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167-759: History of European Jews in the Middle Ages covers Jewish history in Europe in the period from the 5th to the 15th century. During the course of this period, the Jewish population experienced a gradual diaspora shifting from their motherland of the Levant to Europe . These Jewish individuals settled primarily in the regions of Central Europe dominated by the Holy Roman Empire and Southern Europe dominated by various Iberian kingdoms. As with Christianity ,

334-873: A pointed hat . Christian theologians began calling for the slavery of all Jews. In 1229, King Henry III of England forced Jews to pay half the value of their property in taxes, following burning of the Talmud in Paris and the Tartars ' capture of Jerusalem. During the Fatimid period, many Jewish officials served in the regime. King Henry III of England ordered Jewish worship in synagogue to be held quietly so that Christians passing by would not have to hear it, giving an order that Jews may not employ Christian nurses or maids, nor may any Jew prevent another from converting to Christianity. A few years later, French King Louis IX expelled

501-414: A printing culture . Jewish historians wrote accounts of their collective experiences, but also increasingly used history for political, cultural, and scientific or philosophical exploration. Writers drew upon a corpus of culturally inherited text in seeking to construct a logical narrative to critique or advance the state of the art. Modern Jewish historiography intertwines with intellectual movements such as

668-485: A reputation for religious tolerance unparalleled during this era. This religious tolerance may have also been a byproduct of the fact that Lithuania was the last country in Europe to become Christianized . Here they found a sure refuge under benevolent rulers and acquired a certain prosperity , in the enjoyment of which the study of the Talmud was followed with renewed vigor. Together with their faith, they took with them

835-544: A Jewish holiday. During the two days of Shavuot, one Jewish woman was killed by Crusaders while venturing to the safety of a Christian neighbor's home, where her husband was waiting for her. However, the vast majority of Jews in Cologne survived Shavuot because local Christians had reached out and offered their homes as a means of asylum from the Crusaders. The relations of Jews and Christians were fraught with tensions about

1002-458: A Jewish military colony existed at Elephantine , established before the exile, where they built their own shrine. Deuteronomy was expanded and earlier scriptures were edited during the exilic period. The first edition of Jeremiah , the Book of Ezekiel , the majority of Obadiah , and what is referred to in research as " Second Isaiah " were all written during this time period as well. According to

1169-517: A ban on circumcision, later repealed by Antoninus Pius . The province of Judaea was renamed Syria Palaestina as a punitive act against the Jews, aimed at placating non-Jewish residents and erasing Jewish historical ties to the land. The relations of the Jews with the Roman Empire in the region continued to be complicated. Constantine I allowed Jews to mourn their defeat and humiliation once

1336-733: A campaign against Spanish Jewry, killing over 10,000 and destroying the Jewish quarter in Barcelona. The campaign quickly spread throughout Spain, except for Granada, and destroyed Jewish communities in Valencia and Palma De Majorca. King Pedro I ordered Spain not to harm the remaining Jews and that synagogues not be converted into churches. He then announced his compliance with the Bull of Pope Boniface IX, protecting Jews from baptism. He extended this edict to Spanish Jewish refugees. Benedict XIII banned

1503-550: A civil war erupted between the ten northern Israelite tribes, and the tribes of Judah ( Simeon was absorbed into Judah) and Benjamin in the south. The kingdom then split into the Kingdom of Israel in the north, and the Kingdom of Judah in the south. The Kingdom of Israel was the more prosperous of the two kingdoms and soon developed into a regional power. During the days of the Omride dynasty , it controlled Samaria , Galilee ,

1670-528: A decree forbidding Jews from lending money with interests, while allowing Jews to engage in craft, commerce and farming. The Jews, who were driven out of England in 1290, out of France in 1394, out of numerous districts of Germany , Italy , and the Balkan peninsula between 1200 and 1600, were scattered in all directions, and fled preferably to the new Slavic kingdoms, where for the time being other confessions were still tolerated. Most fled to Poland, as it had

1837-532: A fanatical mob killed four thousand Jews in Seville alone, many in their fright sought refuge in baptism. And although they often continued to observe in secret the laws of their fathers the Inquisition soon rooted out these pretended Christians or Marranos . Thousands were thrown into prison, tortured, and burned, until a project was formed to sweep all Spain clean of unbelievers. The plan matured when in 1492

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2004-530: A focal point for Jewish religious and cultural life for a generation. Judaism also underwent a significant shift away from its sectarian divisions. The Sadducees and Essenes , two prominent sects in the late Second Temple period, faded into obscurity, while the traditions of the Pharisees , including their halakhic interpretations, the centrality of the Oral Torah , and belief in resurrection became

2171-757: A historical picture of their daily lives or their interactions with outsiders. After the decline of the Roman Empire , the Visigoths controlled large portions of former Roman territory, including southwestern Gaul until 507, and much of the Iberian peninsula until 711. At the start, Jewish communities generally flourished under Visigothic rule in both Gaul and Spain. In 506, Alaric II decreed that Jews were to be considered Roman citizens and were to live under Roman law. They were given freedom to practice their religion, although efforts to convert pagans and Christians to Judaism were to be curtailed. Alaric also decreed that

2338-533: A light on a more positive relationship between the two religious groups. These historians believe that these stories of aid, neighborliness, and prosperity are more notable and significant than previously recognized. Scattered violence toward Jews occasionally took place during riots led by mobs, local leaders, and lower level clergy without the support of church leaders who generally followed Augustine 's teachings. However, some historians do not agree with this view of history. Historian Daniel J. Lasker does not see

2505-635: A minority were engaged in trade, as well as in handicrafts. In the South, "particularly in south Italy and Greece - the Jewish communities had almost a monopoly of dyeing and silk-weaving". Some were involved in qualified services such as interpreters, translators, and medical practitioners. In the High Middle Ages , many European Jews were specialized as merchants, money-lenders or artisans, as they were largely excluded from crafts guilds and barred from owning land. In contrast, Julie L. Mell insists on

2672-415: A monastery. Without these loans the monastery would have been unable to survive. However, this fiscal responsibility that the Jews carried might have caused tensions amongst the middle and upper class. These sects of society would not have approved of the power that the Jewish communities held. At this point there were no strictly Jewish communities. Jews were not concentrated in one area, rather their presence

2839-504: A point of matrimonial law (Mishnah Yeb., end). At the same time there was at Nisibis (northern Mesopotamia ), an excellent Jewish college, at the head of which stood Judah ben Bathyra , and in which many Judean scholars found refuge at the time of the persecutions. A certain temporary importance was also attained by a school at Nehar-Pekod , founded by the Judean immigrant Hananiah, nephew of Joshua ben Hananiah , which school might have been

3006-641: A problem difficult to overcome: the Muslim Rashiduns were still struggling to conquer Tripolitania in present-day Libya. Chindasuinth spent the last years of his life, as so many mediaeval monarchs did, in acts of piety for the sake of his immortal soul. He commissioned St Fructuosus to build the monastery of San Román de Hornija on the Douro , with the intention of having it house his tomb. His remains rest there next to those of his wife, Riciberga. Nevertheless, Eugene II , bishop of Toledo , provided

3173-458: A second revolt in Judah, besieged and destroyed Jerusalem . The First Temple was razed, and its sacred vessels were seized as spoils. The destruction was followed by a mass exile: the surviving inhabitants of the city, including other segments of the population, were carried off to Mesopotamia, marking the onset of the era known in Jewish history as the " Babylonian Captivity ". Zedekiah himself

3340-662: A series of unsuccessful revolts against the Romans in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE, resulted in the destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple , and the expulsion of many Jews. The Jewish population in Syria Palaestina gradually decreased during the following centuries, enhancing the role of the Jewish diaspora and shifting the spiritual and demographic centre from the depopulated Judea to Galilee and then to Babylon , with smaller communities spread out across

3507-500: A short period of time he executed over 200 Goths of the most noble families and 500 more from the petty nobility . Additionally, he arranged for the banishment of many potential adversaries and the confiscation of their property. All this took place before any rebellion actually occurred and without any investigation or trial or, for that matter, actual belief that a revolt was pending. The Seventh Council of Toledo , held on 16 October 646, consented to and backed his actions, toughening

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3674-552: A stable living situation. Although the French monarchy prohibited the creation of Jewish religious centers, friendly relations with Christians enabled them to build a synagogue in Béziers in 1278. After being expelled from certain areas in Europe, Jews regularly returned to their old places of residence, if they had previously experienced a prosperous life there. Another such historian is Ivan Marcus. The section of his book Cultures of

3841-695: A victory over the Cross. Sultan Bayazid II of the Ottoman Empire , learning about the expulsion of Jews from Spain , dispatched the Ottoman Navy to bring the Jews safely to Ottoman lands, mainly to the cities of Salonica (currently in Greece ) and Smyrna (currently in Turkey ). Judeo-Spanish also known as Ladino (a form of medieval Spanish influenced by Hebrew ) was widely spoken amongst some of

4008-946: A year on Tisha B'Av at the Western Wall . In 351–352 CE, the Jews of Galilee launched yet another revolt , provoking heavy retribution. The Gallus revolt came during the rising influence of early Christians in the Eastern Roman Empire, under the Constantinian dynasty . In 355, however, the relations with the Roman rulers improved, upon the rise of Emperor Julian , the last of the Constantinian dynasty, who unlike his predecessors defied Christianity. In 363, not long before Julian left Antioch to launch his campaign against Sasanian Persia, in keeping with his effort to foster religions other than Christianity, he ordered

4175-547: Is "overwhelming" and leaves "no room for an Exodus from Egypt or a 40-year pilgrimage through the Sinai wilderness". Many archaeologists have abandoned the archaeological investigation of Moses and the Exodus as "a fruitless pursuit". However, it is accepted that this narrative does have a "historical core" to it. A century of research by archaeologists and Egyptologists has arguably found no evidence that can be directly related to

4342-543: Is believed that this was in an effort to stop conversions to Judaism. He promulgated many laws dealing with civil matters. With the help of Braulio , bishop of Zaragoza , he began the elaboration of a territorial code of law to cover both the Gothic and Hispano-Roman populations. A draft form of that work, the Liber Iudiciorum , was promulgated in the second year of his reign. It underwent refinement throughout

4509-574: Is considered the most likely source of the first Jews within German territory, but there are multiple theories present in the scholarship currently available. While the date of the first settlement of Jews in the regions which the Romans called Germania Superior , Germania Inferior , and Magna Germania is not known, the first authentic documents relating to a large and well-organized Jewish community in these regions date from 321 and refers to Cologne on

4676-662: Is known as the Holocaust . Before and during the Holocaust, enormous numbers of Jews immigrated to Mandatory Palestine. On May 14, 1948, upon the termination of the British Mandate, David Ben-Gurion declared the creation of the State of Israel , a Jewish and democratic state in Eretz Israel (Land of Israel). Immediately afterwards, all neighbouring Arab states invaded, yet the newly formed IDF resisted. In 1949,

4843-818: Is known from the Bible , extra-biblical sources, apocrypha and pseudoepigrapha , the writings of Josephus , Greco-Roman authors and church fathers , as well as archaeological finds, inscriptions, ancient documents (such as the Papyri from Elephantine and the Fayyum , the Dead Sea scrolls , the Bar Kokhba letters , the Babatha Archives and the Cairo Genizah documents ) supplemented by oral history and

5010-658: Is still the case. In 1933, with the rise to power of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party in Germany , the Jewish situation became severe. Economic crises, racial antisemitic laws , and a fear of an upcoming war led many to flee from Europe to Mandatory Palestine , to the United States and to the Soviet Union . In 1939, World War II began and until 1941 Hitler occupied almost all of Europe . In 1941, following

5177-621: The Al-Yahudu tablets , dated to the 6th-5th centuries BCE and related to the exiles from Judea arriving after the destruction of the First Temple , though there is ample evidence for the presence of Jews in Babylonia even from 626 BCE. In Egypt, the documents from Elephantine reveal the trials of a community founded by a Persian Jewish garrison at two fortresses on the frontier during the 5th-4th centuries BCE, and according to Josephus

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5344-798: The Ashkenazi Jews . A significant depletion in their numbers in Western Europe began to take place with the rise of the Crusades , which brought about many pogroms and successive expulsion orders, in England (1290), France (14th century) and Spain (1492). With the end of the medieval age, a similar phenomenon was to repeat itself in the Italian peninsula and throughout most German towns and principalities in German-speaking lands in

5511-531: The Babylonian exile Jews, through exile under military constraint or otherwise, came to live in many other Middle Eastern countries, and later formed communities throughout the eastern Mediterranean lands, constituting collectively a Jewish diaspora . Their presence is attested in Greece from the fourth century BCE onwards in places as varied as Chios , Aegina , Attica and Rhodes and in Italy as early as

5678-579: The Byzantine garrison in Jerusalem, and were given Jerusalem to be governed as an autonomy. However, their autonomy was brief: the Jewish leader in Jerusalem was shortly assassinated during a Christian revolt and though Jerusalem was reconquered by Persians and Jews within 3 weeks, it fell into anarchy. With the consequent withdrawal of Persian forces, Jews surrendered to Byzantines in 625 or 628 CE, but were massacred by Christian radicals in 629 CE, with

5845-648: The First Crusade (1096) flourishing communities on the Rhine and the Danube were utterly destroyed . Furthermore, there were also attacks on the Jews that lived in cities along the Rhine. Prior to these attacks, many Jews were seen as integral members of society despite religious differences. Many Jews worked in the money lending trade. Their services allowed for societies to function financially. In one case Jewish moneylenders were responsible for financially maintaining

6012-570: The First Crusade and thousands of Jews in communities all along the Rhine were attacked and killed under the presumption that if they were going to attack enemies of the Christ in Jerusalem, they should attack "Christ's enemies" around them in Germany, ushering in a lasting antisemitism that included pogroms , blood libel , and being blamed as the cause of catastrophes like the Black Death and

6179-639: The Hasmoneans , but it was conquered and reorganized as a client state by the Roman general Pompey in 63 BCE . Roman expansion was going on in other areas as well, and it would continue for more than a hundred and fifty years. Later, Herod the Great was appointed "King of the Jews" by the Roman Senate , supplanting the Hasmonean dynasty. Some of his offspring held various positions after him, known as

6346-635: The Herodian dynasty . Briefly, from 4 BCE to 6 CE, Herod Archelaus ruled the tetrarchy of Judea as ethnarch , the Romans denying him the title of King. After the Census of Quirinius in 6 CE, the Roman province of Judaea was formed as a satellite of Roman Syria under the rule of a prefect (as was Roman Egypt ) until 41 CE, then procurators after 44 CE. The empire was often callous and brutal in its treatment of its Jewish subjects, (see Anti-Judaism in

6513-728: The Merneptah Stele of ancient Egypt , dated to about 1200 BCE. According to the modern archaeological account, the Israelites and their culture branched out of the Canaanite peoples and their cultures through the development of a distinct monolatristic —and later monotheistic —religion centred on the national god Yahweh . They spoke an archaic form of the Hebrew language , known today as Biblical Hebrew . The traditional religious view of Jews and Judaism of their own history

6680-400: The Middle Ages were a period in which Judaism became mostly overshadowed by Islam in the Middle East , and an increasingly influential part of the socio-cultural and intellectual landscape of Europe . Jewish tradition traces the origins of the Jews to the 12 Israelite tribes , however most Jewish traditions state that modern Jews descend from Judah , Benjamin and Levi . As early as

6847-428: The Mongol invasion of Europe . Despite those difficulties, German Jews continued to practice, refine, and evolve their religious and social customs, including the development of the Yiddish language and an identity as Ashkenazi Jews . They eventually established a uniquely Jewish occupation, working as Court Jews within the Holy Roman Empire . Conversions of Jews to Christianity, whether forced or voluntary, during

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7014-482: The Negev . After the fall of Israel, Judah became a client state of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. In the 7th century BCE, the kingdom's population increased greatly, prospering under Assyrian vassalage , despite Hezekiah's revolt against the Assyrian king Sennacherib . Large parts of the Hebrew Bible were written during this period. This includes the earliest portions of Hosea , Isaiah , Amos and Micah , along with Nahum , Zephaniah , most of Deuteronomy ,

7181-418: The Ottoman Empire and Italy . Between the 12th and 15th centuries, Ashkenazi Jews experienced extreme persecution in Central Europe, which prompted their mass migration to Poland . The 18th century saw the rise of the Haskalah intellectual movement. Also starting in the 18th century, Jews began to campaign for Jewish emancipation from restrictive laws and integration into the wider European society. In

7348-422: The Persian Empire , the former Kingdom of Judah became the province of Judah ( Yehud Medinata ) with different borders, covering a smaller territory. Contemporary scholars point to a gradual return process that extended into the late 6th and early 5th centuries BCE. The population of Persian Judah was greatly reduced from that of the kingdom, archaeological surveys showing a population of around 30,000 people in

7515-494: The Rhine . These documents stated that Jews could be called to the Curia and owed taxes to Rome, and that Jewish religious leaders were exempt from curial service, signalling that a uniquely Jewish community, prosperous enough to be taxed, had existed in Cologne for some time. During the Carolingian period , Jews had a vital function as importers of goods from the East, and their laws and customs were generally tolerated, although they were not allowed to proselytize to Christians. It

7682-454: The Roman Empire . During the same period, the Mishnah and the Talmud , central Jewish texts, were composed. In the following millennia, the diaspora communities coalesced into three major ethnic subdivisions according to where their ancestors settled: the Ashkenazim ( Central and Eastern Europe ), the Sephardim (initially in the Iberian Peninsula ), and the Mizrahim ( Middle East and North Africa ). Byzantine rule over

7849-539: The Third Crusade took place (1188); and the preparations for it proved to be momentous for the English Jews. After being the victims of increasing oppression Jews were banished from England in 1290 ; and 365 years passed before they were allowed to settle again in the British Isles. The Jews were also subjected to attacks by the Shepherds' Crusades of 1251 and 1320 . During the First Crusade of 1096, there are documented accounts of Christian attempts to protect Jews from their violent attackers. The first of such attempts

8016-430: The Twelve Tribes of Israel . The Israelites were later led out of slavery in Egypt and subsequently brought to Canaan by Moses ; they eventually conquered Canaan under the leadership of Joshua . Modern scholars agree that the Bible does not provide an authentic account of the Israelites' origins; the consensus supports that the archaeological evidence showing largely indigenous origins of Israel in Canaan, not Egypt,

8183-405: The ingathering of exiles and the reconstruction of the Temple , these communities may have sought to spark a broader movement possibly aimed at returning to Judea and rebuilding Jerusalem. Ancient sources describe the revolt as extremely brutal, with cases of cannibalism and mutilation, though modern scholars often consider these accounts to be exaggerated. The Roman suppression of the revolt

8350-492: The invasion of the Soviet Union, the Final Solution began, an extensive organized operation on an unprecedented scale, aimed at the annihilation of the Jewish people, and resulting in the persecution and murder of Jews in Europe and North Africa . In Poland, three million were murdered in gas chambers in all concentration camps combined, with one million at the Auschwitz camp complex alone. This genocide , in which approximately six million Jews were methodically exterminated,

8517-423: The judicial autonomy of the Jewish communities was to be respected. After Sisebut took the Visigothic throne in 612, these privileges were revoked, and suppression of the Jewish religion became policy, resulting in attempted forced conversion. There was a brief respite in 640, when Chindasuinth usurped the throne and pursued a pro-Jewish policy. His son Recceswinth , to the contrary, denounced Jews as "polluting

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8684-413: The menorah , which were then put on display in the new Temple of Peace . The Flavian dynasty leveraged this victory for political gain, erecting monuments in Rome and minting Judaea Capta coins . The war concluded with the siege of Masada (73-74 CE). The Jewish population suffered widespread devastation, with displacement, enslavement, and Roman confiscation of Jewish-owned land. The destruction of

8851-410: The 19th century, when Jews in Western Europe were increasingly granted equality before the law, Jews in the Pale of Settlement faced growing persecution, legal restrictions and widespread pogroms . During the 1870s and 1880s, the Jewish population in Europe began to more actively discuss emigration to Ottoman Syria with the aim of re-establishing a Jewish polity in Palestine . The Zionist movement

9018-439: The 2nd century BCE. The Jewish people that first called the city of Rome "home" came directly from the Holy Land .After the Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE) , hundreds of thousands of Jews were taken as slaves to Rome , where they later immigrated to other European lands. The Jews who immigrated to Iberia , and their descendants comprise the Sephardic Jews , while those who immigrated to the German Rhineland and France comprise

9185-441: The 5th to 4th centuries BCE. The final Torah is widely seen as a product of the Persian period (539–333 BCE, probably 450–350 BCE). This consensus echoes a traditional Jewish view which gives Ezra , the leader of the Jewish community on its return from Babylon, a pivotal role in its promulgation. Three prophets, considered the last in Jewish tradition— Haggai , Zechariah , and Malachi —were active during this period. After

9352-430: The Book of Ezra, Persian Cyrus the Great , king of the Achaemenid Empire , brought an end to the Babylonian exile in 538 BCE, a year after his conquest of Babylon. The return from exile was led by Zerubbabel , a prince from the royal line of David, and Joshua the Priest, descended from former High Priests of the Temple. They oversaw the construction of the Second Temple , completed between 521 and 516 BCE. As part of

9519-417: The Christian world, Jews enjoyed privileges at the hands of nobles and even kings that were almost equal to the local Christians. For example, in the Crown of Aragon , in 1241, King James of Aragon issued a decree that the Jewish community of Barcelona would be given the right to elect members of the Jewish community to police itself and investigate Jewish criminals and crimes within the Jewish community. Once

9686-413: The Church official position expressed in the Sicut Judaeis , the Church felt free to impose other restrictions and disabilities on Jews not inconsistent with the bull. For example, the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215 decreed that Jews be differentiated from others by their type of clothing or marking to avoid intercourse between Jews and Christians. Jews were sometimes required to wear a yellow badge or

9853-402: The European Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment but drew upon earlier works in the Late Middle Ages and into diverse sources in antiquity. Today, the history of the Jews and Judaism is often divided into six periods: The history of the early Jews, and their neighbours, centres on the Fertile Crescent and east coast of the Mediterranean Sea . It begins among those people who occupied

10020-399: The Exodus narrative of an Egyptian captivity and the escape and travels through the wilderness, leading to the suggestion that Iron Age Israel—the kingdoms of Judah and Israel—has its origins in Canaan, not in Egypt: The culture of the earliest Israelite settlements is Canaanite, their cult-objects are those of the Canaanite god El , the pottery remains in the local Canaanite tradition, and

10187-401: The Friars not to incite against the Jews, but the Bull was withdrawn the following year. By the end of the 15th century, the Inquisition was established in Spain. Around 1500 Jews found relative security and a renewal of prosperity in present-day Poland . The trials the Jews periodically endured in the various Christian West kingdoms echoed the catastrophes that occurred during Crusades . In

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10354-437: The German language and customs, which they then cultivated in a Slavic environment with unexampled faithfulness for centuries. As in Slavic countries, so also under Muslim rule, the persecuted Jews often found a humane reception, especially from the 8th century onward on the Iberian peninsula. But even as early as the 13th century the Arabs could no longer offer a real resistance to the advancing force of Christian kings; and with

10521-400: The Great of Macedon defeated the Persians. After Alexander's death and the division of his empire among his generals, the Seleucid Kingdom was formed. The Alexandrian conquests spread Greek culture to the Levant. During this time, currents of Judaism were influenced by Hellenistic philosophy developed from the 3rd century BCE, notably the Jewish diaspora in Alexandria , culminating in

10688-401: The Great Revolt, in 66 CE. Future emperor Vespasian quelled the rebellion in Galilee by 67 CE, capturing key strongholds. He was succeeded by his son Titus , who led the brutal siege of Jerusalem , culminating in the city's fall in 70 CE. The Romans burned Jerusalem and destroyed the Second Temple. The Roman victory was celebrated with a triumph in Rome, showcasing Jewish artifacts like

10855-414: The Islamic caliphate. The first gaon of Sura, according to Sherira Gaon , was Mar bar Rab Chanan, who assumed office in 609. The last gaon of Sura was Samuel ben Hofni , who died in 1034; the last gaon of Pumbedita was Hezekiah Gaon , who was tortured to death in 1040; hence the activity of the Geonim covers a period of nearly 450 years. One of principal seats of Babylonian Judaism was Nehardea , which

11022-429: The Jewish Temple rebuilt. The failure to rebuild the Temple has mostly been ascribed to the dramatic Galilee earthquake of 363 and traditionally also to the Jews' ambivalence about the project. Sabotage is a possibility, as is an accidental fire. Divine intervention was the common view among Christian historians of the time. Julian's support of Jews caused Jews to call him "Julian the Hellene ". Julian's fatal wound in

11189-424: The Jewish communities in Europe since the 15th century. Jewish history Jewish history is the history of the Jews , their nation , religion , and culture , as it developed and interacted with other peoples, religions, and cultures. Jews originated from the Israelites and Hebrews of historical Israel and Judah , two related kingdoms that emerged in the Levant during the Iron Age . Although

11356-409: The Jewish community in Alexandria existed since the founding of the city in the 4th century BCE by Alexander the Great . By 200 BCE, there were well established Jewish communities both in Egypt and Mesopotamia (" Babylonia " in Jewish sources) and in the two centuries that followed, Jewish populations were also present in Asia Minor , Greece , Macedonia , Cyrene , and, beginning in the middle of

11523-570: The Jewish community, or that the perception of the Jewish community was overwhelmingly one of a state of chaos. This second decree also increased the rights of the council to whatever punishments they deem to be "convenient to the community," including any punishments that they deemed fit. Even after multiple expulsions and persecutions, some Jews still returned to their hometowns. Once they returned, many prospered. In spite of royal restrictions attempting to limit their success. They built new synagogues. These examples are used by some historians to shine

11690-415: The Jewish community. In England, many Jews worked and lived in small, mostly Christian towns. Historians interpret this as Jews feeling comfortable living and working in places surrounded by Christians. Another example some historians use to show Jewish attachment to their place in Western Christendom is the Jewish expulsion in France. After they were expelled in 1182, they returned in 1198. Through some of

11857-492: The Jewish people, they were the most compatible non-Christians for the position due to their shared devotion to the same Abrahamic God that the Christians worshiped. While many Jews rose to prominence in these times, Judaism was mostly practiced in private to avoid persecution. The descendants of the survivors of this period, the Ashkenazi Jews , still commemorate some of the more memorable tragedies of this period in their liturgy. Their fate in each particular country depended on

12024-455: The Jews , "Jewish-Christian Symbiosis" deals with the relationship between Christians and Ashkenazi Jews. Marcus claims that the time is written off as a time of intolerance against Jews living in Europe. For Marcus times of persecution were rarities and few and far between. The two communities lived amongst each other and interacted socially on an everyday basis. They interacted at such a personal level both Christian and Jewish leaders thought that

12191-420: The Jews and Christians of Rome were organized into distinct communities, the boundaries of which were not only reinforced on a daily basis but were regularly performed on ceremonial occasions such as the papal adventus, Jews and Christians experienced unusually robust cultural and social interactions, especially as the Jews increasingly aligned themselves with the protective power of the papacy. However, despite

12358-852: The Jews from France, ending the Tosaphists period. Most Jews went to Germany and further east. In 1267, the Vienna city council forced Jews to wear the Jewish hat , in addition to the yellow badge. Later in the century, a blood libel in Munich resulted in the deaths of 68 Jews, and an additional 180 Jews were burned alive at the synagogue, following another mob in Oberwesel , Germany. In 1290, owing to political pressure, English King Edward I expelled all Jews from England. They were only allowed to take what they could carry and most went to France, paying for their passage only to be robbed and cast overboard by

12525-600: The Jews from violence. One Archbishop from Mainz went so far as to offer monetary bribes to protect Jewish families. These Jews did not want relief from the exile that occurred hundreds of years prior, moreover they saw the towns in which they had immigrated to as their homes. They were well received members of the community. In the Second Crusade (1147) the Jews in France suffered especially under Louis VII. Philip Augustus treated them with exceptional severity. In his days

12692-408: The Jews returning to regions they were expelled from was not acceptance as to what happened, but a sense of comfort and familiarity. While Lasker acknowledges that Jews and Christians as having some positive relationships he does not want to write off the tension of the area. Although the first known mention of blood libel is found in the writings of Apion (30–20 BCE to 45 or 48 CE), who claimed that

12859-594: The Jews sacrificed Greeks in the Temple of Jerusalem , no other mention is recorded until the 12th century, when blood libels began to proliferate. Jews were frequently accused of ritual murder and of using human blood (especially, the blood of Christian children) to make matzah. In many cases, these "blood libels" led to the Catholic Church regarding the victims as martyrs. The Catholic Church canonized children in over 20 such cases. England seems to have counted for

13026-535: The Jews" which began: "Know that the end of the exile of our people has come!" However, the Christian population of the city, who saw this as a threat to their primacy, did not allow it and a riot erupted after which they chased away the Jews from the city. During the 5th and the 6th centuries, a series of Samaritan insurrections broke out across the Palaestina Prima province. Especially violent were

13193-480: The Jews, chronicles show that Christian friends provided some of them aid and shelter. A chronicler tells a story of a Jewish woman who is given food and shelter for two days from a gentile acquaintance during a time of violence against the Jews during Shavuot. This gentile acquaintance is believed to be Christian. Also, the chronicles show that some Christians converted to Judaism during these times. Some converts even sacrificed themselves in order to show their loyalty to

13360-512: The King of the Almoravides, captured Granada and destroyed the Jewish community, as the survivors fled to Toledo . In 1095, Henry IV of Germany granted the Jews favorable conditions and issued a charter to the Jews and a decree against forced baptism . In 1171, after the birth of Rambam , Jews were accused of committing ritual murder and blood libel in the town of Blois . The adult Jews of

13527-731: The Levant was lost in the 7th century as the newly established Islamic Caliphate expanded into the Eastern Mediterranean , Mesopotamia , North Africa, and later into the Iberian Peninsula . Jewish culture enjoyed a golden age in Spain , with Jews becoming widely accepted in society and their religious, cultural, and economic life blossomed. However, in 1492 the Jews were forced to leave Spain and migrated in great numbers to

13694-633: The Persian campaign and his consequent death had put an end to Jewish aspirations, and Julian's successors embraced Christianity through the entire timeline of Byzantine rule of Jerusalem, preventing any Jewish claims. In 438 CE, when the Empress Eudocia removed the ban on Jews' praying at the Temple site , the heads of the Community in Galilee issued a call "to the great and mighty people of

13861-515: The Second Temple and reinstating sacrificial worship. The successful revolt eventually led to the formation of an independent Jewish state under the Hasmonean dynasty , which lasted from 165 BCE to 63 BCE. Initially governing as both political leaders and High Priests, the Hasmoneans later assumed the title of kings. They employed military campaigns and diplomacy to consolidate power. Under

14028-548: The Second Temple marked a cataclysmic event in Jewish history, triggering far-reaching transformations within Judaism. With the central role of sacrificial worship obliterated, religious practices shifted towards prayer , Torah study , and communal gatherings in synagogues . According to Rabbinic tradition, Yohanan ben Zakkai secured permission from the Romans to establish a center for Torah study in Yavneh , which then served as

14195-647: The alphabet used is early Canaanite. The almost sole marker distinguishing the "Israelite" villages from Canaanite sites is an absence of pig bones, although whether this can be taken as an ethnic marker or is due to other factors remains a matter of dispute. According to the Biblical narrative , the Land of Israel was organized into a confederacy of twelve tribes ruled by a series of Judges for several hundred years. Two Israelite kingdoms emerged during Iron Age II: Israel and Judah . The Bible portrays Israel and Judah as

14362-546: The area lying between the river Nile and Mesopotamia . Surrounded by ancient seats of culture in Egypt and Babylonia , by the deserts of Arabia , and by the highlands of Asia Minor , the land of Canaan (roughly corresponding to modern Israel, the Palestinian Territories, Jordan, and Lebanon) was a meeting place of civilizations. The earliest recorded evidence of a people by the name of Israel appears in

14529-413: The attempt was made to win them to Christianity through writings and religious disputations; and when these attempts failed they were ever more and more restricted in the exercise of their civil rights. Soon they were obliged to live in separate quarters of the cities and to wear humiliating badges on their clothing. Thereby they were made a prey to the scorn and hatred of their fellow citizens. In 1391, when

14696-554: The authorities spoke against the accusations, for example Pope Innocent III wrote in 1199: No Christian shall do the Jews any personal injury, except in executing the judgments of a judge, or deprive them of their possessions, or change the rights and privileges which they have been accustomed to have. During the celebration of their festivals, no one shall disturb them by beating them with clubs or by throwing stones at them. No one shall compel them to render any services except those which they have been accustomed to render. And to prevent

14863-456: The baseness and avarice of wicked men we forbid anyone to deface or damage their cemeteries or to extort money from them by threatening to exhume the bodies of their dead. The charge was circulated that they wished to dishonor the Host, which Roman Catholics believe is the body of Jesus Christ . When the Black Death raged through Europe (1346–53), the charge was given that the Jews had poisoned

15030-498: The cause of a schism between the Jews of Babylonia and those of Judea-Israel, had not the Judean authorities promptly checked Hananiah's ambition. Jews were also widespread throughout the Roman Empire, and this carried on to a lesser extent in the period of Byzantine rule in the central and eastern Mediterranean. The militant and exclusive Christianity and caesaropapism of the Byzantine Empire did not treat Jews well, and

15197-734: The centre for Jewish scholarship and the development of Jewish law in Babylonia from roughly 500 CE to 1038 CE. The two most famous academies were the Pumbedita Academy and the Sura Academy . Major yeshivot were also located at Nehardea and Mahuza. The Talmudic Yeshiva Academies became a main part of Jewish culture and education, and Jews continued establishing Yeshiva Academies in Western and Eastern Europe, North Africa, and in later centuries, in America and other countries around

15364-686: The changing political conditions. In Italy (see History of the Jews in Italy ) they experienced difficult days during the wars waged by the Heruli , Rugii , Ostrogoths , and Lombards . The severe laws of the Roman emperors were, in general, more mildly administered than elsewhere; the Arian confession , of which the Germanic conquerors of Italy were adherents, was characterized by its tolerance. In other parts of western Europe, Jews who wished to remain true to

15531-600: The city were arrested and most were executed after refusing to convert. In 1210, a group of 300 French and English rabbis made aliyah and settled in Israel. During the Black Death, the clerics accused Jews of poisoning the wells of Europe to kill all the Christians. Sicut Judaeis (the "Constitution for the Jews") was the official position of the papacy regarding Jews throughout the Middle Ages and later. The first bull

15698-539: The collection of commentaries in the Midrash and Talmud . With the rise of the printing press and movable type in the early modern period , Jewish histories and early editions of the Torah/Tanakh were published which dealt with the history of the Jewish religion, and increasingly, national histories of the Jews , Jewish peoplehood and identity . This was a move from a manuscript or scribal culture to

15865-600: The compilation of the Septuagint . An important advocate of the symbiosis of Jewish theology and Hellenistic thought is Philo . Triggered by anti-Jewish decrees from Seleucid king Antiochus IV Epiphanes and tensions between Hellenized and conservative Jews, the Maccabean Revolt erupted in Judea in 167 BCE under the leadership of Mattathias . His son, Judas Maccabeus , recaptured Jerusalem in 164 BCE, purifying

16032-465: The condition and influence of diaspora Jews in the Empire declined dramatically. It was official Christian policy to convert Jews to Christianity , and the Christian leadership used the official power of Rome in their attempts. In 351 CE the Jews revolted against the added pressures of their Governor, Constantius Gallus . Gallus put down the revolt and destroyed the major cities in the Galilee area where

16199-423: The death of Jesus and the Christian perception of Jewish obstinacy in refusing to accept the only faith the Christians knew in the world. The pressure on Jews to accept Christianity was intense. Recent years have seen a debate among historians on the nature of Jewish-Christian relations in medieval Europe. Traditionally, historians focused on the trials Jews had to endure in this period. Christian violence towards Jews

16366-555: The death of the last Jewish prophet and while still under Persian rule, the leadership of the Jewish people passed into the hands of five successive generations of zugot ("pairs of") leaders. They flourished first under the Persians and then under the Greeks. As a result, the Pharisees and Sadducees were formed. Under the Persians then under the Greeks, Jewish coins were minted in Judea as Yehud coinage . In 332 BCE, Alexander

16533-544: The destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem in 586 BCE. Many more Jews migrated to Babylon in 135 CE after the Bar Kokhba revolt and in the centuries after. Babylonia, where some of the largest and most prominent Jewish cities and communities were established, became the centre of Jewish life all the way up to the 13th century. By the first century, Babylonia already held a speedily growing population of an estimated 1,000,000 Jews, which increased to an estimated 2 million between

16700-418: The dispossessed nobility as well as through improved taxation methods. In the military arena, he undertook campaigns against rebellious Basques and Lusitanians . He reversed the anti-Jewish laws of his predecessor, Tulga, and put a stop to policies forcing Jewish people to convert to Christianity or emigrate. However, he did enforce the law that all Christians engaging in Jewish traditions be put to death. It

16867-659: The earliest mention of Israel is inscribed on the Merneptah Stele around 1213–1203 BCE, religious literature tells the story of Israelites going back at least as far as c. 1500 BCE. The Kingdom of Israel fell to the Neo-Assyrian Empire in around 720 BCE, and the Kingdom of Judah to the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 586 BCE. Part of the Judean population was exiled to Babylon . The Assyrian and Babylonian captivities are regarded as representing

17034-461: The elected police force caught a criminal, they were given the right to impose fines (paid to the crown, not the Jewish community), banish them from the Jewish quarter, or even banish them entirely from the city of Barcelona. Further, these elected members were given the authority to judge cases between Jews in a court of law. In 1271, King James issued a similar decree with a sense of increased urgency which suggests that things had become volatile among

17201-549: The empire. He was soon succeeded by his son, Jehoiachin, who continued his father's policy and faced a Babylonian invasion. In March 597 BCE, Jehoiachin surrendered to the Babylonians and was taken captive to Babylon. This defeat is documented in the Babylonian Chronicles . Zedekiah , Jehoiachin's uncle, was then installed as king by the Babylonians. In 587 or 586 BCE, Nebuchadnezzar II , responding to

17368-474: The establishment of a short-lived Jewish state in Judea under the leadership of Simon Bar Kokhba , styled as nasi or prince of Israel. The rebel state's coinage proclaimed "Freedom of Israel" and "For the Freedom of Jerusalem," using ancient Hebrew script for nationalistic symbolism. However, the Romans soon amassed six legions and additional auxiliaries under Julius Severus , who then brutally crushed

17535-592: The extent of its power. Biblical tradition tells that the Israelite monarchy was established in 1037 BCE under Saul , and continued under David and his son, Solomon . David greatly expanded the kingdom's borders and conquered Jerusalem from the Jebusites , turning it into the national, political and religious capital of the kingdom. Solomon, his son, later built the First Temple on Mount Moriah in Jerusalem. Upon his death, traditionally dated to c. 930 BCE,

17702-662: The fact that much of the Jewish population was left at the lower end of the urban economic scale. European Jews were involved in the intellectual and cultural spheres of Medieval society : "Jews contributed to medicine, astrology, mathematics as well as to the arts, literature and music." Many Jewish women, in comparison to Gentile women, worked alongside their male counterparts. These Jewish women relied on Christian women as wet nurses and caretakers of their young, which brought about some concern from their male partners regarding if their offspring would be truly "Jewish" and not impacted by these intimate relationships with Christians. It

17869-582: The faith of their fathers were protected by the Church itself from compulsory conversion. There was no change in this policy even later, when the Pope called for the support of the Carolingians in protecting his ideal kingdom with their temporal power. Charlemagne , moreover, was glad to use the Church for the purpose of welding together the loosely connected elements of his kingdom when he transformed part of

18036-588: The fall of political power Arabic culture declined, after having been transmitted to the Occident at about the same period, chiefly through the Jews in the north of Spain and in the south of France. At that time there was no field of learning the Spanish Jews did not cultivate. They studied the secular sciences with the same zeal as the Bible and Talmud . But the growing influence of the Church gradually crowded them out of this advantageous position. At first,

18203-556: The first and most important examples of these. The most influential and widely-known of these is Little Saint Hugh of Lincoln (d. 1255 and written about in Chaucer's "Canterbury Tales") and Simon of Trent (d. 1475). It gained particular currency because of the intervention of Henry III of England , who ordered the death of the Coping, the first to 'confess', and a further 91 Jews to be arrested, leading to 18 being executed. Nevertheless,

18370-649: The first century BCE, in the city of Rome . In the first centuries CE, as a result of the Jewish-Roman Wars , a large number of Jews were taken as captives, sold into slavery, or compelled to flee from the regions affected by the wars, contributing to the formation and expansion of Jewish communities across the Roman Empire as well as in Arabia and Mesopotamia. Jewish communities across Cyrenaica, Cyprus, and Egypt were almost entirely obliterated due to

18537-545: The first edition of the Deuteronomistic history (the books of Joshua / Judges / Samuel / Kings ), and Habakkuk . With the collapse of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in 605 BCE, a power struggle emerged between Egypt and the Neo-Babylonian Empire for control of the Levant , leading to Judah's rapid decline. In 601 BCE, King Jehoiakim of Judah, who had recently submitted to Babylon, rebelled against

18704-647: The forcible conversion of the Jews, as well as the New Christians . However, some were able to secretly continue their Jewish practices. In 1040, Rashi was born, and in the wake of the Norman conquest of England , Jews left Normandy to settle in London and other cities such as York, Norwich, Oxford, Bristol and Lincoln, where Pope Gregory VII prohibited Jews from holding offices in Christendom. Iban Iashufin,

18871-529: The foundation of Rabbinic Judaism . The Jewish diaspora existed well before the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE and had been ongoing for centuries, with the dispersal driven by both forced expulsions and voluntary migrations. In Mesopotamia, a testimony to the beginnings of the Jewish community can be found in Joachin's ration tablets , listing provisions allotted to the exiled Judean king and his family by Nebuchadnezzar II , and further evidence are

19038-454: The frightened beast, and told his master he saw the Jew throw a child in the river. The Christian master, who hated Jews, took this opportunity and had the Jew unlawfully accused of murder. The Christians took the man, along with the Jews who had tried to free him, beating and torturing them in the effort that they would abandon their religion. To no avail, the Jews were burned alive. In some cases,

19205-588: The harsh Roman response to the Diaspora Revolt. The book of Acts in the New Testament , as well as other Pauline texts, make frequent reference to the large populations of Hellenised Jews in the cities of the Roman world. These Hellenised Jews were affected by the diaspora only in its spiritual sense, absorbing the feeling of loss and homelessness that became a cornerstone of the Jewish creed, much supported by persecutions in various parts of

19372-480: The judgment of the political authority of the land, no Christian shall presume to wound them or kill them or rob them of their money or change the good customs that they have thus far enjoyed in the place where they live." According to Anna Sapir Abulafia , most scholars agree that Jews and Christians in Latin Christendom lived in relative peace with one another until the thirteenth century. "Officially,

19539-490: The last Moorish fortress fell into the hands of the Christians. Queen Isabella of Spain issued an edict banishing all Jews from Spain for acts of, ‘a serious a detestable crime,’ a reference to the purported ritual murder of the infant Christopher of La Guardia , which was tried in court in 1491, and who was later made into a Saint. Many of the Jews fled to the Balkan peninsula, where a few decades before Ottoman Turks had won

19706-642: The medieval Catholic church never advocated the expulsion of all the Jews from Christendom, or repudiated Augustine's doctrine of Jewish witness... Still, late medieval Christendom frequently ignored its mandates..." Jonathan Elukin is one historian who thinks in this vein, as elucidated in his book Living Together, Living Apart . He shows that during the Crusades, some Jews were hidden and protected from being attacked by Christians. Some Jews worked in Christian villages. There were also several cases of conversion to Judaism as well as interfaith marriages. One such case

19873-427: The medieval period were an integral part of the life of Jewish communities in the medieval period. The pressures to convert, other than compulsory baptism to save one's life, could be theological, economic and intellectual. Voluntary conversion by such renegades ( meshummadim ) was motivated by a number of facts: a change of belief could account for the conversion, as could the desire to marry a Christian or to escape from

20040-517: The new order nonetheless remained. The Church forbade Christians from charging interest to fellow Christians; based upon the scripture Deuteronomy 23:20-21 . With Christians viewing the Jewish population as foreigners (and vice versa ) the ability to loan money with interest became an essential part of the Economy and synonymous with the various Jewish populations throughout Medieval Europe. While this status did not always lead to peaceful conditions for

20207-474: The old Roman empire into a new Christian one, and united under the imperial crown all the German races at that time. Years after his death, in 843, his empire fell apart, and the rulers of Italy, France, and Germany were more attentive to the Church's desires in the making of laws dealing with the Jews. In the wake of a narrow military defeat over Muslim forces, Leo III of Constantinople decided his nation's weakness lay in its heterogeneous population and began

20374-542: The one-year period he had promised them, as much of Europe blamed the Black Plague on the Jews and tortured them so they would confess that they poisoned the wells. Despite the pleas of innocence of Pope Clement VI , the accusations resulted in the destruction of over 60 large and 150 small Jewish communities. In 1348, hundreds of Jews were burned and many were baptized in Basel . The city's Christian residents converted

20541-516: The other group would heavily influence their respective faiths. When persecution did occur however it was only the more drastic measures that stopped the close interactions between the two groups. Had the intense violence described in other sources been the standard for living condition of the Askkenazi Jews then they would not have survived the era let alone their culture which is the roots for many Jews today. During times of persecution against

20708-418: The political power needed to carry out a successful resistance without the support of the townspeople. Instead, he offered the Jews an ultimatum: convert to Christianity or leave the palace. When doing so, he remarked, “You cannot be saved—Your God does not wish to save you now as he did in earlier days.” In Cologne, Jews were protected by local gentiles after violence had broken out at the beginning of Shavuot,

20875-479: The pre-Christian Roman Empire ). In 30 CE (or 33 CE), Jesus of Nazareth , an itinerant rabbi from Galilee , and the central figure of Christianity , was put to death by crucifixion in Jerusalem under the Roman prefect of Judaea , Pontius Pilate . Roman oppressive rule, combined with economic, religious, and ethnic tensions, eventually led to the outbreak of the First Jewish–Roman War , also known as

21042-432: The punishments applied to those who rose against the sovereign and extended them even to members of the clergy. Smothering all opposition, he brought peace to the realm and a degree of order not known previously. To continue his legacy, he had his son Recceswinth , at the urging of Braulio of Zaragoza , crowned co-king on 20 January 649 and attempted to establish, as many had before, a hereditary monarchy. His associate-son

21209-429: The rabbis and made them fear losing other Jews to Christianity. The close bonds between Jewish and Christian neighbors led to Jewish communities thriving in some Christian cities. Jews experienced economic security and prosperity in their communities, even while enduring constant threats of violence. Though strict constraints were placed on Jews in the thirteenth century by the French monarchy, Jews continued to experience

21376-403: The relationship of Christians and Jews in the same light. He contends that the expulsions Jews in Spain faced in 1492 were the product of the revolts seen a century earlier in 1391. Even though the relationship might have been positive, it ended on a negative note. The expulsions of the Jews in various regions is that ending, with a wide range of reasons behind them not just religion. The reason for

21543-575: The rest of his sovereignty and was finished by his son in 654. In 643 or 644 it superseded both the Breviary of Alaric used by the natives and the Code of Leovigild used by the Goths. According to Edward Gibbon , during his reign, Muslim raiders began harassing Iberia : "As early as the time of Othman (644–656), their piratical squadrons had ravaged the coast of Andalusia ". However, this reading poses

21710-492: The rest were released despite their conviction, after monks and his brother Richard interceded. One example of Christian hostility towards Jews is the Accusation of Ritual Murder at Blois. The story follows a Jewish man and a Christian servant watering their horses at the same bend in a river. The Jewish man accidentally scared the Christian's horse with the white corner of his undershirt and the servant rode away, upset about

21877-565: The restrictions on life as a Jew, or to regain a livelihood or home. Such conversions proved particularly devastating for the English and Spanish Jewish communities. By the 10th century, most of Europe was under the rule of Christian monarchs who made Christianity the official religion of their realms. In the Roman or Byzantine Empire , Christianity had been the state church since the Edict of Thessalonica in 380 AD. A privileged niche for Jews in

22044-531: The revolt had started. Tzippori and Lydda (site of two of the major legal academies) never recovered. Chindasuinth Despite his great age (he was already 79 years old and a veteran of the Leovigild campaigns and the religious rebellions after conversions from Arianism were forced) his tyrannical and cruel character made the clergy and noblesse submit to him out of fear of execution and banishment. He cemented his control by preempting an alleged revolt: in

22211-507: The rule of Alexander Jannaeus and Salome Alexandra , the kingdom reached its zenith in size and influence. However, internal strife erupted between Salome Alexandra's sons, Hyrcanus II and Aristobulus II , leading to civil war and appeals to Roman authorities for intervention. Responding to these appeals, Pompey led a Roman campaign of conquest and annexation, which marked the end of Hasmonean sovereignty and ushered in Roman rule over Judea. Judea had been an independent Jewish kingdom under

22378-551: The same function as the ancient Sanhedrin —that is, as a council of Jewish religious authorities. The academies were founded in pre-Islamic Babylonia under the Zoroastrian Sassanid dynasty and were located not far from the Sassanid capital of Ctesiphon, which at that time was the largest city in the world. After the conquest of Persia in the 7th century, the academies subsequently operated for four hundred years under

22545-626: The sealing of the Talmud (220CE – 500CE), and following the Savoraim ("reasoners")—the sages of beth midrash (Torah study places) in Babylon from the end of the era of the Amoraim (5th century) and until the beginning of the era of the Geonim . The Geonim (Hebrew: גאונים) were the presidents of the two great rabbinical colleges of Sura and Pumbedita, and were the generally accepted spiritual leaders of

22712-472: The ship captains. Philip IV of France ordered all Jews expelled from France, with their property to be sold at public auction, and some 125,000 Jews were forced to leave. Similar to accusations made during the Black Plague , Jews were accused of encouraging lepers to poison Christian wells in France. An estimated five thousand Jews were killed before the king, Philip the Tall , admitted the Jews were innocent. Then, Charles IV expelled all French Jews without

22879-460: The sixteenth century. As a result, many Jews migrated to Eastern Europe, with large Yiddish speaking populations expanding over the next several centuries. By the 17th century a trickle back process began, with reverse migration back to central and western Europe, following pogroms in Ukraine (1648–1649). The majority of archaeological and epigraphical evidence of the Jews in Late Ancient Rome lies in funerary sites, making it difficult to uncover

23046-414: The soil of Spain" in 653, and enacted a new code meant to make it impossible for Jews to remain in Spain. These laws proved to be unpopular, and were resisted by both Jews and Christians alike. Despite these persecutions, Jews were able to help Muslim invaders capture Spain, ending Visigothic rule. The first historical testimonies on the activities of the Jews show that most were engaged in agriculture, and

23213-446: The start of the Jewish diaspora . After the Persian Achaemenid Empire conquered the region, the exiled Jews were allowed to return and rebuild the temple ; these events mark the beginning of the Second Temple period . After several centuries of foreign rule, the Maccabean Revolt against the Seleucid Empire led to an independent Hasmonean kingdom , but it was gradually incorporated into Roman rule. The Jewish-Roman wars ,

23380-405: The study of the Talmud in any form, as institutions forced Christian sermons and tried to restrict Jewish life completely, and a few years later Pope Martin V favorably reinstated old privileges of the Jews. After more Jews were expelled from France, some remained in Provence until 1500. In 1422, Pope Martin V issued a bull reminding Christians that Christianity was derived from Judaism and warned

23547-426: The successors of an earlier United Kingdom of Israel , although its historicity is disputed . Historians and archaeologists agree that the northern Kingdom of Israel existed from ca. 900 BCE and that the Kingdom of Judah existed from ca. 700 BCE. The Tel Dan Stele , discovered in 1993, shows that the kingdom, at least in some form, existed by the middle of the 9th century BCE, but it does not indicate

23714-472: The survivors fleeing to Egypt. The Byzantine (Eastern Roman Empire) control of the region was finally lost to the Muslim Arab armies in 637 CE, when Umar ibn al-Khattab completed the conquest of Akko. After the fall of Jerusalem, Babylonia (modern day Iraq) would become the focus of Judaism for more than a thousand years. The first Jewish communities in Babylonia started with the exile of the Tribe of Judah to Babylon by Jehoiachin in 597 BCE as well as after

23881-460: The synagogue into a church and destroyed the Jewish cemetery there. Pope Clement VI issued an edict repudiating the libel against Jews, saying that they too were suffering from the Plague. In 1385, German Emperor Wenceslaus arrested Jews living in the Swabian League , a group of free cities in Germany, and confiscated their books. Later, he expelled the Jews of Strassburg after a community debate. In 1391, Ferrand Martinez , archdeacon of Ecija, began

24048-447: The third and the fourth revolts, which resulted in almost the entire annihilation of the Samaritan community. It is likely that the Samaritan Revolt of 556 was joined by the Jewish community, which had also suffered a brutal suppression of Israelite religion. In the belief of restoration to come, in the early 7th century the Jews made an alliance with the Persians , who invaded Palaestina Prima in 614, fought at their side, overwhelmed

24215-428: The town of Cologne, Jews fled to the homes of their Christian neighbors where they were given shelter. Christians discussed the topic of conversion with the Jews. There existed a theory that if the Jews were to convert to Christianity then they would no longer be the target of such violence. There were discussions regarding conversion to Christianity. Religious leaders including Bishops and Archbishops alike tried to spare

24382-416: The upper Jordan Valley , the Sharon and large parts of the Transjordan . Samaria , the capital, was home to one of the largest Iron Age palaces in the Levant. The kingdom of Israel was destroyed around 720 BCE, when it was conquered by the Neo-Assyrian Empire . The Kingdom of Judah, with its capital in Jerusalem , controlled the Judaean Mountains , the Shephelah , the Judaean Desert and parts of

24549-546: The uprising. Historical accounts report the destruction of fifty major strongholds and 985 villages, resulting in 580,000 Jewish deaths and widespread famine and disease. Archaeological research confirms the widespread destruction and depopulation of the Jewish heartland in Judea proper , where most of the Jewish population was either killed, sold into slavery, expelled, or forced to flee. The Romans also suffered heavy losses. Post-revolt, Jews were prohibited from entering Jerusalem, and Hadrian issued religious edicts, including

24716-559: The war ended and Israel started building the state and absorbing massive waves of Aliyah from all over Europe and Middle Eastern countries . As of 2022, Israel is a parliamentary democracy with a population of 9.6 million people, of whom 7 million are Jewish . The largest Jewish community outside Israel is the United States , while large communities also exist in France, Canada, Argentina, Russia, United Kingdom, Australia, and Germany . For statistics related to modern Jewish demographics, see Jewish population . Ancient Jewish history

24883-438: The wells. The only court of appeal that regarded itself as their appointed protector, according to historical conceptions, was the "Holy Roman Emperor." The emperor, as legal successor to Titus , who had acquired the Jews for his special property through the destruction of the Temple in the year 70, claimed the rights of possession and protection over all the Jews in the former Roman empire. In 1275, Edward I of England issued

25050-406: The world where Jews lived in the Diaspora. Talmudic study in Yeshiva academies, most of them located in The United States and Israel , continues today. These Talmudic Yeshiva academies of Babylonia followed the era of the Amoraim ("expounders")—the sages of the Talmud who were active (both in Judah and in Babylon) during the end of the era of the sealing of the Mishnah and until the times of

25217-447: The world. Of critical importance to the reshaping of Jewish tradition from the Temple-based religion to the rabbinic traditions of the Diaspora, was the development of the interpretations of the Torah found in the Mishnah and Talmud . During the Diaspora Revolt (115–117 CE), Jewish diaspora communities across several eastern provinces of the Roman Empire engaged in widespread rebellion. Driven by messianic fervor and hopes for

25384-410: The worldwide Jewish community in the early medieval era, in contrast to the Resh Galuta (Exilarch) who wielded secular authority over the Jews in Islamic lands. According to traditions, the Resh Galuta were descendants of Judean kings, which is why the kings of Parthia would treat them with much honour. For the Jews of late antiquity and the early Middle Ages, the yeshivot of Babylonia served much

25551-468: The years 200 CE and 500 CE, both by natural growth and by immigration of more Jews from Judea, making up about 1/6 of the world Jewish population at that era. It was there that they would write the Babylonian Talmud in the languages used by the Jews of ancient Babylonia: Hebrew and Aramaic . The Jews established Talmudic Academies in Babylonia , also known as the Geonic Academies ("Geonim" meaning "splendour" in Biblical Hebrew or "geniuses"), which became

25718-481: Was Jacob ben Sullam, a Christian looking to become a part of Jewish society. He chose to "slaughter [himself]" of his Christian identity in the hope of being accepted as a Jew in the Jewish community. As Christians sought conversion to Judaism, a number of Jews similarly wanted to convert to Christianity. For example, Herman, a Jew who adopted Christianity to the degree that his family worried that he would reject his Jewish heritage completely. Herman's conversion startled

25885-433: Was based on the narrative of the ancient Hebrew Bible . In this view, Abraham , signifying that he is both the biological progenitor of the Jews and the father of Judaism, is the first Jew. Later, Isaac was born to Abraham, and Jacob was born to Isaac. Following a struggle with an angel , Jacob was given the name Israel . Following a severe drought, Jacob and his twelve sons fled to Egypt , where they eventually formed

26052-639: Was captured, blinded, and transported to Babylon. Others fled to Egypt . The people of Judah lost their statehood, and, for those in exile, their homeland. Following the dissolution of the monarchy, the former kingdom was annexed as a province of the Babylonian Empire. During the several decades between the fall of Judah and their return to Zion under Persian rule, Jewish history enters an obscure phase. Many Jews were exiled across Babylonia , Elam , and Egypt , while others remained in Judea . Jeremiah refers to communities in Egypt, including settlements in Migdol , Tahpanhes , Noph , and Pathros . Moreover,

26219-403: Was carried out by the archbishop of Mainz, located in the Rhineland of Germany, in response to local Jews who had organized a bribe in return for the archbishop's protection. Although the archbishop at first accepted the bribe, community leaders persuaded him to protect the Jews' money instead of taking it, while still offering them refuge in his quarters. Ultimately, the archbishop's rescue attempt

26386-443: Was common for many regions of Medieval Europe to have communal ovens that Jewish and Christian women would use in tandem. There is evidence of written correspondence between Jewish males and rabbinical authorities discussing whether or not certain intimate interactions were in accordance with Jewish law; it seems that many of the conclusions were that it should be left to the discretion of the women. Jewish migration from Roman Italy

26553-407: Was during this peaceful time, that Jews from other communities emigrated to Francia in hopes of better treatment, notably members of the Persian House of Exilarchs , such as Isaac the Jew and Makhir of Narbonne came to Francia and with them, brought a large community of Persian Jews , who later assimilated to European customs . However, these peaceful relations would end with the beginning of

26720-428: Was issued in about 1120 by Calixtus II , intended to protect Jews who were suffering during the First Crusade , and was reaffirmed by many popes, even until the 15th century. The bull forbade, besides other things, Christians from forcing Jews to convert, or to harm them, or to take their property, or to disturb the celebration of their festivals, or to interfere with their cemeteries, on pain of excommunication. Although

26887-443: Was marked by severe measures, including ethnic cleansing , leading to the near-total destruction of Jewish diaspora communities in Libya , Cyprus and Egypt , including the significant and influential community in Alexandria . From 132 to 136 CE, Judaea was the center of the Bar Kokhba revolt , triggered by Hadrian's decision to establish the pagan colony of Aelia Capitolina on the ruins of Jerusalem. Early successes led to

27054-411: Was officially founded in 1897. The pogroms also triggered a mass exodus of more than two million Jews to the United States between 1881 and 1924. The Jews of Europe and the United States gained success in the fields of science, culture and the economy. Among those generally considered the most famous were Albert Einstein and Ludwig Wittgenstein . Many Nobel Prize winners at this time were Jewish, as

27221-543: Was rife, as were ritual murder accusations, expulsions, and extortion. However, recently historians have begun to show evidence of other relationships between Jews and Christians, suggesting Jews were more embedded into Christian society than was previously thought. Since the time of the Middle Ages , the Catholic Church upheld the Constitutio pro Judæis (Formal Statement on the Jews), which stated: We decree that no Christian shall use violence to force them to be baptized, so long as they are unwilling and refuse.…Without

27388-400: Was spread over a larger geographical region. Oftentimes a few families lived immersed in a predominantly Christian settlement. The Jewish families were comfortable in this setting and functioned successfully. In some circumstances, Christians both accepted and welcomed the Jews. When violence against the Jewish people began to occur some Christians attempted to protect their fellow neighbors. In

27555-408: Was then a very large city made up mostly of Jews. A very ancient synagogue, built, it was believed, by King Jehoiachin, existed in Nehardea. At Huzal, near Nehardea, there was another synagogue, not far from which could be seen the ruins of Ezra's academy. In the period before Hadrian, Akiba, on his arrival at Nehardea on a mission from the Sanhedrin, entered into a discussion with a resident scholar on

27722-408: Was thenceforth the true ruler of the Visigoths, presiding in the name of his father until 653, the year of Chindasuinth’s passing. Notwithstanding the vigorous and martial nature of his political activities, Chindasuinth is recorded in religious annals as a great benefactor of the church, donating many lands and bestowing privileges upon clerics. He improved public estates with the confiscated goods of

27889-422: Was unsuccessful. Crusaders, aided by some townspeople, eventually stormed the archbishop's chamber and slaughtered the Jews hiding there. In another instance, the bishop of Trier offered to keep Jews safe from Crusaders in his palace; however, local intimidation eventually forced him to abandon those whom he had previously aided. Because the bishop had no ancestry or allies in Trier, he felt that he could not muster

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