Misplaced Pages

#34965

106-456: The name Medvednica could be translated as "bear mountain". There are several other toponyms on the mountain using the Kajkavian dialect term medved 'bear' (compare Standard Croatian : medvjed ), most notably Medvedgrad , a medieval castle on its southwestern edges. Sljeme ( [sʎême] ; Kajkavian : Sleme ) means summit , and it is a name often used metonymically to refer to

212-509: A "purge of non-Shtokavian elements". Early 20th century witnessed a drastic increase in released Kajkavian literature, although by then it had become part of what was considered Croatian dialectal poetry with no pretense of serving as a standard written form. The most notable writers of this period were among others, Antun Gustav Matoš , Miroslav Krleža , Ivan Goran Kovačić , Dragutin Domjanić and Nikola Pavić . Kajkavian lexical treasure

318-1086: A , b and c are arc lengths, in radians, of the sides of a spherical triangle. C is the angle in the vertex opposite the side which has arc length c . Applied to the calculation of solar zenith angle Θ , the following applies to the spherical law of cosines: C = h c = Θ a = 1 2 π − φ b = 1 2 π − δ cos ⁡ ( Θ ) = sin ⁡ ( φ ) sin ⁡ ( δ ) + cos ⁡ ( φ ) cos ⁡ ( δ ) cos ⁡ ( h ) {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}C&=h\\c&=\Theta \\a&={\tfrac {1}{2}}\pi -\varphi \\b&={\tfrac {1}{2}}\pi -\delta \\\cos(\Theta )&=\sin(\varphi )\sin(\delta )+\cos(\varphi )\cos(\delta )\cos(h)\end{aligned}}} This equation can be also derived from

424-608: A Kajkavian-speaking area, and Kajkavian is still in use by its older and (to a lesser extent) by its younger population. Modern Zagreb speech has come under considerable influence from Shtokavian. The vast intermingling of Kajkavian and standard Shtokavian in Zagreb and its surroundings has led to problems in defining the underlying structure of those speech-groups. As a result, many of the urban speeches (but not rural ones) have been labelled either Kajkavian koine or Kajkavian–Shtokavian rather than Kajkavian or Shtokavian. Additionally,

530-544: A catastrophic ice break . Later, in February 1983, large devastations occurred as a result of strong wind (large damage on fir). Effects of such a strong wind can be seen in the area of Adolfovac as of early 2010s. The dominant association in the forest is Epimedio carpinetum-betuli at lower elevations, Lamio orvalae-Fagetum at middle elevations, and Festuco drymeiae-Abietetum at higher elevations. The associations Querco-Castaneetum sativae and Luzulo-Fagetum also have

636-481: A clear day. When 1361 W/m is arriving above the atmosphere (when the Sun is at the zenith in a cloudless sky), direct sun is about 1050 W/m , and global radiation on a horizontal surface at ground level is about 1120 W/m . The latter figure includes radiation scattered or reemitted by the atmosphere and surroundings. The actual figure varies with the Sun's angle and atmospheric circumstances. Ignoring clouds,

742-608: A closer relation with Kajkavian and the Slovak language , especially with the Central Slovak dialects upon which standard Slovak is based. As modern-day Hungary used to be populated by Slavic-speaking peoples prior to the arrival of Hungarians, there have been hypotheses on possible common innovations of future West and South Slavic speakers of that area. Kajkavian is the most prominent of the South Slavic speeches in sharing

848-464: A consensus of observations or theory, Q ¯ day {\displaystyle {\overline {Q}}^{\text{day}}} can be calculated for any latitude φ and θ . Because of the elliptical orbit, and as a consequence of Kepler's second law , θ does not progress uniformly with time. Nevertheless, θ  = 0° is exactly the time of the March equinox, θ  = 90°

954-421: A day is the average of Q over one rotation, or the hour angle progressing from h = π to h = −π : Q ¯ day = − 1 2 π ∫ π − π Q d h {\displaystyle {\overline {Q}}^{\text{day}}=-{\frac {1}{2\pi }}{\int _{\pi }^{-\pi }Q\,dh}} Let h 0 be

1060-404: A decrease thereafter. PMOD instead presents a steady decrease since 1978. Significant differences can also be seen during the peak of solar cycles 21 and 22. These arise from the fact that ACRIM uses the original TSI results published by the satellite experiment teams while PMOD significantly modifies some results to conform them to specific TSI proxy models. The implications of increasing TSI during

1166-407: A deep solar minimum of 2005–2010) to be +0.58 ± 0.15 W/m , +0.60 ± 0.17 W/m and +0.85 W/m . Estimates from space-based measurements range +3–7   W/m . SORCE/TIM's lower TSI value reduces this discrepancy by 1   W/m . This difference between the new lower TIM value and earlier TSI measurements corresponds to a climate forcing of −0.8   W/m , which is comparable to

SECTION 10

#1732772722035

1272-469: A dialect or a language, as well as the question of what its relation is to neighboring vernaculars. Autonyms used throughout history by various Kajkavian writers have been manifold, ranging from Slavic ( slavonski , slovenski , slovinski ) to Croatian ( horvatski ) or Illyrian ( illirski ). The naming went through several phases, with the Slavic-based name initially being dominant. Over time,

1378-555: A distance of 4023 m. The new gondola lift was opened on 23 February 2022, has a capacity of 10 people and WiFi. On Medvednica are dozen of mountain huts for traditional one-day trips to the mountain. Because of its proximity to Zagreb , Medvednica has many visitors, especially during weekends. Kajkavian dialect Kajkavian / k aɪ ˈ k ɑː v i ə n , - ˈ k æ v -/ (Kajkavian noun: kajkavščina ; Shtokavian adjective: kajkavski [kǎjkaʋskiː] , noun: kajkavica or kajkavština [kajkǎːʋʃtina] )

1484-564: A dramatic opus by Tituš Brezovački . Kajkavian-based are important lexicographic works like Jambrešić 's " Dictionar ", 1670, and the monumental (2,000 pages and 50,000 words) Latin-Kajkavian-Latin dictionary " Gazophylacium " (including also some Chakavian and Shtokavian words marked as such) by Ivan Belostenec (posthumously, 1740). Miroslav Krleža 's poetic work " Balade Petrice Kerempuha " drew heavily on Belostenec's dictionary. Kajkavian grammars include Kornig 's, 1795, Matijević 's, 1810 and Đurkovečki 's, 1837. During that time,

1590-515: A fully-fledged language of its own, as it is only partially mutually intelligible with either Chakavian or Shtokavian and bears more similarities to Slovene ; it is transitional and fully mutually intelligible with Prekmurje Slovene and the dialects in Slovenian Lower Styria 's region of Prlekija in terms of phonology and vocabulary. The term "Kajkavian" and the definition of the dialect are modern inventions. The name stems from

1696-422: A language in its own right. Josip Silić, one of the main initiators behind the standardisation of Croatian, also regards Kajkavian as a distinct language by dint of its having significantly different morphology, syntax and phonology from the official Shtokavian-based standard. However, Silić's theorization about three languages and systems of Croatian, based on Ferdinand de Saussure and Eugenio Coșeriu concepts,

1802-1331: A more general formula: cos ⁡ ( Θ ) = sin ⁡ ( φ ) sin ⁡ ( δ ) cos ⁡ ( β ) + sin ⁡ ( δ ) cos ⁡ ( φ ) sin ⁡ ( β ) cos ⁡ ( γ ) + cos ⁡ ( φ ) cos ⁡ ( δ ) cos ⁡ ( β ) cos ⁡ ( h ) − cos ⁡ ( δ ) sin ⁡ ( φ ) sin ⁡ ( β ) cos ⁡ ( γ ) cos ⁡ ( h ) − cos ⁡ ( δ ) sin ⁡ ( β ) sin ⁡ ( γ ) sin ⁡ ( h ) {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\cos(\Theta )=\sin(\varphi )\sin(\delta )\cos(\beta )&+\sin(\delta )\cos(\varphi )\sin(\beta )\cos(\gamma )+\cos(\varphi )\cos(\delta )\cos(\beta )\cos(h)\\&-\cos(\delta )\sin(\varphi )\sin(\beta )\cos(\gamma )\cos(h)-\cos(\delta )\sin(\beta )\sin(\gamma )\sin(h)\end{aligned}}} where β

1908-445: A significant presence. Rarer associations include Luzulo luzuloidi-Quercetum , Hieracio racemosi-Quercetum , Tilio-Taxetum , Blechno-Fagetum , Chrysanthemo acrophylli-Aceretum pseudoplatani , Ostryo-Quercetum pubescentis , and Carici brizoides-Alnetum glutinosae . Being adjacent to a capital city, Medvednica is subject to a high rate of colonization by invasive species , including Robinia pseudoacacia . A winter sports center

2014-400: A spectral function with an x-axis of frequency). When one plots such spectral distributions as a graph, the integral of the function (area under the curve) will be the (non-spectral) irradiance. e.g.: Say one had a solar cell on the surface of the earth facing straight up, and had DNI in units of W/m^2 per nm, graphed as a function of wavelength (in nm). Then, the unit of the integral (W/m^2) is

2120-401: A surface is largest when the surface directly faces (is normal to) the sun. As the angle between the surface and the Sun moves from normal, the insolation is reduced in proportion to the angle's cosine ; see effect of Sun angle on climate . In the figure, the angle shown is between the ground and the sunbeam rather than between the vertical direction and the sunbeam; hence the sine rather than

2226-879: A time series for a Q ¯ d a y {\displaystyle {\overline {Q}}^{\mathrm {day} }} for a particular time of year, and particular latitude, is a useful application in the theory of Milankovitch cycles. For example, at the summer solstice, the declination δ is equal to the obliquity  ε . The distance from the Sun is R o R E = 1 + e cos ⁡ ( θ − ϖ ) = 1 + e cos ⁡ ( π 2 − ϖ ) = 1 + e sin ⁡ ( ϖ ) {\displaystyle {\frac {R_{o}}{R_{E}}}=1+e\cos(\theta -\varpi )=1+e\cos \left({\frac {\pi }{2}}-\varpi \right)=1+e\sin(\varpi )} For this summer solstice calculation,

SECTION 20

#1732772722035

2332-1003: Is sin ⁡ ( δ ) = sin ⁡ ( ε ) sin ⁡ ( θ ) {\displaystyle \sin(\delta )=\sin(\varepsilon )\sin(\theta )} . ) The conventional longitude of perihelion ϖ is defined relative to the March equinox, so for the elliptical orbit: R E = R o ( 1 − e 2 ) 1 + e cos ⁡ ( θ − ϖ ) {\displaystyle R_{E}={\frac {R_{o}(1-e^{2})}{1+e\cos(\theta -\varpi )}}} or R o R E = 1 + e cos ⁡ ( θ − ϖ ) 1 − e 2 {\displaystyle {\frac {R_{o}}{R_{E}}}={\frac {1+e\cos(\theta -\varpi )}{1-e^{2}}}} With knowledge of ϖ , ε and e from astrodynamical calculations and S o from

2438-650: Is Velebitaška jama at 45 m, the highest vertical elevation difference within a cave is in Veternica at 170 m. Near the ridge there is a 12 m tall cliff of green slate called Šumarev grob , from which one of the springs of the Bliznec flows. The area Bliznec – Šumarev grob was designated a special reserve on 26 November 1963. The climate of the Medvednica mountain is typical for Central European mountain ranges. The average annual precipitation

2544-457: Is π r , in which r is the radius of the Earth. Because the Earth is approximately spherical , it has total area 4 π r 2 {\displaystyle 4\pi r^{2}} , meaning that the solar radiation arriving at the top of the atmosphere, averaged over the entire surface of the Earth, is simply divided by four to get 340   W/m . In other words, averaged over

2650-564: Is 40 (4 in Zagreb). The mean annual number of days with snowfall on the top of Medvednica, most usually in January and February, is 54 days. The number of days with strong wind is 91 (26 in Zagreb) and they are more frequent during the cold part of the year. The number of days with storm-force wind is 21 (2 in Zagreb), also mostly during the cold part of the year. In 1980, the forests of Medvednica, especially beech trees, were heavily stricken by

2756-410: Is 6.2 °C (43.2 °F), compared with 11.4 °C (52.5 °F) in Zagreb. The mean temperature in summer months is on average lower by 6 °C (11 °F) than in Zagreb. On average, 15 days have temperatures below −10 °C (14 °F), eight days a year have average daily maxima higher than 25 °C (77 °F), and only one day reaches above 30 °C (86 °F). The coldest month

2862-403: Is January with a mean monthly air temperature of −3.1 °C (26.4 °F), while the warmest month is July with an average temperature of 15.2 °C (59.4 °F). Insolation exceeds Zagreb's by about 100 hours annually. This difference manifests itself during the colder period of the year, from October to March, when more fog occurs in Zagreb. The relative air humidity is largest during

2968-523: Is a South Slavic supradialect or language spoken primarily by Croats in much of Central Croatia and Gorski Kotar . Kajkavian is part of the South Slavic dialect continuum, being a transition between the supradialects of Chakavian , Shtokavian and the Slovene language. There are differing opinions over whether Kajkavian is best considered a dialect of the Serbo-Croatian language or

3074-549: Is a comparison of some words in Kajkavian, Shtokavian and Slovene along with their English translations. Kajkavian is lexically closer to Slovene than to the Croatian Shtokavian dialects, which is considered by some another argument that Kajkavian is a separate language. The Kajkavian words are given in their most common orthographic form. Shtokavian words are given in their standard Croatian form. In cases where

3180-447: Is a number of a day of the year. Total solar irradiance (TSI) changes slowly on decadal and longer timescales. The variation during solar cycle 21 was about 0.1% (peak-to-peak). In contrast to older reconstructions, most recent TSI reconstructions point to an increase of only about 0.05% to 0.1% between the 17th century Maunder Minimum and the present. However, current understanding based on various lines of evidence suggests that

3286-403: Is a primary cause of the higher irradiance values measured by earlier satellites in which the precision aperture is located behind a larger, view-limiting aperture. The TIM uses a view-limiting aperture that is smaller than the precision aperture that precludes this spurious signal. The new estimate is from better measurement rather than a change in solar output. A regression model-based split of

Medvednica - Misplaced Pages Continue

3392-438: Is absorbed and the remainder reflected. Usually, the absorbed radiation is converted to thermal energy , increasing the object's temperature. Humanmade or natural systems, however, can convert part of the absorbed radiation into another form such as electricity or chemical bonds , as in the case of photovoltaic cells or plants . The proportion of reflected radiation is the object's reflectivity or albedo . Insolation onto

3498-916: Is an angle from the horizontal and γ is an azimuth angle . The separation of Earth from the Sun can be denoted R E and the mean distance can be denoted R 0 , approximately 1 astronomical unit (AU). The solar constant is denoted S 0 . The solar flux density (insolation) onto a plane tangent to the sphere of the Earth, but above the bulk of the atmosphere (elevation 100 km or greater) is: Q = { S o R o 2 R E 2 cos ⁡ ( Θ ) cos ⁡ ( Θ ) > 0 0 cos ⁡ ( Θ ) ≤ 0 {\displaystyle Q={\begin{cases}S_{o}{\frac {R_{o}^{2}}{R_{E}^{2}}}\cos(\Theta )&\cos(\Theta )>0\\0&\cos(\Theta )\leq 0\end{cases}}} The average of Q over

3604-414: Is around 1300 mm (cf. 840 mm at Zagreb–Grič), which provides for an abundance of rich spring wells. Snow cover lasts for about 100 days in a year, the thickest being in February. The skiing slopes are also covered with artificial snow when necessary. Much more sunshine occurs during the winter on Medvednica than in Zagreb or Zagorje, so it is not surprising that winter is the most visited season on

3710-485: Is based on the northern slopes towards Sljeme. The center has hosted several FIS World Cup slalom skiing races, known as the Snow Queen Trophy . The winter sports center consists of one chairlift for three persons and two T-bar lifts . Equipment for producing artificial snow has been added, and because of that, the skiing season has been prolonged to more than four months. Three ways exist to reach

3816-768: Is being published by the Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts in Rječnik hrvatskoga kajkavskoga književnoga jezika ("Dictionary of the Croatian Kajkavian Literary Language", 8 volumes, 1999). Later, Dario Vid Balog , actor, linguist and writer translated the New Testament in Kajkavian. In 2018 is published the Kajkavian translation of Antoine de Saint-Exupéry 's The Little Prince ( Le Petit Prince ) by Kajkavsko spravišče aka Mali kralevič . Below are examples of

3922-427: Is characterised as having a continental precipitation regimen with maximum precipitation during the warm part of the year (April to September). During summer and winter, temperature inversion is sometimes present. An anticyclone forms above the cold continent during winter. When its center is close to Croatia, the weather is cold and gloomy in Zagreb and warmer at Sljeme. The mean annual air temperature on Medvednica

4028-411: Is criticized for being exaggerated, incomprehensible and logically non-existent. According to Ranko Matasović , Kajkavian is equally Croatian as Chakavian and Shtokavian dialects. Mate Kapović notes that the dialects are practical and provisory linguistic inventions which should not be misunderstood and extrapolated outside the context of the dialect continuum . According to Mijo Lončarić (1988),

4134-680: Is exactly the time of the June solstice, θ  = 180° is exactly the time of the September equinox and θ  = 270° is exactly the time of the December solstice. A simplified equation for irradiance on a given day is: Q ≈ S 0 ( 1 + 0.034 cos ⁡ ( 2 π n 365.25 ) ) {\displaystyle Q\approx S_{0}\left(1+0.034\cos \left(2\pi {\frac {n}{365.25}}\right)\right)} where n

4240-456: Is known as Milankovitch cycles . Distribution is based on a fundamental identity from spherical trigonometry , the spherical law of cosines : cos ⁡ ( c ) = cos ⁡ ( a ) cos ⁡ ( b ) + sin ⁡ ( a ) sin ⁡ ( b ) cos ⁡ ( C ) {\displaystyle \cos(c)=\cos(a)\cos(b)+\sin(a)\sin(b)\cos(C)} where

4346-1048: Is more Kajkavian in lesser Eastern part, while more Slovene in main Western part). Kajkavian categorization of transitional dialects, like for example of prigorski , is provisory. Kajkavian is mainly spoken in northern and northwestern Croatia. The mixed half-Kajkavian towns along the eastern and southern edge of the Kajkavian-speaking area are Pitomača , Čazma , Kutina , Popovača , Sunja , Petrinja , Martinska Ves , Ozalj , Ogulin , Fužine , and Čabar , including newer Štokavian enclaves of Bjelovar , Sisak , Glina , Donja Dubrava and Novi Zagreb . The southernmost Kajkavian villages are Krapje at Jasenovac ; and Pavušek , Dvorišče and Hrvatsko selo in Zrinska Gora (R. Fureš & A. Jembrih: Kajkavski u povijesnom i sadašnjem obzorju p. 548, Zabok 2006). The major cities in northern Croatia are located in what

Medvednica - Misplaced Pages Continue

4452-2450: Is nearly constant over the course of a day, and can be taken outside the integral ∫ π − π Q d h = ∫ h o − h o Q d h = S o R o 2 R E 2 ∫ h o − h o cos ⁡ ( Θ ) d h = S o R o 2 R E 2 [ h sin ⁡ ( φ ) sin ⁡ ( δ ) + cos ⁡ ( φ ) cos ⁡ ( δ ) sin ⁡ ( h ) ] h = h o h = − h o = − 2 S o R o 2 R E 2 [ h o sin ⁡ ( φ ) sin ⁡ ( δ ) + cos ⁡ ( φ ) cos ⁡ ( δ ) sin ⁡ ( h o ) ] {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\int _{\pi }^{-\pi }Q\,dh&=\int _{h_{o}}^{-h_{o}}Q\,dh\\[5pt]&=S_{o}{\frac {R_{o}^{2}}{R_{E}^{2}}}\int _{h_{o}}^{-h_{o}}\cos(\Theta )\,dh\\[5pt]&=S_{o}{\frac {R_{o}^{2}}{R_{E}^{2}}}{\Bigg [}h\sin(\varphi )\sin(\delta )+\cos(\varphi )\cos(\delta )\sin(h){\Bigg ]}_{h=h_{o}}^{h=-h_{o}}\\[5pt]&=-2S_{o}{\frac {R_{o}^{2}}{R_{E}^{2}}}\left[h_{o}\sin(\varphi )\sin(\delta )+\cos(\varphi )\cos(\delta )\sin(h_{o})\right]\end{aligned}}} Therefore: Q ¯ day = S o π R o 2 R E 2 [ h o sin ⁡ ( φ ) sin ⁡ ( δ ) + cos ⁡ ( φ ) cos ⁡ ( δ ) sin ⁡ ( h o ) ] {\displaystyle {\overline {Q}}^{\text{day}}={\frac {S_{o}}{\pi }}{\frac {R_{o}^{2}}{R_{E}^{2}}}\left[h_{o}\sin(\varphi )\sin(\delta )+\cos(\varphi )\cos(\delta )\sin(h_{o})\right]} Let θ be

4558-512: Is now some public media e.g.: Insolation Solar irradiance is the power per unit area ( surface power density ) received from the Sun in the form of electromagnetic radiation in the wavelength range of the measuring instrument. Solar irradiance is measured in watts per square metre (W/m ) in SI units . Solar irradiance is often integrated over a given time period in order to report

4664-1524: The Lord's Prayer in the Croatian variant of Shtokavian, literary Kajkavian and a Međimurje variant of the Kajkavian dialect. Oče naš, koji jesi na nebesima, sveti se ime tvoje, dođi kraljevstvo tvoje, budi volja tvoja, kako na nebu tako i na zemlji. Kruh naš svagdanji daj nam danas i otpusti nam duge naše, kako i mi otpuštamo dužnicima našim, i ne uvedi nas u napast, nego izbavi nas od zla. Amen. Otec naš, koj si na nebesi, sveti se ime tvoje, dojdi kralestvo tvoje, budi vola tvoja, kak na nebu tak i na zemli. Kruh naš vsagdašni dej nam denes. I otpusti nam duge naše, kak i mi otpuščamo dužnikom našim, i ne vpelaj nas vu skušavanje, nego oslobodi nas od zla. Amen. Japek naš ki si v nebesaj, nek se sveti ime Tvoje, nek prihaja cesarstvo Tvoje, nek bo volja Tvoja, kakti na nebi tak pa na zemlji. Kruhek naš vsakdaneši daj nam denes ter odpuščaj nam duge naše, kakti i mi odpuščamo dužnikom našim, ter naj nas vpelati v skušnje, nek zbavi nas od vsakih hudobah. Amen. Oče naš, ki si v nebesih, posvečeno bodi tvoje ime, pridi k nam tvoje kraljestvo, zgodi se tvoja volja kakor v nebesih tako na zemlji. Daj nam danes naš vsakdanji kruh in odpusti nam naše dolge, kakor tudi mi odpuščamo svojim dolžnikom, in ne vpelji nas v skušnjavo, temveč reši nas hudega. Amen. What follows

4770-715: The Pećina Kolarske gore formed in Lithothamnion limestone. Exceptionally old is the Carboniferous layer of dolomite in which Velika peć na Rogu , Medvednica's "most imposing entrance", formed. Although most caves are solutional caves , the Kustošijanka cave is of mostly tectonic origin. The longest cave is Veternica , and other long caves include Javornica kod Bizeka and Židovske jame  [ ro ] . While deepest cave from entrance to lowest point

4876-459: The radiant energy emitted into the surrounding environment ( joule per square metre, J/m ) during that time period. This integrated solar irradiance is called solar irradiation , solar exposure , solar insolation , or insolation . Irradiance may be measured in space or at the Earth's surface after atmospheric absorption and scattering . Irradiance in space is a function of distance from

4982-472: The signal-to-noise ratio , respectively. The net effect of these corrections decreased the average ACRIM3 TSI value without affecting the trending in the ACRIM Composite TSI. Differences between ACRIM and PMOD TSI composites are evident, but the most significant is the solar minimum-to-minimum trends during solar cycles 21 - 23 . ACRIM found an increase of +0.037%/decade from 1980 to 2000 and

5088-400: The 12th century. The first comprehensive works in Kajkavian started to appear during the 16th century at a time when Central Croatia gained prominence due to the geopolitical environment since it was free from Ottoman occupation. The most notable work of that era was Ivanuš Pergošić's Decretum , released in 1574. Decretum was a translation of István Werbőczy 's Tripartitum . At

5194-458: The 18th century, Kajkavian had become the standard language of Prekmurje. Moreover, literary Kajkavian was also used in neighboring Slovene Styria during the 17th and 18th centuries, and in parts of it, education was conducted in Kajkavian. As a result of various factors, Kajkavian has numerous differences compared to Shtokavian: In addition to the above list of characteristics that set Kajkavian apart from Shtokavian, research suggests possible

5300-631: The ACRIM III data that is nearly in phase with the Sun-Earth distance and 90-day spikes in the VIRGO data coincident with SoHO spacecraft maneuvers that were most apparent during the 2008 solar minimum. TIM's high absolute accuracy creates new opportunities for measuring climate variables. TSI Radiometer Facility (TRF) is a cryogenic radiometer that operates in a vacuum with controlled light sources. L-1 Standards and Technology (LASP) designed and built

5406-1040: The Earth Radiometer Budget Experiment (ERBE) on the Earth Radiation Budget Satellite (ERBS), VIRGO on the Solar Heliospheric Observatory (SoHO) and the ACRIM instruments on the Solar Maximum Mission (SMM), Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite (UARS) and ACRIMSAT . Pre-launch ground calibrations relied on component rather than system-level measurements since irradiance standards at the time lacked sufficient absolute accuracies. Measurement stability involves exposing different radiometer cavities to different accumulations of solar radiation to quantify exposure-dependent degradation effects. These effects are then compensated for in

SECTION 50

#1732772722035

5512-463: The Earth moving between its perihelion and aphelion , or changes in the latitudinal distribution of radiation. These orbital changes or Milankovitch cycles have caused radiance variations of as much as 25% (locally; global average changes are much smaller) over long periods. The most recent significant event was an axial tilt of 24° during boreal summer near the Holocene climatic optimum . Obtaining

5618-434: The Kajkavian dialect according to the reflexes of Proto-Slavic phonemes /tj/ and /dj/ into three subdialects: eastern, northwestern and southwestern. However, later investigations did not corroborate Belić's division. Contemporary Kajkavian dialectology begins with Croatian philologist Stjepan Ivšić 's work "Jezik Hrvata kajkavaca" ( The Language of Kajkavian Croats , 1936), which highlighted accentual characteristics. Due to

5724-601: The Kajkavian literary language was the dominant written form in its spoken area along with Latin and German. Until Ljudevit Gaj 's attempts to modernize the spelling, Kajkavian was written using Hungarian spelling conventions . Kajkavian began to lose its status during the Croatian National Revival in mid-19th Century when the leaders of the Illyrian movement opted to use the Shtokavian dialect as

5830-411: The Medvednica mountain. Medvednica, in comparison to the surrounding lowland area, behaves as an "island" in its climate characteristics, with more precipitation, lower temperatures, and higher duration and quantity of snow cover. The Medvednica area is located in a temperate zone where air temperature decreases for 0.5 °C for every 100 m of elevation. Based on the annual rate of precipitation, Medvednica

5936-636: The South, Southeast and especially to East in Slavonia), and from the 17th-18th century till present time when regained part of lost territory by forming new transitional dialects. The Kajkavian speech area borders in the northwest on the Slovene language and in the northeast on the Hungarian language . In the east and southeast it is bordered by Shtokavian dialects roughly along a line that used to serve as

6042-441: The Sun, the solar cycle , and cross-cycle changes. Irradiance on the Earth's surface additionally depends on the tilt of the measuring surface, the height of the Sun above the horizon, and atmospheric conditions. Solar irradiance affects plant metabolism and animal behavior. The study and measurement of solar irradiance have several important applications, including the prediction of energy generation from solar power plants ,

6148-473: The TRF in both optical power and irradiance. The resulting high accuracy reduces the consequences of any future gap in the solar irradiance record. The most probable value of TSI representative of solar minimum is 1 360 .9 ± 0.5 W/m , lower than the earlier accepted value of 1 365 .4 ± 1.3 W/m , established in the 1990s. The new value came from SORCE/TIM and radiometric laboratory tests. Scattered light

6254-646: The TSI record is not sufficiently stable to discern solar changes on decadal time scales. Only the ACRIM composite shows irradiance increasing by ~1   W/m  between 1986 and 1996; this change is also absent in the model. Recommendations to resolve the instrument discrepancies include validating optical measurement accuracy by comparing ground-based instruments to laboratory references, such as those at National Institute of Science and Technology (NIST); NIST validation of aperture area calibrations uses spares from each instrument; and applying diffraction corrections from

6360-601: The Zagreb speech for various reasons. Kajkavian is closely related to Slovene – and to Prekmurje Slovene in particular. Higher amounts of correspondences between the two exist in inflection and vocabulary. The speakers of the Prekmurje dialect are Slovenes and Hungarian Slovenes who belonged to the Archdiocese of Zagreb during the Habsburg era (until 1918). They used Kajkavian as their liturgical language, and by

6466-409: The basis for the future South Slavic standard language, the reason being that it had the highest number of speakers. Initially, the choice of Shtokavian was accepted even among Slovene intellectuals, but later it fell out of favor. The Zagreb linguistic school was opposed to the course that the standardization process took. Namely, it had almost completely ignored Kajkavian (and Chakavian) dialects which

SECTION 60

#1732772722035

6572-757: The border between Civil Croatia and the Habsburg Military Frontier . Finally, in the southwest, it borders Chakavian along the Kupa and Dobra rivers. It is thought by M. Lončarić that historically these borders extended further to the south and east, for example, the eastern border is thought to have extended at least well into modern-day Slavonia to the area around the town of Pakrac and Slatina , while East of it transitional Kajkavian- Shtokavian dialects . The transitional dialects during Ottoman invasion and migrations almost completely vanished. The Croatian capital, Zagreb , has historically been

6678-442: The cavity, electronic degradation of the heater, surface degradation of the precision aperture and varying surface emissions and temperatures that alter thermal backgrounds. These calibrations require compensation to preserve consistent measurements. For various reasons, the sources do not always agree. The Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment/Total Irradiance Measurement ( SORCE /TIM) TSI values are lower than prior measurements by

6784-407: The cavity. This design admits into the front part of the instrument two to three times the amount of light intended to be measured; if not completely absorbed or scattered, this additional light produces erroneously high signals. In contrast, TIM's design places the precision aperture at the front so that only desired light enters. Variations from other sources likely include an annual systematics in

6890-478: The cold part of the year, and generally is larger on stations with higher altitude because of lower temperatures, but luxuriant vegetation. The number of days with relative humidity above 80% is greatest on Puntijarka (158 days annually), and it decreases with the decrease in elevation; for example, at the Zagreb–Grič station it is 67 days annually. On all stations, the warm part of the year (from April to September) has

6996-451: The conventional polar angle describing a planetary orbit . Let θ  = 0 at the March equinox . The declination δ as a function of orbital position is δ = ε sin ⁡ ( θ ) {\displaystyle \delta =\varepsilon \sin(\theta )} where ε is the obliquity . (Note: The correct formula, valid for any axial tilt,

7102-426: The daily average insolation for the Earth is approximately 6 kWh/m = 21.6 MJ/m . The output of, for example, a photovoltaic panel, partly depends on the angle of the sun relative to the panel. One Sun is a unit of power flux , not a standard value for actual insolation. Sometimes this unit is referred to as a Sol, not to be confused with a sol , meaning one solar day . Part of the radiation reaching an object

7208-499: The electrical heating needed to maintain an absorptive blackened cavity in thermal equilibrium with the incident sunlight which passes through a precision aperture of calibrated area. The aperture is modulated via a shutter . Accuracy uncertainties of < 0.01% are required to detect long term solar irradiance variations, because expected changes are in the range 0.05–0.15   W/m per century. In orbit, radiometric calibrations drift for reasons including solar degradation of

7314-409: The energy imbalance. In 2014 a new ACRIM composite was developed using the updated ACRIM3 record. It added corrections for scattering and diffraction revealed during recent testing at TRF and two algorithm updates. The algorithm updates more accurately account for instrument thermal behavior and parsing of shutter cycle data. These corrected a component of the quasi-annual spurious signal and increased

7420-607: The entire mountain. Medvednica has many foothills, including Grmoščica . As of 2011, 64 speleological objects are known to be on Medvednica. The caves of Medvednica are mostly in upper Tortonian limestone. But there are a few entirely in Middle Triassic dolomite-limestone (i.e. Družanica I), or with entrances in that layer (i.e. Bijele sige , Zakičnica I). A few are entirely in Upper Triassic stromatolitic dolomite (i.e. Zakičnica V). The 7×32 m chamber of

7526-453: The final data. Observation overlaps permits corrections for both absolute offsets and validation of instrumental drifts. Uncertainties of individual observations exceed irradiance variability (~0.1%). Thus, instrument stability and measurement continuity are relied upon to compute real variations. Long-term radiometer drifts can potentially be mistaken for irradiance variations which can be misinterpreted as affecting climate. Examples include

7632-412: The fixed stress-based accentual system without distinctive lengths, the merger of /č/ and /ć/ and of /dž/ and /đ/, vocabulary differences as well as a different place of stress in words. The Zagreb variety of Shtokavian is considered by some to enjoy parallel prestige with the prescribed Shtokavian variety. Because of that, speakers whose native speech is closer to the standard variety often end up adopting

7738-480: The formation of the Proto-Kajkavian linguistic and territorial unit would be around the 10th century (when it separated from Southwestern Slavic), until the 12th century it is a separate node of Croatian-Serbian language family (excluding Slovene), between the 13th and 15th century when formed as a dialect with main features known today, until the end of the 17th century when lost a part of spoken territory (to

7844-416: The forms of speech in use exhibit significant sociolinguistic variation. Research suggests that younger Zagreb-born speakers of the Kajkavian koine tend to consciously use more Kajkavian features when speaking to older people, showing that such features are still in their linguistic inventory even if not used at all times. However, the Kajkavian koine is distinct from Kajkavian as spoken in non-urban areas, and

7950-533: The global warming of the last two decades of the 20th century are that solar forcing may be a marginally larger factor in climate change than represented in the CMIP5 general circulation climate models . Average annual solar radiation arriving at the top of the Earth's atmosphere is roughly 1361   W/m . The Sun's rays are attenuated as they pass through the atmosphere , leaving maximum normal surface irradiance at approximately 1000   W/m at sea level on

8056-663: The great diversity within Kajkavian primarily in phonetics, phonology, and morphology, the Kajkavian dialect atlas features a large number of subdialects: from four identified by Ivšić to six proposed by Croatian linguist Brozović (formerly the accepted division) all the way up to fifteen according to a monograph by Croatian linguist Mijo Lončarić (1995). The traditional division in six sub-dialects includes: zagorsko-međimurski , križevačko-podravski , turopoljsko-posavski , prigorski (transitional to Central Chakavian ), donjosutlanski (migratory transitional Chakavina-ikavian which became Kajkavian), and goranski (also transitional which

8162-436: The heating and cooling loads of buildings, climate modeling and weather forecasting, passive daytime radiative cooling applications, and space travel. There are several measured types of solar irradiance. Spectral versions of the above irradiances (e.g. spectral TSI , spectral DNI , etc.) are any of the above with units divided either by meter or nanometer (for a spectral graph as function of wavelength), or per- Hz (for

8268-844: The hour angle when Q becomes positive. This could occur at sunrise when Θ = 1 2 π {\displaystyle \Theta ={\tfrac {1}{2}}\pi } , or for h 0 as a solution of sin ⁡ ( φ ) sin ⁡ ( δ ) + cos ⁡ ( φ ) cos ⁡ ( δ ) cos ⁡ ( h o ) = 0 {\displaystyle \sin(\varphi )\sin(\delta )+\cos(\varphi )\cos(\delta )\cos(h_{o})=0} or cos ⁡ ( h o ) = − tan ⁡ ( φ ) tan ⁡ ( δ ) {\displaystyle \cos(h_{o})=-\tan(\varphi )\tan(\delta )} If tan( φ ) tan( δ ) > 1 , then

8374-714: The idea of Slovene and Kajkavian unity and asserted that Kajkavian speakers are Slovenes. On the other hand, Josef Dobrovský also claimed linguistic and national unity between the two groups but under the Croatian ethnonym. The first modern dialectal investigations of Kajkavian started at the end of the 19th century. The Ukrainian philologist A. M. Lukjanenko wrote the first comprehensive monograph on Kajkavian (titled Кайкавское нарѣчiе ( Kajkavskoe narečie ) meaning The Kajkavian dialect ) in Russian in 1905. Kajkavian dialects have been classified along various criteria: for instance Serbian philologist Aleksandar Belić divided (1927)

8480-524: The influence of the standard language and immigration of Štokavian speakers. Other southeastern people who immigrate to Zagreb from Štokavian territories often pick up rare elements of Kajkavian in order to assimilate, notably the pronoun "kaj" instead of "što" and the extended use of future anterior ( futur drugi ), but they never adapt well because of alien eastern accents and ignoring Kajkavian-Čakavian archaisms and syntax. Writings that are judged by some as being distinctly Kajkavian can be dated to around

8586-570: The interrogative pronoun kaj ("what"). The other supradialects of Serbo-Croatian also derive their names from their reflex of the interrogative pronoun. However, the pronouns are only general pointers and do not serve as actual identifiers of the respective dialects. Certain Kajkavian dialects use the interrogative pronoun ča , the one that is usually used in Chakavian . Conversely, some Chakavian dialects (most notably Buzet dialect in Istria) use

8692-574: The issue of the irradiance increase between cycle minima in 1986 and 1996, evident only in the ACRIM composite (and not the model) and the low irradiance levels in the PMOD composite during the 2008 minimum. Despite the fact that ACRIM I, ACRIM II, ACRIM III, VIRGO and TIM all track degradation with redundant cavities, notable and unexplained differences remain in irradiance and the modeled influences of sunspots and faculae . Disagreement among overlapping observations indicates unresolved drifts that suggest

8798-508: The lower values for the secular trend are more probable. In particular, a secular trend greater than 2 Wm is considered highly unlikely. Ultraviolet irradiance (EUV) varies by approximately 1.5 percent from solar maxima to minima, for 200 to 300 nm wavelengths. However, a proxy study estimated that UV has increased by 3.0% since the Maunder Minimum. Some variations in insolation are not due to solar changes but rather due to

8904-421: The mixing of Shtokavian and Kajkavian outside of urban settings is much rarer and less developed. The Kajkavian koine has also been named Zagreb Shtokavian by some . As a result of the previously mentioned mixing of dialects, various Kajkavian features and characteristics have found their way into the standard Shtokavian ( standard Croatian ) spoken in those areas. For example, some of the prominent features are

9010-399: The most features that could potentially be common Pannonian innovations. Some Kajkavian words bear a closer resemblance to other Slavic languages such as Russian than they do to Shtokavian or Chakavian. For instance gda (also seen as shorter "da") seems to be at first glance unrelated to kada , however when compared to Russian когда , Slovene kdaj , or Prekmurje Slovene gda , kda ,

9116-409: The most thunderstorm days; these are often connected to showers. June has the most thunderstorm days (Puntijarka 7). The annual precipitation on Medvednica is about 50% higher in comparison to Zagreb (Zagreb: 844 mm (33.2 in), Sljeme: 1,238 mm (48.7 in), Kraljičin zdenac: 1,159 mm (45.6 in), Fakultetsko dobro: 1,142 mm (45.0 in)). Average number of days with hoar

9222-452: The mountain: by road (with a car or a bus) or on foot (numerous mountain paths). In the past, an older gondola lift was present, which started from the Gračani neighborhood just below Medvednica. The cable car had run from 1963 to 2007, when a major fault in the engine room made repairs economically impossible. The gondola had a capacity for four people, with a 23-minute journey time, covering

9328-442: The name Croatian started gaining ground mainly during the 17th century, and by the beginning of the 18th century, it had supplanted the older name Slavic . The name also followed the same evolution in neighboring Slovene Prekmurje and some other border areas in what is now Slovenia, although there the name Slovene-Croatian ( slovensko-horvatski ) existed as well. The actual term Kajkavian ( kajkavski ), including as an adjective,

9434-626: The place of accent or stress differs, the syllable with the stress or accent is indicated in bold. Words that are the same in all three are not listed. Loanwords are also not listed. During Yugoslavia in the 20th century, Kajkavian was mostly restricted to private communication, poetry and folklore. With the recent regional democratizing and cultural revival beginning in the 1990s, Kajkavian partly regained its former half-public position chiefly in Zagorje and Varaždin Counties and local towns, where there

9540-407: The product of those two units. The SI unit of irradiance is watts per square metre (W/m = Wm ). The unit of insolation often used in the solar power industry is kilowatt hours per square metre (kWh/m ). The Langley is an alternative unit of insolation. One Langley is one thermochemical calorie per square centimetre or 41,840   J/m . The average annual solar radiation arriving at

9646-681: The pronoun kaj . The pronouns these dialects are named after are merely the most common one in that dialect. Outside Croatia's northernmost regions, Kajkavian is also spoken in Austrian Burgenland and a number of enclaves in Hungary along the Austrian and Croatian border and in Romania . Historically, the classification of Kajkavian has been a subject of much debate regarding both the question of whether it ought to be considered

9752-630: The reference radiometer and the instrument under test in a common vacuum system that contains a stationary, spatially uniform illuminating beam. A precision aperture with an area calibrated to 0.0031% (1 σ ) determines the beam's measured portion. The test instrument's precision aperture is positioned in the same location, without optically altering the beam, for direct comparison to the reference. Variable beam power provides linearity diagnostics, and variable beam diameter diagnoses scattering from different instrument components. The Glory/TIM and PICARD/PREMOS flight instrument absolute scales are now traceable to

9858-460: The relationship becomes apparent. Kajkavian kak ( how ) and tak ( so ) are exactly like their Russian cognates and Prekmurje Slovene compared to Shtokavian, Chakavian, and standard Slovene kako and tako . (This vowel loss occurred in most other Slavic languages; Shtokavian is a notable exception, whereas the same feature in Macedonian is probably not due to Serbo-Croatian influence because

9964-497: The relative proportion of sunspot and facular influences from SORCE/TIM data accounts for 92% of observed variance and tracks the observed trends to within TIM's stability band. This agreement provides further evidence that TSI variations are primarily due to solar surface magnetic activity. Instrument inaccuracies add a significant uncertainty in determining Earth's energy balance . The energy imbalance has been variously measured (during

10070-660: The role of the elliptical orbit is entirely contained within the important product e sin ⁡ ( ϖ ) {\displaystyle e\sin(\varpi )} , the precession index, whose variation dominates the variations in insolation at 65°   N when eccentricity is large. For the next 100,000 years, with variations in eccentricity being relatively small, variations in obliquity dominate. The space-based TSI record comprises measurements from more than ten radiometers and spans three solar cycles. All modern TSI satellite instruments employ active cavity electrical substitution radiometry . This technique measures

10176-557: The same time, many Protestant writers of the Slovene lands also released their works in Kajkavian in order to reach a wider audience, while also using some Kajkavian features in their native writings. During that time, the autonym used by the writers was usually slovinski (Slavic), horvatski (Croatian) or ilirski (Illyrian). After that, numerous works appeared in the Kajkavian literary language: chronicles by Vramec , liturgical works by Ratkaj , Habdelić , Mulih ; poetry by Ana Katarina Zrinska and Fran Krsto Frankopan , and

10282-750: The separation of Western South Slavic speeches happened, they separated into five divergent groups — Slovene, Kajkavian, Chakavian, Western Shtokavian and Eastern Shtokavian, as a result of this, throughout history Kajkavian has often been categorized differently, either a node categorized together with Serbo-Croatian or Slovene. Furthermore, there do exist few old isoglosses that separate almost all Slovene speeches from all other Western South Slavic dialects, and do exist innovations exist common to Kajkavian, Chakavian, and Western Shtokavian that would separate them from Slovene. Croatian linguist Stjepan Ivšić has used Kajkavian vocabulary and accentuation, which significantly differs from that of Shtokavian, as evidence to be

10388-392: The sun does not set and the sun is already risen at h = π , so h o = π . If tan( φ ) tan( δ ) < −1 , the sun does not rise and Q ¯ day = 0 {\displaystyle {\overline {Q}}^{\text{day}}=0} . R o 2 R E 2 {\displaystyle {\frac {R_{o}^{2}}{R_{E}^{2}}}}

10494-625: The system, completed in 2008. It was calibrated for optical power against the NIST Primary Optical Watt Radiometer, a cryogenic radiometer that maintains the NIST radiant power scale to an uncertainty of 0.02% (1 σ ). As of 2011 TRF was the only facility that approached the desired <0.01% uncertainty for pre-launch validation of solar radiometers measuring irradiance (rather than merely optical power) at solar power levels and under vacuum conditions. TRF encloses both

10600-409: The top of the Earth's atmosphere is about 1361   W/m . This represents the power per unit area of solar irradiance across the spherical surface surrounding the Sun with a radius equal to the distance to the Earth (1   AU ). This means that the approximately circular disc of the Earth, as viewed from the Sun, receives a roughly stable 1361   W/m at all times. The area of this circular disc

10706-471: The view-limiting aperture. For ACRIM, NIST determined that diffraction from the view-limiting aperture contributes a 0.13% signal not accounted for in the three ACRIM instruments. This correction lowers the reported ACRIM values, bringing ACRIM closer to TIM. In ACRIM and all other instruments but TIM, the aperture is deep inside the instrument, with a larger view-limiting aperture at the front. Depending on edge imperfections this can directly scatter light into

10812-583: The word is preserved in the same form in Bulgarian , to which Macedonian is much more closely related than to Serbo-Croatian). Linguistic investigation began during the 19th century, although the research itself often ended in non-linguistic or outdated conclusions. Since that was the age of national revivals across Europe as well as the South Slavic lands, the research was steered by national narratives. Within that framework, Slovene philologists such as Franz Miklosich and Jernej Kopitar attempted to reinforce

10918-469: The year and the day, the Earth's atmosphere receives 340   W/m from the Sun. This figure is important in radiative forcing . The distribution of solar radiation at the top of the atmosphere is determined by Earth's sphericity and orbital parameters. This applies to any unidirectional beam incident to a rotating sphere. Insolation is essential for numerical weather prediction and understanding seasons and climatic change . Application to ice ages

11024-459: Was contrary to the original vision of Zagreb school. With the notable exception of vocabulary influence of Kajkavian on the standard Croatian register (but not the Serbian one), there was very little to no input from other non-Shtokavian dialects. Instead, the opposite was done, with some modern-day linguists calling the process of 19th-century standardization an event of "neo-Shtokavian purism" and

11130-620: Was historically a Kajkavian-speaking area, mainly Zagreb, Koprivnica, Krapina, Križevci, Varaždin, Čakovec. The typical archaic Kajkavian is today spoken mainly in Hrvatsko Zagorje hills and Međimurje plain, and in adjacent areas of northwestern Croatia where immigrants and the Štokavian standard had much less influence. The most peculiar Kajkavian dialect (Bednjounski) is spoken in Bednja in northernmost Croatia. Many of northern Croatian urban areas today are partly Štokavianized due to

11236-573: Was invented in the 19th century and is credited to Serbian philologist Đuro Daničić , while it was generally used and promoted in the 20th century works by Croatian writer Miroslav Krleža . The term is today accepted by its speakers in Croatia. The problem with classifying Kajkavian within South Slavic stems in part from its both structural differences and closesness with neighboring Chakavian and Shtokavian speeches as well as its historical closeness to Slovene speeches. Some Slavists maintain that when

#34965