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145-451: Melanie Klein (née Reizes ; 30 March 1882 – 22 September 1960) was an Austrian-British author and psychoanalyst known for her work in child analysis . She was the primary figure in the development of object relations theory . Klein suggested that pre-verbal existential anxiety in infancy catalyzed the formation of the unconscious, which resulted in the unconscious splitting of the world into good and bad idealizations . In her theory, how

290-539: A castration phobia as sons do, so this syndrome seems to be reserved for the opposite sex. Feminist psychoanalysts debate whether the father of psychoanalysis might have been a victim of sexism in this case. To compensate for the perceived disadvantage, they postulate a Jocasta complex consisting of an incestuous desire of mothers for their infant sons; but other analysts point out that Sophocles' Iokasta doesn't exhibit this behaviour. The witch's special interest in little Hansel (while she merely abuses his sister as

435-489: A bold thinker have guessed something that is afterwards confirmed by sober and painstaking detailed research?" He then went on to add that "what we are saying is not even genuine Schopenhauer....we are not overlooking the fact that there is life as well as death. We recognise two basic instincts and give each of them its own aim". Freud applied his new theoretical construct in Civilization and Its Discontents (1930) to

580-615: A castration complex. The myth of Oedipus is about the attempt to liberate the 'amputated' potency of the id, but fails because of the remaining unconscious motives. As the ego is overwhelmed by the punitive fear of the moral content of its ‘preconscious’ superego, it cuts off the instinctive desire for knowledge from itself (blinds itself). Attempts to find a female equivalent of the Oedipus complex have not yielded good results. According to Freud, girls, because of their anatomically different genitals, cannot identify with their father, nor develop

725-450: A causal factor of depression, publishing an influential paper in 1967 after a decade of research using the construct of schemas to explain the depression. Beck developed this empirically supported hypothesis for the cause of depression into a talking therapy called cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) in the early 1970s. Attachment theory was developed theoretically by John Bowlby and formalized empirically by Mary Ainsworth . Bowlby

870-487: A great extent outwards ... The instinct is then called the destructive instinct, the instinct for mastery, or the will to power", a perhaps much more recognisable set of manifestations. At the close of the decade, in Civilization and Its Discontents (1930), Freud acknowledged that "To begin with it was only tentatively that I put forward the views I have developed here, but in the course of time they have gained such

1015-562: A hold upon me that I can no longer think in any other way". From a philosophical perspective, the death drive may be viewed in relation to the work of the German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer . His philosophy, expounded in The World as Will and Representation (1818) postulates that all exists by a metaphysical "will" (more clearly, a will to live ), and that pleasure affirms this will. Schopenhauer's pessimism led him to believe that

1160-413: A kitchen slave) offers much better evidence here, although such 'Crunchy house syndrome' should not as omnipresent as the Oedipus complex. In the later second part of the 20th century, several Freud researchers questioned the author's perception that his patients had informed him of childhood sexual abuse. Some of them argued that Freud had imposed his preconceived view on his patients, while others raised

1305-410: A little for a happy baby. Development later shows that some of these easy-going babies are not happy. Their lack of crying may be due to some kind of apathy. It is hard to assess a young person's state of mind without allowing for a great complexity of emotions. When these babies are followed up on we see that a great deal of difficulty appears. These children are often shy of people, and their interest in

1450-487: A mistake in private, to his friend and colleague Wilhelm Fliess in 1898; but it took another 8 years before he had clarified the obscure connections sufficiently enough to publicly revoke his thesis, stating the reasons. (Freud's final position on the origin of neurosis in general is summarized in his late work The Discomfort in Culture . According to this, the causes do not lie in general sexual abuse of children, but in

1595-407: A model of the human psyche that linked significant oscillations of state, with the postulated Eros or Thanatos pulsations. She named the state of the mind in which the sustaining principle of life dominates the depressive position . A depressive position is the understanding that good and evil things are one. The fears and worries about the fate of the people destroyed in the child's fantasy are all in

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1740-683: A more realistic attitude toward both men and women This book became a classic of U.S. second-wave feminism and was later translated into seven languages. Feminists critical of Klein's work have drawn attention to an unwarranted assumption of a natural causality connecting sex, gender and desire, stereotypical gender descriptions and in general a prescriptive normative privileging of heterosexual dynamics. Melanie Klein's works are collected in four volumes: Books on Melanie Klein :* Sayers, J. (2013). The autobiography of Melanie Klein. Psychoanalysis and History, 15(2), 127– 163. https://doi.org/10.3366/pah.2013.0130 Psychoanalysis Psychoanalysis

1885-518: A notion that was rejected by Freud and his followers at the time. By 1936 the "Principle of Multiple Function" was clarified by Robert Waelder . He widened the formulation that psychological symptoms were caused by and relieved conflict simultaneously. Moreover, symptoms (such as phobias and compulsions ) each represented elements of some drive wish (sexual and/or aggressive), superego, anxiety, reality, and defenses. Also in 1936, Anna Freud , Sigmund's daughter, published her seminal book, The Ego and

2030-887: A phantasy life in the infant. Because of this supposition, Klein's beliefs required her to proclaim that an ego exists from birth, enabling the infant to relate to others early in life (Likierman & Urban, 1999). In Dorothy Dinnerstein 's book The Mermaid and the Minotaur (1976) (also published in the UK as The Rocking of the Cradle and the Ruling of the World ), drawing from elements of Sigmund Freud 's psychoanalysis, particularly as developed by Klein, Dinnerstein argued that sexism and aggression are both inevitable consequences of child-rearing being left exclusively to women. Klein concluded that

2175-457: A priori with the conditions of mental apparatus ), ideologies such as Marxism and the phenomenon of technological as well as cultural creativity of mankind and its zoological closest relatives. The idea of psychoanalysis began to receive serious attention in the 1890s; Freud called it first Free Association . During this time, he worked as a neurologist in a children's hospital, where attempts were made to develop an effective treatment for

2320-449: A production of pleasure". Three main types of conflictual evidence, difficult to explain satisfactorily in such terms, led Freud late in his career to look for another principle in mental life beyond the pleasure principle —a search that would ultimately lead him to the concept of the death drive. The first problem Freud encountered was the phenomenon of repetition in (war) trauma. When Freud worked with people with trauma (particularly

2465-477: A research tool into childhood development, and is still used to treat certain mental disturbances. In the 1960s, Freud's early thoughts on the childhood development of female sexuality were challenged; this challenge led to the development of a variety of understandings of female sexual development, many of which modified the timing and normality of several of Freud's theories. Several researchers followed Karen Horney 's studies of societal pressures that influence

2610-493: A research tool, the experimental application of which actually made it possible to eliminate symptoms of this kind. Paralysed people could suddenly walk again, blind ones could see. Although this effect is not known to last long – as Freud discovered in own experiments – the phenomenon of hypnotic false-healing played a decisive role in convincing him of the psycho-traumatical causation of the multifaceted neurotic clinical picture. Freud's first attempt to explain neurotical symptoms

2755-465: A strong influence on the developing theories and techniques of psychoanalysis, particularly in Great Britain. Her theories on human development and defense mechanisms were a source of controversy, as they conflicted with Freud 's theories on development, and caused much discussion in the world of developmental psychology. Around the same time Klein presented her ideas, Anna Freud was doing

2900-432: A structural explanation for 'the suffering of civilized man'. Freud made a further connection between group life and innate aggression, where the former comes together more closely by directing aggression to other groups, an idea later picked up by group analysts like Wilfred Bion . In the closing decade of Freud's life, it has been suggested, his view of the death drive changed somewhat, with "the stress much more upon

3045-413: A technical elaboration of the three-instance model of the psyche and examined primarily the logical structure of the unconscious . Freud distinguished between the conscious and unconscious realms of the psyche and argued that the contents of unconscious largely determine cognition and behaviour . He found that many of the drives – since his structural model located in the ‘id’ – are repressed into

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3190-641: A technique for bringing repressed content back into the consciousness, in particular the diagnostic interpretation of dreams . Overall, psychoanalysis is a method for the treatment of mental disorders . Founded in the early 1890s, initially in co-operation with Josef Breuer 's and others' clinical research, Freud continued to revise and refine theory and practice of psychoanalysis until his death in 1939. An encyclopaedic article quotes him with following cornerstones of psychoanalysis: Using similar psychoanalytical terms, Freud's earlier colleagues Alfred Adler and Carl Jung developed their own therapeutic methods,

3335-406: A toll on her. This and her unhappy marriage soon led Klein to seek treatment. Shortly after her family moved to Budapest in 1910, Klein began a course of therapy with psychoanalyst Sándor Ferenczi . It was during their time together that Klein developed an interest in the study of psychoanalysis. Encouraged by Ferenczi, Klein began her studies by observing her own children. During this time, there

3480-571: A ‘latency’ break – the Sleeping Beauty – between the ages of about 7 and 12 for benefit social-intellectual growth. Psychoanalysts place large emphasis on experiences of early childhood , try to overcome infantile amnesia . In traditional Freudian setting, the patient lies on a couch, and the analyst sits just behind or somehow out of sight. The patient should express all his thoughts, all secrets and dreams, including free associations and fantasies . In addition to its task of strengthening

3625-440: Is a common psychotic condition. Klein's insistence on regarding aggression as an important force in its own right when analyzing children brought her into conflict with Freud's daughter Anna Freud, who was one of the other prominent child psychotherapists in continental Europe but who moved to London in 1938 where Klein had been working for several years. Many controversies arose from this conflict, and these are often referred to as

3770-430: Is a theory developed by Sigmund Freud . It describes the human mind as an apparatus that emerged along the path of evolution and consists mainly of three functionally interlocking instances: a set of innate needs, a consciousness to satisfy them by ruling the muscular apparatus, and a memory for storing experiences that arises during this. Furthermore the theory includes insights into the effects of traumatic education and

3915-415: Is about Oedipus' own sexual desire addresses to his mother Jocasta – admittedly as an already genitally mature man and without knowing about the close blood relationship including an not less unconscious patricide – which the woman reciprocates just as unsuspectingly. Freud interprets the passage where Oedipus – after realising his serious violation of the moral-totemic incest taboo – pokes out his eyes with

4060-478: Is exposed from birth to the anxiety stirred up by the inborn polarity of instincts—the immediate conflict between the life instinct and the death instinct"; and Kleinians indeed built much of their theory of early childhood around the outward deflection of the latter. "This deflection of the death instinct, described by Freud, in Melanie Klein's view consists partly of a projection, partly of the conversion of

4205-446: Is impossible to have precisely defined concepts from the outset, respectively phenomena that from now on have been clarified without any gaps and contradictions. "Indeed, even physics would have missed out on its entire development if it had been forced to wait until its concepts of matter, energy, gravity and others reached the desirable clarity and precision." The psychologist Frank Sulloway points out in his book Freud, Biologist of

4350-492: Is indispensable for the diagnostic prozess ( sickness can only be realised as a deviation from health : the optimal cooperation of all mental-organic functions), but Freud had to be modest. He had to leave his model of human's soul in the unfinished state of a torso because – as he stated one last time in Moses and Monotheism – there was no well-founded primate research in the first half of 20th century. Without knowledge of

4495-417: Is known to be one of the primary founders of object relations theory . This theory of psychoanalysis is based on the assumption that all individuals have within them an internalized, and primarily unconscious realm of relationships. These relationships refer not only to the world around the individual, but more specifically to other individuals surrounding the subject. Object relation theory focuses primarily on

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4640-439: Is no longer the decisive factor here, but the specific function of each of the three instances. This new model did not replace the first one: it integrated it.) The Interpretation of Dreams includes the first comprehensive conceptualisation of Oedipus complex : The little boy admires his father because of the mental and physical advantages of the adult man and wants to become like him, but also comes into conflict with him over

4785-622: Is not a child's desire ), but as a method whose appropriation is open to everyone. In the Wednesday round of young psychoanalysis, academics and ‘uneducated’ worked together on an equal footing to rediscover the happiness lost in the Dark Continent of the human soul – not easy to understand for some outsiders. In order to counteract misunderstandings, Freud clearly sets out the only condition for being able to pursue this interest seriously in his treatise on The Question of Lay Analysis :

4930-403: Is not yet able to help himself due to inexperience. ) From the sum of what is shown and communicated, the analyst deduces unconscious conflicts with imposed traumas that are causing the patient's symptoms, his persona and character problems, and works out a diagnosis . This explanation of the origin of loss of mental health and the analytical processes as a whole confronts the patients ego with

5075-480: The psychosexual phases , which categorised early childhood development into five stages depending on what sexual affinity a child possessed at the stage: His early formulation included the idea that because of societal restrictions, sexual wishes were repressed into an unconscious state, and that the energy of these unconscious wishes could be result in anxiety or physical symptoms. Early treatment techniques, including hypnotism and abreaction , were designed to make

5220-526: The Eros of Socratic-Platonic philosophy. Freud attached great importance to coherence of his structural model . The metapsychological specification of the functions and interlocking of the three instances was intended to ensure the full connectivity of this ‘psychic apparatus’ with biological sciences, in particular Darwin's theory of evolution of species, including mankind with his behaviour, natural thinking ability and technological creativity. Such insight

5365-479: The Fort/Da Forth/here game played by Freud's grandson, who would stage and re-stage the disappearance of his mother and even himself). "How then does his repetition of this distressing experience as a game fit in with the pleasure principle?" The third problem came from clinical practice. Freud found his patients, dealing with painful experiences that had been repressed, regularly "obliged to repeat

5510-616: The Gymnasium , Klein wanted to go on to university to study medicine. However, her family's loss of wealth – and the pressure on her, as a young woman, to marry and have children – caused her to give up on realizing this wish. At the age of 21, she married an industrial chemist, Arthur Klein, and soon after gave birth to their first child, Melitta . Klein then had her second child, Hans, in 1907 and her third and final child, Erich, in 1914. After having those two additional children, Klein suffered from clinical depression as these pregnancies took

5655-475: The Phobia of a five-year-old boy . However, Freud not only discovered this complex and the 'oral fixatet' Syndrom of Narzissos' regress back into amniotic fluid (as far as possible given the state of science at the time), but also devised a hypothesis of healthy emotional development, which by nature completes in three successive stages: the oral, anal and genital phases . Whereby the sexual drive of latter takes

5800-548: The controversial discussions . Battles were played out between the two sides, each presenting scientific papers, working out their respective positions and where they differed, during war-time Britain. A compromise was eventually reached whereby three distinct training groups were formed within the British Psychoanalytical Society, with Anna Freud's influence remaining largely predominant in the US. Klein

5945-480: The ego —the experiencing self—into activity. Id, ego, and superego , to be sure, were merely shorthand terms (similar to the instincts ) referring to highly complex and mostly uncharted psychodynamic operations. Klein's work on the importance of observing infants began in 1935 with a public lecture in London on weaning . Klein states that mother–infant relationships are built on more than feeding and developing

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6090-477: The id and the ego's conscious values, which manifests itself in more or less conspicuous mental disorders, although Freud did not equate the statistical normality of our society with ‘healthy’. "Health can only be described in metapsychological terms." He discovered that the instinctive impulses are expressed most clearly – albeit still encoded – in the symbols of dreams as well as in the symptomatic detours of neuroticism and Freudian slips . Psychoanalysis

6235-444: The synthetic function of the ego as a mediator in psychic functioning, distinguishing such from autonomous ego functions (e.g. memory and intellect). These "ego psychologists" of the 1950s paved a way to focus analytic work by attending to the defenses (mediated by the ego) before exploring the deeper roots to the unconscious conflicts. In addition, there was growing interest in child psychoanalysis . Psychoanalysis has been used as

6380-549: The teleological element of his three-fold soul model, a desiring energy that links cause and purpose , instead of mere ‘effect’. This universal force embodies the psychicaly source that drives all instinctual needs of living beings, as well as the First Cause of their physicaly evolution. On this path, sexual behaviour realises Darwin's Law of Natural Selection by favouring the most fitting and aesthetically well-proportioned body forms in reproduction. Of course Freud

6525-543: The Berlin Psycho-Analytic Society under the tutelage of Karl Abraham . Although Abraham supported her pioneering work with children, neither Klein nor her ideas received much support in Berlin. As a divorced woman whose academic qualifications did not even include a bachelor's degree, Klein was a visible iconoclast within a profession dominated by male physicians. Nevertheless, Klein's early work had

6670-636: The Mechanisms of Defence (1936). Death drive The death drive opposes Eros , the tendency toward survival, propagation, sex, and other creative, life-producing drives. The death drive is sometimes referred to as Thanatos in post-Freudian thought (in reference to the Greek personification of death ), complementing "Eros", although this term was not used in Freud's own work, being rather introduced by Wilhelm Stekel in 1909 and then by Paul Federn in

6815-495: The Mechanisms of Defense , outlining numerous ways the mind could shut upsetting things out of consciousness. When Hitler 's power grew, the Freud family and many of their colleagues fled to London. Within a year, Sigmund Freud died. In the United States, also following the death of Freud, a new group of psychoanalysts began to explore the function of the ego. Led by Heinz Hartmann , the group built upon understandings of

6960-641: The Mind: Beyond the Psychoanalytic Legend that the theories and hypotheses of psychoanalysis are anchored in the findings of contemporary biology. He mentions the profound influence of Charles Darwin ‘s theory of evolution on Freud and quotes this sense from the writings of Haeckel , Wilhelm Fliess , Krafft-Ebing and Havelock Ellis . In 1905, Freud published Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality in which he laid out his discovery of

7105-460: The Oedipal model. For his work, Bowlby was shunned from psychoanalytical circles who did not accept his theories. Nonetheless, his conceptualization was adopted widely by mother-infant research in the 1970s. The predominant psychoanalytic theories can be organised into several theoretical schools. Although these perspectives differ, most of them emphasize the influence of unconscious elements on

7250-552: The Pleasure Principle . In The Ego and the Id (1923) he would develop his argument to state that "the death instinct would thus seem to express itself—though probably only in part—as an instinct of destruction directed against the external world". The following year he would spell out more clearly that the "libido has the task of making the destroying instinct innocuous, and it fulfils the task by diverting that instinct to

7395-476: The [cultural] superego: "We have even been guilty of the heresy of attributing the origin of conscience to this diversion inwards of aggressiveness". The presence thereafter in the individual of the superego and a related sense of guilt—"Civilization, therefore, obtains mastery over the individual's dangerous desire for aggression by ... setting up an agency within him to watch over it" —leaves an abiding sense of uneasiness inherent in civilized life, thereby providing

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7540-520: The affirmation of the "will" was a negative and immoral thing, due to his belief of life producing more suffering than happiness. The death drive would seem to manifest as a natural and psychological negation of the "will". Freud was well aware of such possible linkages. In a letter of 1919, he wrote that regarding "the theme of death, [that I] have stumbled onto an odd idea via the drives and must now read all sorts of things that belong to it, for instance Schopenhauer". Ernest Jones (who like many analysts

7685-467: The ancient trap to pacify political conflicts among the groups of Neolithic mankind. (See Prometheus ' uprising against Zeus, who created Pandora as a fatal wedding gift for Epimetheus to divide and rule the titanic brothers; Plato's myth of spherical men cut into isolated individuals for the same reason; and the similarly resolved revolt of inferior gods in the Flood epic Atra-Hasis ). Nonetheless, due to

7830-422: The beginning of life, all libido was directed to the inside and all aggressiveness to the outside'. In his last writings, it was the contrast of "two basic instincts, Eros and the destructive instinct ... our two primal instincts, Eros and destructiveness ", on which he laid stress. Nevertheless, his belief in "the death instinct ... [as] a return to an earlier state ... into an inorganic state" continued to

7975-529: The brain but, rather, mental processes. Although Freud retained this theory throughout his life, he largely replaced it with the structural theory . Structural theory divides the psyche into the id , the ego , and the super-ego . The id is present at birth as the repository of basic instincts, which Freud called " Triebe " ("drives"). Unorganized and unconscious, it operates merely on the 'pleasure principle', without realism or foresight. The ego develops slowly and gradually, being concerned with mediating between

8120-563: The child doubts whether it can fix everything it hurts. Many consider this to be her most significant contribution to psychoanalytic philosophy. She later developed her ideas about an earlier developmental psychological state corresponding to the disintegrating tendency of life, which she called the paranoid-schizoid position . Klein coined the term "paranoid-schizoid defense" to emphasize how the child's worries manifest as persecution fantasies and how he defends himself against persecution by separating. The paranoid-schizoid position develops at birth

8265-487: The child resolves that split depends on the constitution of the child and the character of nurturing the child experiences. The quality of resolution can inform the presence, absence, and/or type of distresses a person experiences later in life. Melanie Klein was born into a Jewish family and spent most of her early life in Vienna . She was the fourth and final child of parents Moriz, a doctor, and Libussa Reizes. Educated at

8410-535: The child would therefore be the prerequisite for the later development of hysterical and other kinds of neurotical symptoms. It contradicts the seduction thesis that Freud reported in the same year about patients who expressed their "emphatic disbelief" in this respect: that they "had no feeling of remembering the infantile sexual scenes". In the course of his further research, Freud began to doubt his thesis that such abuse should be almost omnipresent in our society. Initially he expressed his suspicion of having made

8555-492: The clinical setting. Klein's approach differed from Anna Freud's ego-psychology approach. Klein explored the interpersonal aspect of the structural model. In the mid-1920s, she thought differently about the first mode of defense. Klein thought it was expulsion while Freud speculated it was repression (Stein, 1990). Klein suggested that the infant could relate – from birth – to its mother, who was deemed either "good" or "bad" and internalized as archaic part-object, thereby developing

8700-422: The conflict between destrudo and libido are still fairly widespread in the 21st century. Destrudo as an evocative name also appears in rock music and video games. Mortido was introduced by Freud's pupil Paul Federn to cover the psychic energy of the death instinct, something left open by Freud himself: Providing what he saw as clinical proof of the reality of the death instinct in 1930, Federn reported on

8845-599: The conscious. There has also been considerable work done on consolidating elements of conflicting theories. There are some persistent conflicts among psychoanalysts regarding specific causes of certain syndromes, and some disputes regarding the ideal treatment techniques. In the 21st century, psychoanalytic ideas have found influence in fields such as childcare , education , literary criticism , cultural studies , mental health , and particularly psychotherapy . Though most mainstream psychoanalysts subscribe to modern strains of psychoanalytical thought, there are groups who follow

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8990-481: The conservative, restorative character of instinctual life, Freud derived his death drive, with its "pressure towards death", and the resulting "separation of the death instincts from the life instincts" seen in Eros. The death drive then manifested itself in the individual creature as a force "whose function is to assure that the organism shall follow its own path to death". Seeking further potential clinical support for

9135-411: The conventional observations of Freud, also believes right down the line with him concerning the death instinct, and the pervasiveness of the repetition compulsion ". For the twenty-first century, "the death drive today ... remains a highly controversial theory for many psychoanalysts ... [almost] as many opinions as there are psychoanalysts". Freud's conceptual opposition of death and eros drives in

9280-409: The death drive (as he had done with the life drive, "libido"), the next generation of psychoanalysts vied to find suitable names for it. Literary criticism has been almost more prepared than psychoanalysis to make at least metaphorical use of the term 'Destrudo'. Artistic images were seen by Joseph Campbell in terms of "incestuous 'libido' and patricidal 'destrudo'"; while literary descriptions of

9425-402: The death drive: "the symbol is substituted for death in order to take possession of the first swelling of life .... There is therefore no further need to have recourse to the outworn notion of primordial masochism in order to understand the reason for the repetitive games in ... his Fort! and in his Da! ." Eric Berne too would proudly proclaim that he, "besides having repeated and confirmed

9570-404: The death instinct into aggression". French psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan , for his part, castigated the "refusal to accept this culminating point of Freud's doctrine ... by those who conduct their analysis on the basis of a conception of the ego ... that death instinct whose enigma Freud propounded for us at the height of his experience". Characteristically, he stressed the linguistic aspects of

9715-422: The death instinct's manifestations outwards ". Given "the ubiquity of non-erotic aggressivity and destructiveness", he wrote in 1930, "I adopt the standpoint, therefore, that the inclination to aggression is an original, self-subsisting instinctual disposition in man". In 1933, he conceived of his original formulation of the death drive 'the improbability of our speculations. A queer instinct, indeed, directed to

9860-403: The demands of innate needs and externally imposed behavioural rules that prohibit their satisfaction. Freud called the former the primary process , taking place predominantly in the unconscious, and the latter the secondary process of predominantly conscious, more or less coherent thoughts. Freud summarised this view in his first model of the soul. Known as the topological model , it divides

10005-418: The destruction of its own organic home!'. He wrote moreover that "Our hypothesis is that there are two essentially different classes of instincts: the sexual instincts, understood in the widest sense—Eros, if you prefer that name—and the aggressive instincts, whose aim is destruction". In 1937, he went so far as to suggest privately that 'We should have a neat schematic picture if we supposed that originally, at

10150-509: The development of an Oedipal complex . Freud's theories, however, characterized no such phase. According to Freud, the Oedipus complex was at the centre of neurosis, and was the foundational source of all art, myth, religion, philosophy, therapy—indeed of all human culture and civilization. It was the first time that anyone in Freud's inner circle had characterised something other than the Oedipus complex as contributing to intrapsychic development,

10295-688: The development of women. In the first decade of the 21st century, there were approximately 35 training institutes for psychoanalysis in the United States accredited by the American Psychoanalytic Association (APsaA), which is a component organization of the International Psychoanalytical Association (IPA), and there are over 3000 graduated psychoanalysts practicing in the United States. The IPA accredits psychoanalytic training centers through such "component organisations" throughout

10440-467: The difficulties inherent in Western civilization —indeed, in civilization and in social life as a whole. In particular, given that "a portion of the [death] instinct is diverted towards the external world and comes to light as an instinct of aggressiveness', he saw 'the inclination to aggression ... [as] the greatest impediment to civilization". The need to overcome such aggression entailed the formation of

10585-422: The ego with its ability to think dialectical – Freud's primacy of intellect –, therapy also aims to induce transference . The patient thus projects his educated him mother and father as internalised in his superego since birth onto the analyst. As he once did as a baby and little child, he experiences again the feelings of helpless dependence, all the futile longing for love, anger, rage and urge for revenge on

10730-417: The end. The terms mortido and destrudo , formed analogously to libido , refer to the energy of the death instinct . In the early 21st century, their use amongst Freudian psychoanalysts has been waning, but still designate destructive energy. The importance of integrating mortido into an individual's life, as opposed to splitting it off and disowning it, has been taken up by figures like Robert Bly in

10875-582: The energy of the death instinct, on the analogy of libido —and thus to cover the energy of the destructive impulse in Freudian psychology. Destrudo is the opposite of libido—the urge to create, an energy that arises from the Eros (or "life") drive—and is the urge to destroy arising from Thanatos (death), and thus an aspect of what Sigmund Freud termed "the aggressive instincts, whose aim is destruction". Weiss related aggression/destrudo to secondary narcissism , something generally only described in terms of

11020-493: The existence of other drives as well, and Lacan explicitly states in Seminar XI that all drives are partial to the death drive). The contemporary Penguin translations of Freud translate Trieb and Instinkt as "drive" and "instinct" respectively. It was a basic premise of Freud's that "the course taken by mental events is automatically regulated by the pleasure principle ... [associated] with an avoidance of unpleasure or

11165-404: The existence of such a self-destructive force, Freud found it through a reconsideration of his views of masochism—previously "regarded as sadism that has been turned round upon the subject's own ego"—so as to allow that "there might be such a thing as primary masochism—a possibility which I had contested" before. Even with such support, however, he remained very tentative to the book's close about

11310-663: The external world, play, and learning is inhibited. They are often slow at learning to crawl and walk because there seems to be little incentive. They are often showing signs of neurosis as their development goes on. While Freud's ideas concerning children mostly came from working with adult patients, Klein was innovative in working directly with children, often as young as two years old. Klein saw children's play as their primary mode of emotional communication. While observing children as they played with toys such as dolls, animals, plasticine or pencils and paper, Klein documented their activities and interactions. She then attempted to interpret

11455-401: The failing parents, but now with the possibility of processing these contents that have chaped his persona. ( All people who have been brought up in moralic culturs project irrational fears and hopes for happiness everywhere. The term Countertransference means that the analyst himself projects such content onto his patient; then he has an own open problem and has to go to his own analyst if he

11600-401: The field of child analysis. Klein was one of the first to use traditional psychoanalysis with young children. She was innovative in both her techniques (such as working with children using toys) and her theories on infant development. By observing and analyzing the play and interactions of children, Klein built on the work of Freud's unconscious mind . Her dive into the unconscious mind of

11745-518: The first international congress of psychoanalysis held in Salzburg, Austria. Alfred Adler was one of the most active members in this society in its early years. The second congress of psychoanalysis took place in Nuremberg, Germany in 1910. At this congress, Ferenczi called for the creation of an International Psychoanalytic Association with Jung as president for life. A third congress

11890-457: The golden needle clasp of his wife's and mother's nightdress (while Jocasta commits suicide) as a manifestation of the same ‘cover-up’ mechanism that he began to uncover in the above-mentioned fantasies. In his eyes psychoanalysis works in opposite direction to this mechanism of preconscious self-delusion, by bringing the due to incest taboo have been repressed desires (the ‘id’) back into realm of inner perception, own conscious thinking. This raised

12035-758: The ideas of id, ego, and superego in The Ego and the Id . In the book, he revised the whole theory of mental functioning, now considering that repression was only one of many defense mechanisms, and that it occurred to reduce anxiety. Hence, Freud characterised repression as both a cause and a result of anxiety. In 1926, in "Inhibitions, Symptoms and Anxiety", Freud characterised how intrapsychic conflict among drive and superego caused anxiety , and how that anxiety could lead to an inhibition of mental functions, such as intellect and speech. In 1924, Otto Rank published The Trauma of Birth , which analysed culture and philosophy in relation to separation anxiety which occurred before

12180-405: The inanimate state". "This equating of Instinkt and Trieb has created serious misunderstandings." Freud actually refers to the term "Instinkt" in explicit use elsewhere, and so while the concept of "instinct" can loosely be referred to as a "drive", any essentialist or naturalist connotations of the term should be put in abeyance. In a sense, the death drive is a force that is not essential to

12325-412: The infant wishes to evoke love and pleasure in their mother with their achievements. Klein says that the infant notices that their smile makes their mother happy and results in the mothers attention. The infant also recognizes that their smile may serve a better purpose than their cry. Klein also talks about the " apathetic " baby. She says that it is easy to mistake a baby that enjoys their food and cries

12470-407: The infant yielded the findings of the early Oedipus complex , as well as the developmental roots of the superego . Klein's theoretical work incorporates Freud's belief in the existence of the death drive , reflecting the notion that all living organisms are inherently drawn toward an "inorganic" state, and therefore, somehow, towards death. In psychological terms, Eros (properly, the life drive),

12615-503: The infant's attachment; the mother's attachment and bond with her baby is just as important, if not more. Klein came to this conclusion by using actual observations of herself and mothers that she knew. She described how infants show interest in their mothers' face, the touch of their mothers' hands, and the infants' pleasure in touching their mothers' breast. The relationship is built on affection that emerges very soon after birth. Klein says that as early as two months, infants show interest in

12760-490: The infant's first and major concern is fear of being annihilated by the anger it feels, for example, when it is frustrated by the mother. As a solution, Dinnerstein proposed that men and women equally share infant and childcare responsibilities. She argues that if men shared childcare equally with women, they would be equally involved in the phantasies associated with infancy's paranoid and depressive worries. There would then be no way out of dealing with these anxieties and creating

12905-510: The instinctive social behaviour and other abilities of our genetically closest relatives in realm of animals, his thesis of the Darwinian primordial horde (as presented for discussion in Totem and Taboo ) cannot be tested and, where necessary, replaced by a realistic model. Horde life and its violent abolition via introduction of monogamy (as a political agreement between the sons who murdered

13050-413: The interaction individuals have with others, how those interactions are internalized, and how these now internalized object relations affect one's psychological framework. The term "object" refers to the potential embodiment of fear, desire, envy or other comparable emotions. The object and the subject are separated, allowing for a more simplistic approach to addressing the deprived areas of need when used in

13195-508: The lack of ethological primate research, these ideas remained an unproven belief of palaeo-anthropological science – only a hypothesis or " just so story as a not unpleasant English critic wittily called it. But I mean it honours a hypothesis if it shows capable of creating context and understanding in new areas." The author illustrated the conflict of today's son with his father over his mother by naming it after Sophocles ' tragedy Oedipus , supplementing this view with case studies such as

13340-429: The latter. The child tries to repair his mother through phantasm and behavior therapy, overcoming his depression and anxiety. He employs phantasies representing love and restoration to restore the others he destroyed. Morality is based on the standpoint of depression. Klein named it the depressive position because the efforts to restore the integrity of the damaged object are accompanied by depression and despair. After all,

13485-688: The leader and with other members) in groups as a motivation for behavior in Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego . In that same year, Freud suggested his dual drive theory of sexuality and aggression in Beyond the Pleasure Principle , to try to begin to explain human destructiveness. Also, it was the first appearance of his "structural theory" consisting of three new concepts id, ego, and superego . Three years later, in 1923, he summarised

13630-587: The libido turning towards the self. Eric Berne, who was a pupil of Federn's, made extensive use of the term mortido in his pre- transactional analysis study, The Mind in Action (1947). As he wrote in the foreword to the third edition of 1967, "the historical events of the last thirty years...become much clearer by introducing Paul Federn's concept of mortido". Berne saw mortido as activating such forces as hate and cruelty, blinding anger and social hostilities; and considered that inwardly directed mortido underlay

13775-405: The life of an organism (unlike an "instinct") and tends to denature it or make it behave in ways that are sometimes counter-intuitive. In other words, the term death "instinct" is simply a false representation of death drive. The term is almost universally known in scholarly literature on Freud as the "death drive", and Lacanian psychoanalysts often shorten it to simply "drive" (although Freud posited

13920-571: The living soul: The brain with its nervous system extending over the entire organism and the acts of consciousness. In Freud's view, therefore any number of phenomena can be integrated between " both endpoints of our knowledge " (including the findings of modern neurology), but this only contribute to the spatial " localisation of the acts of consciousness ", not to their understanding. With reference to Descartes, contemporary neuropsychoanalysts explain this situation as mind-body dichotomy , namely both as two total different kinds of 'stuff': an objekt and

14065-478: The men's movement. Paul Federn used the term mortido for the new energy source, and has generally been followed in that by other analytic writers. His disciple and collaborator Weiss, however, chose destrudo, which was later taken up by Charles Brenner . Mortido has also been applied in contemporary expositions of the Cabbala . Whereas Freud himself never named the aggressive and destructive energy of

14210-528: The methodical examination of one's own inner situation, wherever possible with assistance of an already experienced psychoanalyst. Psychoanalysis has been a controversial discipline from the outset and its effectiveness as a treatment remains contested, although its influence on psychology and psychiatry is undisputed. Psychoanalytic perspectives are also widely used outside the therapeutic field, for example in film and literary criticism , interpretation of fairy tales or philosophical concepts ( replacing Kant's

14355-469: The more conscious parts on the other hand would aim to make these morally forbidden acts of childish pleasure unrecognisable, to cover up them. The interesting point for Freud here was not so much the secretiveness itself (a well-known behaviour of Victorian era ), but the following twofold realisation: That children – at that time considered as innocent little angels – initiate pleasurable actions of their own accord (have ‘drives’ at all, as later assigned to

14500-456: The mother that goes beyond feeding. She observed that the infant will often smile up at the mother and cuddle against her chest. The way the infant reacts and responds to their mother's attitude and feelings, the love and interest which the infant shows, accounts for an object relation . Klein also goes on to say that infants recognize that their achievements, such as crawling and walking, give their parents joy. In one observation, Klein says that

14645-849: The neuronal-biochemical processes that permanently store experiences in the brain – like engraving the proverbial tabula rasa with some code – belongs to the physiological branch of science and lead in a different direction of research than the psychological question of what the differences between consciousness and unconsciousness are. After some thought about a suitable term, Freud called his new instrument and field of research psychoanalysis , introduced in his essay “Inheritance and Etiology of Neuroses”, written and published in French in 1896. In 1896, Freud also published his seduction theory , in which he assumed as certain that he had uncovered repressed memories of incidents of sexual abuse in each of his previous patients. This type of sexual excitations of

14790-409: The next generation through concrete or threatened punishments. Moral education creates fears of punitive violence or the deprive of love in the child's soul. They are stored neuronally in the preconscious and influences the consciousness in the sense of the imprinted rules of behaviour. (Freud's second model of the soul, the three-instance or structural model , introduces a clearer distinction. Topology

14935-407: The organism into three areas or systems: The unconscious, the preconscious and the conscious. Sexual needs belong to the unconscious and are forced to remain there if the contents of conscious ward them off. This is the case in societys that generally consider all extra- and premarital sexual activity – including homoeroticism, that of biblical Onan and incest – to be a ‘sin’, passing this value on to

15080-442: The pathological defence mechanisms, makes him aware of them as well as the instinctive contents of the id that have been repressed by them, and thus helps him to better understand himself and the world in which he lives, was born and educated. Not least this includes the fact that the neurological branch of psychoanalysis recently provided evidence that the brain stores experiences in specialised neuronal networks (memory function of

15225-559: The phenomena of guilt and self-punishment, as well as their clinical exacerbations in the form of depression or melancholia. Berne saw sexual acts as gratifying mortido at the same time as libido; and recognised that on occasion the former becomes more important sexually than the latter, as in sadomasochism and destructive emotional relationships. Berne's concern with the role of mortido in individuals and groups, social formations and nations, arguably continued throughout all his later writings. Jean Laplanche has explored repeatedly

15370-576: The pleasure principle which it over-rides". He then set out to find an explanation of such a compulsion, an explanation that some scholars have labeled as "metaphysical biology". In Freud's own words, "What follows is speculation, often far-fetched speculation, which the reader will consider or dismiss according to his individual predilection". Seeking a new instinctual paradigm for such problematic repetition, he found it ultimately in " an urge in organic life to restore an earlier state of things " —the inorganic state from which life originally emerged. From

15515-462: The polygamous forefather of the horde) embodies the evolutionary-theoretical as well as cultural-prehistorical core of psychoanalysis. Further important assumptions are based on it, such as the origin of Oedipus complex, the moral-totemic rules of behaviour and, not least, Freud's Unease in Culture . They stand in contrast to the religiously enigmatic reports about the origin of monogamous couples on earth as an expression of divine will, but closer to

15660-407: The postulated sustaining and uniting principle of life, is thereby presumed to have a companion force, Thanatos (death drive), which seeks to terminate and disintegrate life (although Freud never used the term 'Thanatos' in his own writing). Both Freud and Klein regarded these "bio-mental" forces as the foundations of the psyche. These primary unconscious forces, whose mental matrix is the id , spark

15805-544: The precepts of a single psychoanalyst and their school of thought. Psychoanalytic ideas also play roles in some types of literary analysis such as archetypal literary criticism . Topographic theory was named and first described by Sigmund Freud in The Interpretation of Dreams (1899). The theory hypothesizes that the mental apparatus can be divided into the systems Conscious , Preconscious , and Unconscious . These systems are not anatomical structures of

15950-459: The present context. Subsequent psychoanalysts such as Jacques Lacan and Melanie Klein have defended the concept. The standard edition of Freud's works in English confuses two terms that are different in German, Instinkt (instinct) and Trieb (drive), often translating both as instinct ; for example, "the hypothesis of a death instinct , the task of which is to lead organic life back into

16095-455: The provisional nature of his theoretical construct: what he called "the whole of our artificial structure of hypotheses". Although Spielrein's paper was published in 1912, Freud initially resisted the concept as he considered it to be too Jungian. Nevertheless, Freud eventually adopted the concept, and in later years would build extensively upon the tentative foundations he had set out in Beyond

16240-505: The psychological aspects of the human mind with emphasis on repression, the dynamics of dreams, therapeutic relationships. Neuroimaging is one of the methods used to empirically validate psychoanalytic concepts. Ego psychology was initially suggested by Freud in Inhibitions, Symptoms and Anxiety (1926), while major steps forward would be made through Anna Freud 's work on defense mechanisms , first published in her book The Ego and

16385-441: The question for Freud of the first origin of moral prohibitions. A field of research that led him deep into the evolutionary and cultural (prä)history of mankind (see Darwin's primal horde; its abolition through patricide in Totem and Taboo ) and which, according to his own information, he had to leave unfinished as an untested hypothesis due to the lack of primate research . In 1899, Freud's work had progressed far enough that he

16530-429: The question of mortido, and of how far a distinctive instinct of destruction can be identified in parallel to the forces of libido. As Freud wryly commented in 1930, "The assumption of the existence of an instinct of death or destruction has met with resistance even in analytic circles". Indeed, Ernest Jones would comment of Beyond the Pleasure Principle that the book not only "displayed a boldness of speculation that

16675-421: The repressed material as a contemporary experience instead of ... remembering it as something belonging to the past". Combined with what he called "the compulsion of destiny ... come across [in] people all of whose human relationships have the same outcome", such evidence led Freud "to justify the hypothesis of a compulsion to repeat—something that would seem more primitive, more elementary, more instinctual than

16820-582: The rest of the world, including countries such as Serbia, France, Germany, Austria, Italy, Switzerland, and many others, as well as about six institutes directly in the United States. Freud founded the Psychological Wednesday Society in 1902, which Edward Shorter argues was the beginning of psychoanalysis as a movement. This society became the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society in 1908 in the same year as

16965-399: The self-destructive tendencies of severely melancholic patients as evidence of what he would later call inwardly-directed mortido. However, Freud himself favoured neither term – mortido or destrudo . This worked against either of them gaining widespread popularity in the psychoanalytic literature. Destrudo is a term introduced by Italian psychoanalyst Edoardo Weiss in 1935 to denote

17110-406: The self. In 1919, through "A Child is Being Beaten", he began to address the problems of self-destructive behavior and sexual masochism . Based on his experience with depressed and self-destructive patients, and pondering the carnage of World War I , Freud became dissatisfied with considering only oral and sexual motivations for behavior. By 1920, Freud addressed the power of identification (with

17255-407: The so called individual - and analytical psychology . Freud wrote some criticisms of them and emphatically denied that they were forms of psychoanalysis. Later Freudian thinkers like Erich Fromm , Karen Horney , and Harry Stack Sullivan branched Psychoanalysis in different directions. Jacques Lacan 's work essentially represents a return to Freud. He described Freudian metapsychology as

17400-629: The so-called neurotic symptoms, but detailed examinations didn't reveal any organic defects. In the monograph written on this subject, Freud documents his suspicion that neurotic symptoms could have psychological causes. In 1885, Freud was given the opportunity to study at the Salpêtrière in Paris under the famous neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot . Charcot had specialised in the field of hysterical paralysis and anaesthesia and established hypnosis as

17545-458: The subjekt that can'nt objectify itself. With regard to Freud's libido they call this dichotomy the "dual-aspect monism". It touches on the point of psychoanalysis that is most difficult to grasp with the means of empirically based sciences – in fact, only under Kant's assumption that living systems always make judgements about the phenomena they perceive with regard to the satisfaction of their immanent needs. Therefore, Freud conceptualised libido as

17690-428: The superego) and the ego performances its highest focus of conscious thinking in frontal lobe . In some respects Freud himself embodies the founder of this field of modern research. Parallel to the consolidation of psychoanalysis, however, he turned away from it with the argument that consciousness is directly given - not to be explained by insights into physiological details. Essentially, two things were known about

17835-444: The suspicion of conscious forgery. These are two different arguments. The latter questions whether Freud deliberately lied in order to make the allegedly unfounded psychoanalysis appear as a legitimate science; the former assumes an unknowingly committed act. Freud replied at various places in his work the same to both types of argument: That natural science is a process based on trial and error . A slow but sure becoming, in which it

17980-405: The tone for ego psychology when he "chose to ... do without 'Freud's other, mainly biologically oriented set of hypotheses of the "life" and "death instincts"'". In the object relations theory , among the independent group 'the most common repudiation was the loathsome notion of the death instinct'. Indeed, "for most analysts Freud's idea of a primitive urge towards death, of a primary masochism,

18125-430: The trauma experienced by soldiers returning from World War I ), he observed that subjects often tended to repeat or re-enact these traumatic experiences: "dreams occurring in traumatic patients have the characteristic of repeatedly bringing the patient back into the situation of his accident", contrary to the expectations of the pleasure principle. A second problematic area was found by Freud in children's play (such as

18270-428: The unconscious as a result of traumatic experiences during childhood and that attempts to integrate them into the conscious perception of the ego triggers resistance . These and other defense mechanisms ‘want’ to maintain the repression – not least with the means of enigma, censorship, internalised fear of punishment or mother-love withdrawal – while the affected instincts resist. All in all, an inner war rages between

18415-553: The unconscious conscious in order to relieve the pressure and the apparently resulting symptoms. This method would later on be left aside by Freud, giving free association a bigger role. In On Narcissism (1914), Freud turned his attention to the titular subject of narcissism . Freud characterized the difference between energy directed at the self versus energy directed at others using a system known as cathexis . By 1917, in " Mourning and Melancholia ", he suggested that certain depressions were caused by turning guilt-ridden anger on

18560-437: The unconscious meaning behind their play. Following Freud, she emphasized the significant role that parental figures played in the child's fantasy life and concluded that the timing of Freud's Oedipus complex was incorrect. Contradicting Freud, she proposed that the superego was present from birth. After exploring ultra-aggressive fantasies of hate, envy , and greed in very young and disturbed children, Melanie Klein proposed

18705-420: The urging of the id and the realities of the external world; it thus operates on the 'reality principle'. The super-ego is held to be the part of the ego in which self-observation, self-criticism and other reflective and judgmental faculties develop. The ego and the super-ego are both partly conscious and partly unconscious. In the late 20th century, neuropsychoanalysis was introduced. The aim of this new field

18850-501: The very same. The two became unofficial rivals of sorts, amid the protracted debates between the followers of Klein and the followers of Freud. Amid these so-called ' controversial discussions ', the British Psychoanalytical Society split into three separate training divisions: (1) Kleinian, (2) Freudian, and (3) Independent. These debates finally ceased with an agreement on a dual approach to instruction in

18995-399: The way in which each generation educates the next to adopt the rules of coexistence known as morality. See also The Future of an Illusion .) In the mid-1890s, he was still upholding his hypothesis of sexual abuse. In this context, he reported on fantasies of several patients, which on the one hand would point to memories of scenes of infantile masturbation stored in the unconscious, while

19140-406: The women around, cause of the taboo of incest . This initiates - starting from the id - anger that can grow into a deadly urge for revenge against the father. Impulses that the little boy cannot act out (not least due to the child's deep dependence on his parents love) and therefore are repressed into unconscious. Symptomatically, this inner situation manifests itself as a feeling of inferiority, even

19285-554: The young women. She herself sometimes liked to jokingly rename her talking cure as chimney sweeping (an association about the fairy tale through which place the stork brings a baby into house) – or in Lacan's words: "The more Anna provided signifers , the more she chattered on, the better it went." Around the same time, Freud had started to develop a neurological hypothesis about mental phenomena such as memory, but soon abandoned this attempt and left it unpublished. Insights into

19430-488: The ‘id’); and the presumably by aducation initiated emergence of a psychopathological mechanism, whose ability consists in being able to hide impulses of this kind from one's own consciousness. Short after he assumed that the same findings would have some evidence for a kind of Oedipal desires. In the tragedy Oedipus , to which Freud refers, there occurs no sexual exploitation of a child by its parents or other adults. Sophocles' poetic treatment of this ancient Greek myth

19575-474: Was ... bedevilled by problems". Nevertheless, the concept has been defended, extended, and carried forward by some analysts, generally those tangential to the psychoanalytic mainstream; while among the more orthodox, arguably of "those who, in contrast to most other analysts, take Freud's doctrine of the death drive seriously, K. R. Eissler has been the most persuasive—or least unpersuasive". Melanie Klein and her immediate followers considered that "the infant

19720-403: Was able to publish The Interpretation of Dreams . This, for him, was the most important of his writings, as it formulated the realisation that every dream contains a symbolically disguised message that can be decoded with help of the dreamer's free associations . The purpose of every dream is therefore to inform the dreamer about his complex inner situation: in essence, a conflict arising from

19865-404: Was developed in order to clarify the causes of disorders and to restore mental health by enabling the ego to become aware of the id's needs that have been repressed into the unconscious and to find realistic ways of satisfying and/or controlling them. Freud summarised this goal of his therapy in the demand "Where id was, ego shall became", equating the libido as driving energy of innate needs with

20010-628: Was held in Weimar in 1911. The London Psychoanalytical Society was founded in 1913 by Ernest Jones . In the 1950s, psychoanalysis was the main modality of psychotherapy . Behavioural models of psychotherapy started to assume a more central role in psychotherapy in the 1960s. Aaron T. Beck , a psychiatrist trained in a psychoanalytic tradition, set out to test the psychoanalytic models of depression empirically and found that conscious ruminations of loss and personal failing were correlated with depression. He suggested that distorted and biased beliefs were

20155-451: Was little documentation on the topic of psychoanalysis in children. So, Klein took advantage of this by developing her " play technique ". According to Klein, play is symbolic of unconscious material that can be interpreted and analyzed in the same way that dreams and free associations are in adults. Later, her research contributed to the development of play therapy. During 1921, with her marriage failing, Klein moved to Berlin where she joined

20300-479: Was no less well acquainted with the energetic- economic aspect of evolution and psychic processes (s. def. of the three metapsychological vectors ) than with the trinity of Greek philosophy, especially Plato's transcendent unity of truth : that it expresses the good and the beauty in equal measure, anchored in the proportions of golden ratio. Freud's worldview, with dream interpretation as the royal way into unconscious , wasn't conceived as an source of income ( money

20445-463: Was not convinced of the need for the death drive, over and above an instinct of aggression) considered that "Freud seemed to have landed in the position of Schopenhauer, who taught that 'death is the goal of life'". However, as Freud put it to the imagined auditors of his New Introductory Lectures (1932), "You may perhaps shrug your shoulders and say: "That isn't natural science, it's Schopenhauer's philosophy!" But, ladies and gentlemen, why should not

20590-684: Was presented in Studies on Hysteria (1895). Co-authored with his mentor Josef Breuer , this is generally seen as the birth of psychoanalysis. The work based on Freud's and Breuer's partly joint treatment of Bertha Pappenheim , referred to in the case studies by the pseudonym Anna O . . Berta herself had dubbed the treatment talking cure . Breuer, a distinguished physician, was astonished but remained unspecific; while Freud formulated his hypothesis that Anna's hystera seemed to be caused by distressing but unconscious experiences related to sexuality, basing his assumption on corresponding associations made by

20735-430: Was to bridge the gap between psychoanalytic concepts and neuroscientific findings. Solms theorizes that for every cognition based action, there is a neurological reason behind it. According to Daniela Mosri, nueropsychoanalysis was coined by Solms and is a continuation of the original model proposed by Freud in 1895. Neuropsychoanalysis is an interdisciplinary approach that focuses on how neurobiological mechanisms imfluence

20880-510: Was trained psychoanalytically but was concerned about some properties of psychoanalysis; he was troubled by the dogmatism of psychoanalysis at the time, its arcane terminology, the lack of attention to environment in child behaviour, and the concepts derived from talking therapy to child behaviour. In response, he developed an alternative conceptualization of child behaviour based on principles on ethology . Bowlby's theory of attachment rejects Freud's model of psychosexual development based on

21025-421: Was unique in all his writings" but was "further noteworthy in being the only one of Freud's which has received little acceptance on the part of his followers". Otto Fenichel in his compendious survey of the first Freudian half-century concluded that "the facts on which Freud based his concept of a death instinct in no way necessitate the assumption ... of a genuine self-destructive instinct". Heinz Hartmann set

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