl) and Cerro la Estancia (3,020 masl). In addition to

23288-399: The temperature is moderated by cooler winds and clouds. Cold climates dominate the highest altitudes where freezing temperatures at night are not uncommon. Rainfall varies widely from as low as 250mm per year to as high as 2,800mm per year. The main indicator of climate type is altitude. The north of the state has the lowest elevation and the hottest climate. It is also the smallest region of

23452-466: The term Mestizo has fallen into disuse. Nevertheless, the cultural practice of the region is commonly centred on the figure of the Gaucho , which intrinsically mixes European and native traditions. Argentine Northwest still has a important mestizo population, especially in the provinces of Jujuy and Salta . The Chilean race, as everybody knows, is a Mestizo race made of Spanish conquistadors and

23616-492: The term in self-identification. With the Bourbon reforms and the independence of the Americas, the caste system disappeared and terms like "mestizo" fell in popularity. The noun mestizaje , derived from the adjective mestizo , is a term for racial mixing that did not come into usage until the 20th century; it was not a colonial-era term. In the modern era, mestizaje is used by scholars such as Gloria Anzaldúa as

23780-409: The territories of the Spanish Empire in the Americas, ways of differentiating individuals in a racial hierarchy, often called in the modern era the sistema de castas or the sociedad de castas , developed where society was divided based on color, calidad (status), and other factors. The main divisions were as follows: In theory, and as depicted in some eighteenth-century Mexican casta paintings,

23944-527: The three main geographic/climate regions, the state subdivides into a number of sub-regions. Sub-regions include the La Huasteca area. This extends like a green sash across part of the state, and altitude does not exceed 800 masl. It is mostly located near the Gulf Coast and receives a significant amount of rainfall from this body of water. Most plants are either of arid and desert habitats , or of

24108-531: The throne of Mexico, who visited Pachuca in 1865. Soon thereafter, insurgent activity against the French government intensified and after Maximilian was overthrown, the new republican government decided to make this military district the state of Hidalgo in 1869. The state was named after Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla , the first leader of the Mexican Independence movement. From the establishment of

24272-453: The valley is 385 mm (15.2 in), less than half of the state average of 866 mm (34.1 in). In the elevations of surrounding mountains between 2,000 and 2,800 m (6,600 and 9,200 ft), the climate is temperate and moister, with rains in the summer. Below this level, the area is semi-arid steppe . The valley is drained by the Tula River. The vegetation of the valley is divided into zones. Forests of pine and oak dominate

24436-428: The valley is spoken by an estimated 115,000 people, especially in the municipalities of San Salvador , Chilcuautla , Ixmiquilpan, Alfajayucan , Tasquillo , Nicolás Flores , Cardonal , and Huichapan . Traditionally, these Otomi are known for their handcrafts, especially the creation of textiles from ixtle fiber and the making of pulque , both from the maguey plant. Both are usually made by Otomi families who gather

24600-453: The valley remained sparsely populated and very poor from the colonial period until the 20th century. In the early 20th century, a rail line was built to link the valley to Pachuca . The rail line was planned by Englishman Richard Honey, who came to Ixmiquilpan with his family to settle. The rail line was supposed to run from Pachuca to Tampico , Tamaulipas but it was built only as far as Ixmilquilpan. At this time efforts to divert water from

24764-413: The valley. It is held in the community of Santiago de Anaya and includes indigenous storytelling and dance along with food. A significant percentage of the population lives under what is called usos y costumbres (uses and customs), a legal way to allow indigenous communities to keep traditional authority structures. These are concerned with community rather than individual welfare, based on systems from

24928-438: The widest varieties of wild birds including eagles, hummingbirds , and wild turkeys. Reptiles include a wide variety of snakes, and mammals include coyotes, bobcats, wild boar, spotted deer, and rabbits. Tropical crops raised here include sugar cane , coconuts, pineapple, bananas, mamey , and tamarind . Traditionally, Hidalgo's economy has been based on mining and agriculture, with manufacturing more recently. Most industry

25092-406: The word sometimes having pejorative connotations, which further complicates attempts to quantify mestizos via self-identification. While for most of its history the concept of mestizo and mestizaje has been lauded by Mexico's intellectual circles, in recent times the concept has been a target of criticism, with its detractors claiming that it delegitimizes the importance of ethnicity in Mexico under

25256-538: The worlds most highly mixed race nations. In 1932, ruthless dictator Maximiliano Hernández Martínez was responsible for La Matanza ("The Slaughter"), known as the 1932 Salvadoran peasant massacre in which the Indigenous people were murdered in an effort to wipe out the Indigenous people in El Salvador during the 1932 Salvadoran peasant uprising. Indigenous peoples, mostly of Lenca, Cacaopera, and Pipil descent are still present in El Salvador in several communities, conserving their languages, customs, and traditions. There

25420-472: Was at least semi-autonomous from Teotihuacan. The archeological site was opened to the public in 2012. 20°27′9.9″N 99°14′56.81″W  /  20.452750°N 99.2491139°W  / 20.452750; -99.2491139 Hidalgo (state) Hidalgo ( Spanish pronunciation: [iˈðalɣo] ), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Hidalgo ( Spanish : Estado Libre y Soberano de Hidalgo ),

25584-489: Was built on what was the southern extension of the ancient city of Tula , centered on a former monastery built by the Spanish in the 16th century. The modern city is still connected to the ancient ruins, as it is an important tourist attraction as well as a symbol of the city, especially the warrior figures located on the Quetzalcoatl pyramid. The modern city is a regional economic center and has been listed as one of

25748-428: Was called a bandit. This leader was most active in the towns of Actopan and Cardonal, his hometown. The valley saw a number of battles during the Mexican Revolution , especially between those loyal to Venustiano Carranza and Emiliano Zapata . It also saw the peasant uprise in 1919 against Hacienda Demiñho, where its destruction and massacre ended this hacienda's hegemony in the region. However, because of climate,

25912-451: Was closely tied to social status, wealth, culture, and language use. Wealthy people paid to change or obscure their actual ancestry. Many Indigenous people left their traditional villages and sought to be counted as Mestizos to avoid tribute payments to the Spanish. Many Indigenous people, and sometimes those with partial African descent, were classified as Mestizo if they spoke Spanish and lived as Mestizos. In colonial Venezuela , pardo

26076-586: Was created in Ixmiquilpan by President Miguel Alemán Valez and state governor D. Quintín Rueda Villagran to promote Mezquital Otomi culture and education. These and many other infrastructure and economic development projects have changed much of the valley's way of life, especially in Tula and Ixquimilpan. Today the valley is an important agricultural region for the state of Hidalgo, growing corn, beans, wheat, onions, tomatoes, cactus fruit, and peaches. It produces one-quarter of Mexico's green chili peppers. However, there are still problems with poverty, especially among

26240-525: Was highly respected by the Aztecs who followed – the Aztecs used the terms "Tula" and "Toltec" to indicate an urban space and a skilled person, respectively. The modern archaeological site consists of the ceremonial center of Tula Grande, an area called Tula Chico, the Jorge R. Acosta site museum, and the Guadalupe Mastache orientation center. The ceremonial center of the city is located on

26404-529: Was more commonly used instead of mestizo . Pardo means being mixed without specifying which mixture; it was used to describe anyone born in the Americas whose ancestry was a mixture of European, Native American, and African. When the First Mexican Republic was established in 1824, legal racial categories ceased to exist. The production of casta paintings in New Spain ceased at

26568-544: Was particularly the case with commoner American Indians against Mestizos, some of whom infiltrated their communities and became part of the ruling elite. Spanish authorities turned a blind eye to the Mestizos' presence, since they collected commoners' tribute for the crown and came to hold offices. They were useful intermediaries for the colonial state between the Republic of Spaniards and the Republic of Indians. A person's legal racial classification in colonial Spanish America

26732-476: Was settled by those affiliated with Teotihuacan , mostly in the Tula area. The most significant pre-Hispanic city was Tula , which came to regional prominence after the fall of Teotihuacan and before the rise of Tenochtitlan in the Valley of Mexico. It was the seat of the Toltec civilization, thought to have a mixed ethnic population, with a significant number of Otomis. The Toltec empire reached as far south as

26896-478: Was split with the remaining portion becoming the modern State of Mexico . What is now Hidalgo was originally the districts of Tula, Tulancingo and Huejutla of the former entity. The state of Hidalgo would not be formally created until the 1860s. The economic consequences to the mines of Pachuca and Real del Monte during the War of Independence were ruinous. In 1824, British mining companies were brought in to revive

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