116-460: Not to be confused with Menstruation . [REDACTED] Look up mensuration in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Mensuration may refer to: Measurement Theory of measurement Mensuration (mathematics) , a branch of mathematics that deals with measurement of various parameters of geometric figures and many more Forest mensuration ,
232-445: A branch of forestry that deals with measurements of forest stand Mensural notation of music Mensuration canon , a musical composition wherein the main melody is accompanied by one or more imitations of that melody in other voices Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Mensuration . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change
348-518: A median length of 28 days. Menarche (the onset of the first period) usually occurs around the age of 12 years; menstrual cycles continue for about 30–45 years. Although a normal and natural process, some women experience premenstrual syndrome with symptoms that may include acne , tender breasts , and tiredness . More severe symptoms that affect daily living are classed as premenstrual dysphoric disorder and are experienced by 3 to 8% of women. Dysmenorrhea (menstrual cramps or period pain)
464-422: A period , among other colloquial terms) is the regular discharge of blood and mucosal tissue from the inner lining of the uterus through the vagina . The menstrual cycle is characterized by the rise and fall of hormones . Menstruation is triggered by falling progesterone levels, and is a sign that pregnancy has not occurred. The first period, a point in time known as menarche , usually begins between
580-637: A class of immune system receptors known as toll-like receptors (TLRs), especially TLR2 and TLR4 , is a core mechanism of acne-related skin inflammation. Activation of TLR2 and TLR4 by C. acnes leads to increased secretion of IL-1α, IL-8, and TNF-α. The release of these inflammatory signals attracts various immune cells to the hair follicle, including neutrophils , macrophages , and Th1 cells . IL-1α stimulates increased skin cell activity and reproduction, which, in turn, fuels comedo development. Furthermore, sebaceous gland cells produce more antimicrobial peptides , such as HBD1 and HBD2 , in response to
696-408: A condition triggered by sunlight and artificial UV light exposure. This form of acne is called Acne aestivalis and is specifically caused by intense UVA light exposure. Affected individuals usually experience seasonal acne breakouts on their upper arms, shoulder girdle, back, and chest. The breakouts typically occur one-to-three days after exposure to intese UVA radiation. Unlike other forms of acne,
812-612: A decreased understanding of why menstruation occurs and the associated physiological changes that take place. This has been shown to cause the development of a negative attitude towards menstruation. In some cultures, women were isolated during menstruation due to menstrual taboos . This is because they are seen as unclean, dangerous, or bringing bad luck to those who encounter them. These practices are common in parts of South Asia including India. A 1983 report found women refraining from household chore during this period in India. Chhaupadi
928-409: A degree that interferes with normal life. Emotional symptoms must not be present during the initial part of the menstrual cycle . A daily list of symptoms over a few months may help in diagnosis. Other disorders that cause similar symptoms need to be excluded before a diagnosis is made. The cause of PMS is unknown, but the underlying mechanism is believed to involve changes in hormone levels during
1044-413: A different skin disorder. Microcomedones (the precursor to blackheads and whiteheads) are not visible to the naked eye when inspecting the skin and require a microscope to be seen . Many features may indicate that a person's acne vulgaris is sensitive to hormonal influences. Historical and physical clues that may suggest hormone-sensitive acne include onset between ages 20 and 30; worsening the week before
1160-682: A high-androgen state, such as polycystic ovary syndrome , congenital adrenal hyperplasia , and androgen-secreting tumors , can cause acne in affected individuals. Conversely, people who lack androgenic hormones or are insensitive to the effects of androgens rarely have acne. Pregnancy can increase androgen levels, and consequently, oily sebum synthesis. Acne can be a side effect of testosterone replacement therapy or anabolic steroid use. Over-the-counter bodybuilding and dietary supplements often contain illegally added anabolic steroids. The anaerobic bacterial species Cutibacterium acnes (formerly Propionibacterium acnes ) contributes to
1276-400: A low body weight. A pelvic exam and ultrasound in individuals who are sexually active may be useful for diagnosis. Conditions that should be ruled out include ectopic pregnancy , pelvic inflammatory disease , interstitial cystitis and chronic pelvic pain . Dysmenorrhea occurs less often in those who exercise regularly and those who have children early in life. Treatment may include
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#17327930503981392-443: A monthly menstrual period is 35 millilitres (2.4 US tbsp) with 10–80 millilitres (0.68–5.41 US tbsp) considered typical. Menstrual fluid is the correct name for the flow, although many people prefer to refer to it as menstrual blood. Menstrual fluid is reddish-brown, a slightly darker color than venous blood. About half of menstrual fluid is blood. This blood contains sodium, calcium, phosphate, iron, and chloride,
1508-474: A normal discomfort of the menstrual cycle, these symptoms must interfere with daily living, during two menstrual cycles of prospective recording. PMS-related symptoms are often present for about six days. An individual's pattern of symptoms may change over time. PMS does not produce symptoms during pregnancy or following menopause . Diagnosis requires a consistent pattern of emotional and physical symptoms occurring after ovulation and before menstruation to
1624-847: A person's performance at work, school, and in everyday activities in a small percentage of women. When severe pelvic pain and bleeding suddenly occur or worsen during a cycle, this could be due to ectopic pregnancy and spontaneous abortion . This is checked by using a pregnancy test, ideally as soon as unusual pain begins, because ectopic pregnancies can be life‑threatening. The most common treatment for menstrual cramps are non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). NSAIDs can be used to reduce moderate to severe pain, and all appear similar. About 1 in 5 women do not respond to NSAIDs and require alternative therapy, such as simple analgesics or heat pads. Other medications for pain management include aspirin or paracetamol and combined oral contraceptives. Although combined oral contraceptives may be used, there
1740-510: A previous disease, such as scarring or hyperpigmentation. Large nodules were previously called cysts . The term nodulocystic has been used in the medical literature to describe severe cases of inflammatory acne. True cysts are rare in those with acne, and the term severe nodular acne is now the preferred terminology. Acne inversa (L. invertō, "upside-down") and acne rosacea (rosa, "rose-colored" + -āceus, "forming") are not forms of acne and are alternate names that respectively refer to
1856-536: A relatively high number of oil glands , including the face, upper part of the chest, and back. The resulting appearance can lead to lack of confidence, anxiety , reduced self-esteem , and, in extreme cases, depression or thoughts of suicide . Susceptibility to acne is primarily genetic in 80% of cases. The roles of diet and cigarette smoking in the condition are unclear, and neither cleanliness nor exposure to sunlight are associated with acne. In both sexes , hormones called androgens appear to be part of
1972-427: A relatively increased interest in sexual activity, and relatively lower interest directly prior to and during menstruation. Unlike other mammals, women may show interest in sexual activity across all days of the menstrual cycle, regardless of fertility. There is no reliable scientific evidence that would advise against sexual intercourse during menstruation based on medical grounds. Peak fertility (the time with
2088-535: A risk. Whitening agents like azelaic acid , arbutin or else may be used to improve hyperpigmentation. Risk factors for the development of acne, other than genetics, have not been conclusively identified. Possible secondary contributors include hormones, infections, diet, and stress. Studies investigating the impact of smoking on the incidence and severity of acne have been inconclusive. Cleanliness ( hygiene ) and sunlight are not associated with acne. Acne appears to be highly heritable ; genetics explain 81% of
2204-468: A smaller group continues to have difficulties in their forties. The severity of acne vulgaris (Gr. ἀκμή, "point" + L. vulgaris , "common") can be classified as mild, moderate, or severe to determine an appropriate treatment regimen. There is no universally accepted scale for grading acne severity. The presence of clogged skin follicles (known as comedones ) limited to the face with occasional inflammatory lesions defines mild acne. Moderate severity acne
2320-431: A standardized photographic protocol to assess acne severity; since its creation in 1979, the scale has undergone several revisions. The Leeds acne grading technique counts acne lesions on the face, back, and chest and categorizes them as inflammatory or non-inflammatory. Leeds scores range from 0 (least severe) to 10 (most severe) though modified scales have a maximum score of 12. The Pillsbury acne grading scale classifies
2436-448: A study where acne patients used 1.2% clindamycin phosphate / 2.5% benzoyl peroxide gel in the morning and applied a micronized 0.05% tretinoin gel in the evening the overwhelming majority of patients experienced no cutaneous adverse events throughout the study. It was concluded that using ceramide cleanser and ceramide moisturizing cream caused the favorable tolerability, did not interfere with the treatment efficacy, and improved adherence to
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#17327930503982552-399: A woman's period; acne lesions predominantly over the jawline and chin; and inflammatory/nodular acne lesions. Several scales exist to grade the severity of acne vulgaris, but disagreement persists about the ideal one for diagnostic use. Cook's acne grading scale uses photographs to grade severity from 0 to 8, with higher numbers representing more severe acne. This scale was the first to use
2668-419: A woman's reproductive years. The term for painful periods is dysmenorrhea . There is a wide spectrum of differences in how women experience menstruation. There are several ways that someone's menstrual cycle can differ from the norm: Extreme psychological stress can also result in periods stopping. More severe symptoms of anxiety or depression may be signs of premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) which
2784-458: Is a common term used for PIH, but is misleading as it suggests the color change is permanent. Often, PIH can be prevented by avoiding any aggravation of the nodule and can fade with time. However, untreated PIH can last for months, years, or even be permanent if deeper layers of skin are affected. Even minimal skin exposure to the sun's ultraviolet rays can sustain hyperpigmentation. Daily use of SPF 15 or higher sunscreen can minimize such
2900-426: Is a depressive disorder. Dysfunctional uterine bleeding is a hormonally caused bleeding abnormality. Dysfunctional uterine bleeding typically occurs in premenopausal women who do not ovulate normally (i.e. are anovulatory ). All these bleeding abnormalities need medical attention; they may indicate hormone imbalances, uterine fibroids, or other problems. As pregnant women may bleed, a pregnancy test forms part of
3016-538: Is a disruptive set of emotional and physical symptoms that regularly occur in the one to two weeks before the start of each menstrual period. Symptoms resolve around the time menstrual bleeding begins. Symptoms vary, though commonly include one or more physical, emotional, or behavioral symptoms, that resolve with menses. The range of symptoms is wide, and most commonly are breast tenderness , bloating , headache , mood swings , depression , anxiety , anger , and irritability . To be diagnosed as PMS, rather than
3132-710: Is a social practice that occurs in the western part of Nepal for Hindu women, which prohibits a woman from participating in everyday activities during menstruation. Women are considered impure during this time and are kept out of the house and have to live in a shed. Although chhaupadi was outlawed by the Supreme Court of Nepal in 2005, the tradition is slow to change. Women and girls in cultures which practice such seclusion are often confined to menstruation huts , which are places of isolation used by cultures with strong menstrual taboos . The practice has recently come under fire due to related fatalities. Nepal criminalized
3248-672: Is advocated by some in the medical community to decrease the overall long-term impact on individuals. In 2015, acne affected approximately 633 million people globally, making it the eighth-most common disease worldwide. Acne commonly occurs in adolescence and affects an estimated 80–90% of teenagers in the Western world . Some rural societies report lower rates of acne than industrialized ones. Children and adults may also be affected before and after puberty. Although acne becomes less common in adulthood, it persists in nearly half of affected people into their twenties and thirties, and
3364-620: Is also used. Many religions have menstruation-related traditions, for example: Islam prohibits sexual contact with women during menstruation in the 2nd chapter of the Quran . Some scholars argue that menstruating women are in a state in which they are unable to maintain wudhu , and are therefore prohibited from touching the Arabic version of the Qur'an. Other biological and involuntary functions such as vomiting, bleeding, sexual intercourse, and going to
3480-511: Is called hypomenorrhea . Regular cycles with intervals of 21 days or fewer are polymenorrhea ; frequent but irregular menstruation is known as metrorrhagia . Sudden heavy flows or amounts greater than 80 ml are termed menorrhagia . Heavy menstruation that occurs frequently and irregularly is menometrorrhagia . The term for cycles with intervals exceeding 35 days is oligomenorrhea . Amenorrhea refers to more than three to six months without menses (while not being pregnant) during
3596-636: Is called adult female acne (AFA), defined as a chronic inflammatory disease of the pilosebaceous unit. Particularly in AFA, during the menopausal transition, a relative increase in androgen levels occurs as estrogen levels begin to decline, so that this hormonal shift can manifest as acne; while most women with AFA exhibit few acne lesions and have normal androgen levels, baseline investigations, including an androgen testing panel, can help rule out associated comorbidities such as polycystic ovarian syndrome , congenital adrenal hyperplasia , or tumors. The blockages in
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3712-451: Is due to bacteria and fungus thriving in warm, moist environments. This climate-induced acne exacerbation has been termed tropical acne . Mechanical obstruction of skin follicles with helmets or chinstraps can worsen pre-existing acne. However, acne caused by mechanical obstruction is technically not acne vulgaris, but another acneiform eruption known as acne mechanica . Several medications can also worsen pre-existing acne; this condition
3828-523: Is etymologically related to moon . The terms menstruation and menses are derived from the Latin mensis ' month ' , which in turn relates to the ancient Greek mene ' moon ' and to the roots of the English words month and moon . Some organizations have begun to use the term "menstruator" instead of "menstruating women", a term that has been in use since at least 2010. Menstruator
3944-407: Is felt as painful cramps in the abdomen that can spread to the back and upper thighs during the first few days of menstruation. Debilitating period pain is not normal and can be a sign of something severe such as endometriosis . These issues can significantly affect a woman's health and quality of life and timely interventions can improve the lives of these women. Premenstrual syndrome (PMS)
4060-486: Is insufficient evidence for the efficacy of intrauterine progestogens. One review found tentative evidence that acupuncture may be useful, at least in the short term. Another review found insufficient evidence to determine an effect. Known interactions between the menstrual cycle and certain health conditions include: Sexual feelings and behaviors change during the menstrual cycle. Before and during ovulation, high levels of estrogen and androgens result in women having
4176-405: Is insufficient to use milk restriction for this purpose. Benzoyl peroxide (BPO) is a first-line treatment for mild and moderate acne due to its effectiveness and mild side-effects (mainly skin irritation ). In the skin follicle, benzoyl peroxide kills C. acnes by oxidizing its proteins through the formation of oxygen free radicals and benzoic acid . These free radicals likely interfere with
4292-408: Is linked to adverse effects, like depression , suicidality , and anemia . There is no clear evidence to support some of these claims. Isotretinoin has been found in some studies to be superior to antibiotics or placebo in reducing acne lesions. However, a 2018 review comparing inflammatory lesions after treatment with antibiotics or isotretinoin found no difference. The frequency of adverse events
4408-548: Is more likely when suckling occurs more frequently. The production of prolactin in response to suckling is important to maintaining lactational amenorrhea. On average, women who are fully breastfeeding whose infants suckle frequently experience a return of menstruation at fourteen and a half months postpartum. There is a wide range of response among individual breastfeeding women, however, with some experiencing return of menstruation at two months and others remaining amenorrheic for up to 42 months postpartum. The word menstruation
4524-596: Is not FDA-approved for the treatment of acne. Antibiotics applied to the skin are typically used for mild to moderately severe acne. Oral antibiotics are generally more effective than topical antibiotics and produce faster resolution of inflammatory acne lesions than topical applications. The Global Alliance to Improve Outcomes in Acne recommends that topical and oral antibiotics are not used together. Oral antibiotics are recommended for no longer than three months as antibiotic courses exceeding this duration are associated with
4640-449: Is of unclear benefit. Medications for acne target the early stages of comedo formation and are generally ineffective for visible skin lesions; acne generally improves between eight and twelve weeks after starting therapy. People often view acne as a short-term condition, some expecting it to disappear after puberty. This misconception can lead to depending on self-management or problems with long-term adherence to treatment. Communicating
4756-602: Is often advised during treatment, to prevent sunburn . Lower concentrations of benzoyl peroxide are just as effective as higher concentrations in treating acne but are associated with fewer side effects. Unlike antibiotics, benzoyl peroxide does not appear to generate bacterial antibiotic resistance . Retinoids are medications that reduce inflammation, normalize the follicle cell life cycle , and reduce sebum production. They are structurally related to vitamin A . Studies show dermatologists and primary care doctors underprescribe them for acne. The retinoids appear to influence
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4872-481: Is positively associated with a higher frequency and severity of acne. Milk contains whey protein and hormones such as bovine IGF-1 and precursors of dihydrotestosterone. Studies suggest these components promote the effects of insulin and IGF-1 and thereby increase the production of androgen hormones, sebum, and promote the formation of comedones. Available evidence does not support a link between eating chocolate or salt and acne severity. Few studies have examined
4988-430: Is relatively small for most women. In one study, premenopausal women who exhibited symptoms of iron deficiency were given endoscopies . 86% of them actually had gastrointestinal disease and were at risk of being misdiagnosed simply because they were menstruating. Heavy menstrual bleeding, occurring monthly, can result in anemia . The menstrual cycle is a series of natural changes in hormone production and
5104-628: Is said to occur when a higher number of inflammatory papules and pustules occur on the face, compared to mild cases of acne, and appear on the trunk of the body. Severe acne is said to occur when nodules (the painful 'bumps' lying under the skin) are the characteristic facial lesions, and involvement of the trunk is extensive. The lesions are usually, polymorphic, meaning they can take many forms, including open or closed comedones (commonly known as blackheads and whiteheads), papules, pustules, and even nodules or cysts so that these lesions often leave behind sequelae, or abnormal conditions resulting from
5220-413: Is the acne medicamentosa form of acne. Examples of such medications include lithium , hydantoin , isoniazid , glucocorticoids , iodides , bromides , and testosterone . When acne medicamentosa is specifically caused by anabolic–androgenic steroids it can simply be referred to as steroid acne . Genetically susceptible individuals can get acne breakouts as a result of polymorphous light eruption ;
5336-446: Is the formation of a plug (a microcomedone ), which is driven primarily by excessive growth, reproduction, and accumulation of skin cells in the hair follicle. In healthy skin, the skin cells that have died come up to the surface and exit the pore of the hair follicle. In people with acne, the increased production of oily sebum causes the dead skin cells to stick together. The accumulation of dead skin cell debris and oily sebum blocks
5452-438: Is typically adequate to see improvement. Acne often resolves completely or is much milder after a 4–6 month course of oral isotretinoin. After a single round of treatment, about 80% of people report an improvement, with more than 50% reporting complete remission. About 20% of people require a second course, but 80% of those report improvement, resulting in a cumulative 96% efficacy rate. There are concerns that isotretinoin
5568-426: Is used by activists and scholars in order to "express solidarity with women who do not menstruate, transgender men who do, and intersexual and genderqueer individuals". The term can be contentious between different schools of feminist thought; however, the majority of feminist scholars consider the term to correctly reflect the reality that people of different genders menstruate. The term "people who menstruate"
5684-506: Is usually not as well tolerated. In 2019 a tazarotene lotion formulation, marketed to be a less irritating option, was approved by the FDA. Retinol is a form of vitamin A that has similar but milder effects and is present in many over-the-counter moisturizers and other topical products. Isotretinoin is an oral retinoid that is very effective for severe nodular acne, and moderate acne that is stubborn to other treatments. One to two months of use
5800-427: The combined birth control pill , it is also possible for a woman to delay or eliminate menstrual periods, a practice called menstrual suppression . Some women do this simply for convenience in the short-term, while others prefer to eliminate periods altogether when possible. This can be done either by skipping the placebo pills, or using an extended cycle combined oral contraceptive pill , which were first marketed in
5916-400: The dermis and are estimated to affect 95% of people with acne vulgaris. Abnormal healing and dermal inflammation create the scar. Scarring is most likely to take place with severe acne but may occur with any form of acne vulgaris. Acne scars are classified based on whether the abnormal healing response following dermal inflammation leads to excess collagen deposition or loss at the site of
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#17327930503986032-469: The developed world . The average age of menarche has changed little in the United States since the 1950s. Menstruation is the most visible phase of the menstrual cycle and its beginning is used as the marker between cycles. The first day of menstrual bleeding is the date used for the last menstrual period (LMP). The typical length of time between the first day of one period and the first day of
6148-524: The diuretic spironolactone may be useful. Over 90% of women report having some premenstrual symptoms, such as bloating, headaches, and moodiness. Premenstrual symptoms generally do not cause substantial disruption, and qualify as PMS in approximately 20% of pre-menopausal women. Antidepressants of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI) class may be used to treat the emotional symptoms of PMS. In most women, various physical changes are brought about by fluctuations in hormone levels during
6264-453: The lunar cycle , in modern humans there is no relation between the two. The relationship is believed to be a coincidence. Light exposure does not appear to affect the menstrual cycle in humans. A meta-analysis of studies from 1996 showed no correlation between the human menstrual cycle and the lunar cycle, nor did data analyzed by period-tracking app Clue, submitted by 1.5 million women, of 7.5 million menstrual cycles; however,
6380-553: The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARα) protein. PPARα increases the activity of activator protein 1 (AP-1) and NF-κB, thereby leading to the recruitment of inflammatory T cells . C. acnes' ability to convert sebum triglycerides to pro-inflammatory free fatty acids via secretion of the enzyme lipase further explains its inflammatory properties. These free fatty acids spur increased production of cathelicidin , HBD1, and HBD2, thus leading to further inflammation. This inflammatory cascade typically leads to
6496-560: The U.S. in the early 2000s. This continuous administration of active pills without the placebo can lead to the achievement of amenorrhea in 80% of users within 1 year of use. Breastfeeding causes negative feedback to occur on pulse secretion of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). Depending on the strength of the negative feedback, breastfeeding women may experience complete suppression of follicular development, follicular development but no ovulation, or normal menstrual cycles may resume. Suppression of ovulation
6612-484: The UK research has shown that for women allotment growers, access to sanitation for menstrual hygiene management is limited. Menstruation can be delayed by the use of progesterone or progestins . For this purpose, oral administration of progesterone or progestin during cycle day 20 has been found to effectively delay menstruation for at least 20 days, with menstruation starting after 2–3 days have passed since discontinuing
6728-432: The United States started the iPLEDGE program to prevent isotretinoin use during pregnancy. iPledge requires the woman to have two negative pregnancy tests and to use two types of birth control for at least one month before isotretinoin therapy begins and one month afterward. The effectiveness of the iPledge program is controversial due to continued instances of contraception nonadherence. People may apply antibiotics to
6844-439: The acne aestivalis breakout response can be prevented by topical antioxidants combined with the application of a broad spectrum sunscreen. Acne vulgaris is a chronic skin disease of the pilosebaceous unit and develops due to blockages in the skin's hair follicles . Traditionally seen as a disease of adolescence, acne vulgaris is also observed in adults, including post-menopausal women. Acne vulgaris manifested in adult female
6960-465: The acne lesion. Atrophic acne scars have lost collagen from the healing response and are the most common type of acne scar (accounting for approximately 75% of all acne scars). Ice-pick scars, boxcar scars, and rolling scars are subtypes of atrophic acne scars. Boxcar scars are round or ovoid indented scars with sharp borders and vary in size from 1.5–4 mm across. Ice-pick scars are narrow (less than 2 mm across), deep scars that extend into
7076-556: The affected skin , such as azelaic acid , benzoyl peroxide , and salicylic acid , are commonly used. Antibiotics and retinoids are available in formulations that are applied to the skin and taken by mouth for the treatment of acne. However, resistance to antibiotics may develop as a result of antibiotic therapy. Several types of birth control pills help prevent acne in women. Medical professionals typically reserve isotretinoin pills for severe acne, due to greater potential side effects. Early and aggressive treatment of acne
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#17327930503987192-426: The ages of 10 and 14, with an average age of 12. Menstruation starting as young as 8 years would still be considered normal. The average age of the first period is generally later in the developing world , and earlier in the developed world . The typical length of time between the first day of one period and the first day of the next is 21 to 45 days in young women. In adults, the range is between 21 and 35 days with
7308-471: The average being 28 days. Bleeding usually lasts around 2 to 7 days. Periods stop during pregnancy and typically do not resume during the initial months of breastfeeding . Lochia occurs after childbirth. Menstruation, and with it the possibility of pregnancy, ceases after menopause , which usually occurs between 45 and 55 years of age. Up to 80% of women do not experience problems sufficient to disrupt daily functioning either during menstruation or in
7424-418: The bacteria C. acnes , the bacterial species Staphylococcus epidermidis ( S. epidermidis ) also takes a part in the physiopathology of acne vulgaris. The proliferation of S. epidermidis with C. acnes causes the formation of biofilms , which blocks the hair follicles and pores, creating an anaerobic environment under the skin. This enables for increased growth of both C. acnes and S. epidermidis under
7540-508: The bacterium's metabolism and ability to make proteins. Additionally, benzoyl peroxide is mildly effective at breaking down comedones and inhibiting inflammation. Combination products use benzoyl peroxide with a topical antibiotic or retinoid, such as benzoyl peroxide/clindamycin and benzoyl peroxide/adapalene , respectively. Topical benzoyl peroxide is effective at treating acne. Side effects include increased skin photosensitivity , dryness, redness, and occasional peeling. Sunscreen use
7656-563: The bathroom also invalidate one's wudhu. In Judaism , a woman during menstruation is called Niddah and may be banned from certain actions. For example, the Jewish Torah prohibits sexual intercourse with a menstruating woman. In Hinduism , menstruating women are traditionally considered ritually impure and given rules to follow. Menstruation education is frequently taught in combination with sex education at school in Western countries , although girls may prefer their mothers to be
7772-507: The binding of TLR2 and TLR4. C. acnes also provokes skin inflammation by altering the fatty composition of oily sebum. Oxidation of the lipid squalene by C. acnes is of particular importance. Squalene oxidation activates NF-κB (a protein complex) and consequently increases IL-1α levels. Additionally, squalene oxidation increases 5-lipoxygenase enzyme activity, which catalyzes the conversion of arachidonic acid to leukotriene B4 (LTB4). LTB4 promotes skin inflammation by acting on
7888-606: The cell life cycle in the follicle lining. This helps prevent the accumulation of skin cells within the hair follicle that can create a blockage. They are a first-line acne treatment, especially for people with dark-colored skin. Retinoids are known to lead to faster improvement of postinflammatory hyperpigmentation. Topical retinoids include adapalene , retinol , retinaldehyde , isotretinoin , tazarotene , trifarotene , and tretinoin . They often cause an initial flare-up of acne and facial flushing and can cause significant skin irritation. Generally speaking, retinoids increase
8004-593: The commonly used tetracycline (e.g., doxycycline ) and macrolide antibiotics (e.g., topical erythromycin ). Therefore, dermatologists prefer antibiotics as part of combination therapy and not for use alone. Commonly used antibiotics, either applied to the skin or taken orally, include clindamycin , erythromycin, metronidazole , sulfacetamide , and tetracyclines (e.g., doxycycline or minocycline ). Doxycycline 40 milligrams daily (low-dose) appears to have similar efficacy to 100 milligrams daily and has fewer gastrointestinal side effects. However, low-dose doxycycline
8120-410: The condition spares the face; this could possibly be a result of the pathogenesis of polymorphous light eruption, in which areas of the skin that are newly exposed to intense ultraviolet radiation are affected. Since faces are typically left uncovered at all stages of life, there is little-to-no likelihood for an eruption to appear there. Studies show that both polymorphous light eruption outbreaks and
8236-688: The consumption of alcohol or spicy food is also more suggestive of rosacea. The presence of comedones helps health professionals differentiate acne from skin disorders that are similar in appearance. Chloracne and occupational acne due to exposure to certain chemicals & industrial compounds, may look very similar to acne vulgaris. Many different treatments exist for acne. These include alpha hydroxy acid , anti-androgen medications, antibiotics, antiseborrheic medications, azelaic acid , benzoyl peroxide , hormonal treatments, keratolytic soaps, nicotinamide , retinoids , and salicylic acid . Acne treatments work in at least four different ways, including
8352-417: The course of the whole menstrual cycle. Reducing salt, alcohol, caffeine, and stress , along with increasing exercise is typically all that is recommended for the management of mild symptoms. Calcium and vitamin D supplementation may be useful in some. Anti-inflammatory drugs such as ibuprofen or naproxen may help with physical symptoms. In those with more significant symptoms, birth control pills or
8468-509: The days leading up to menstruation. Symptoms in advance of menstruation that do interfere with normal life are called premenstrual syndrome (PMS). Some 20 to 30% of women experience PMS, with 3 to 8% experiencing severe symptoms. These include acne , tender breasts, bloating, feeling tired, irritability, and mood changes. Other symptoms some women experience include painful periods (estimates are between 50 and 90%) and heavy bleeding during menstruation and abnormal bleeding at any time during
8584-559: The dermis. Rolling scars are broader than ice-pick and boxcar scars (4–5 mm across) and have a wave-like pattern of depth in the skin. Hypertrophic scars are uncommon and are characterized by increased collagen content after the abnormal healing response. They are described as firm and raised from the skin. Hypertrophic scars remain within the original margins of the wound, whereas keloid scars can form scar tissue outside of these borders. Keloid scars from acne occur more often in men and people with darker skin, and usually occur on
8700-522: The development of acne, but its exact role is not well understood. There are specific sub-strains of C. acnes associated with normal skin and others with moderate or severe inflammatory acne. It is unclear whether these undesirable strains evolve on-site or are acquired, or possibly both depending on the person. These strains have the capability of changing, perpetuating, or adapting to the abnormal cycle of inflammation, oil production, and inadequate sloughing of dead skin cells from acne pores. Infection with
8816-456: The evaluation of abnormal bleeding. Women who had undergone female genital mutilation (particularly type III- infibulation ) a practice common in parts of Africa , may experience menstrual problems, such as slow and painful menstruation, that is caused by the near-complete sealing off of the vagina. Dysmenorrhea , also known as period pain, painful periods or menstrual cramps, is pain during menstruation. Its usual onset occurs around
8932-413: The extent of which depends on the woman. As well as blood, the fluid consists of cervical mucus, vaginal secretions, and endometrial tissue . Vaginal fluids in menses mainly contribute water, common electrolytes, organ moieties, and at least 14 proteins, including glycoproteins. Many women and girls notice blood clots during menstruation. These appear as clumps of blood that may look like tissue. If there
9048-691: The following: reducing inflammation, hormonal manipulation, killing C. acnes , and normalizing skin cell shedding and sebum production in the pore to prevent blockage. Typical treatments include topical therapies such as antibiotics, benzoyl peroxide, and retinoids, and systemic therapies, including antibiotics, hormonal agents, and oral retinoids. Recommended therapies for first-line use in acne vulgaris treatment include topical retinoids, benzoyl peroxide, and topical or oral antibiotics. Procedures such as light therapy and laser therapy are not first-line treatments and typically have only an add on role due to their high cost and limited evidence. Blue light therapy
9164-423: The formation of a whitehead (known as a closed comedo). The main hormonal driver of oily sebum production in the skin is dihydrotestosterone . Another androgenic hormone responsible for increased sebaceous gland activity is DHEA-S . The adrenal glands secrete higher amounts of DHEA-S during adrenarche (a stage of puberty ), and this leads to an increase in sebum production. In a sebum-rich skin environment,
9280-455: The formation of inflammatory acne lesions, including papules , infected pustules , or nodules . If the inflammatory reaction is severe, the follicle can break into the deeper layers of the dermis and subcutaneous tissue and cause the formation of deep nodules. The involvement of AP-1 in the aforementioned inflammatory cascade activates matrix metalloproteinases , which contribute to local tissue destruction and scar formation. Along with
9396-980: The gene for TNF is associated with an increased risk for acne. Acne can be a feature of rare genetic disorders such as Apert's syndrome . Severe acne may be associated with XYY syndrome . Hormonal activity, such as occurs during menstrual cycles and puberty , may contribute to the formation of acne. During puberty, an increase in sex hormones called androgens causes the skin follicle glands to grow larger and make more oily sebum. The androgen hormones testosterone , dihydrotestosterone (DHT), and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) are all linked to acne. High levels of growth hormone (GH) and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) are also associated with worsened acne. Both androgens and IGF-1 seem to be essential for acne to occur, as acne does not develop in individuals with complete androgen insensitivity syndrome (CAIS) or Laron syndrome (insensitivity to GH, resulting in very low IGF-1 levels). Medical conditions that commonly cause
9512-473: The highest likelihood of pregnancy resulting from sexual intercourse) occurs during just a few days of the cycle: usually two days before and two days after the ovulation date. This corresponds to the second and the beginning of the third week in a 28-day cycle. This fertile window varies from woman to woman, just as the ovulation date often varies from cycle to cycle for the same woman. A variety of methods have been developed to help individual women estimate
9628-437: The link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mensuration&oldid=937020853 " Categories : Disambiguation pages Mathematics disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Menstruation Menstruation (also known as
9744-699: The long-term nature of the condition and better access to reliable information about acne can help people know what to expect from treatments. In general, it is recommended that people with acne do not wash affected skin more than twice daily. The application of a fragrance-free moisturizer to sensitive and acne-prone skin may reduce irritation. Skin irritation from acne medications typically peaks at two weeks after onset of use and tends to improve with continued use. Dermatologists recommend using cosmetic products that specifically say non-comedogenic, oil-free, and will not clog pores. Acne vulgaris patients, even those with oily skin, should moisturize in order to support
9860-448: The lunar cycle and the average menstrual cycle were found to be basically equal in length. Acne vulgaris Acne ( /ˈækni/ ACK-nee ), also known as acne vulgaris , is a long-term skin condition that occurs when dead skin cells and oil from the skin clog hair follicles . Typical features of the condition include blackheads or whiteheads , pimples , oily skin, and possible scarring . It primarily affects skin with
9976-755: The menstrual blood. The main disposable products (commercially manufactured) include: The main reusable products include: Due to poverty, some women cannot afford commercial feminine hygiene products. Instead, they use materials found in the environment or other improvised materials. " Period poverty " is a global issue affecting women and girls who do not have access to safe, hygienic sanitary products. In addition, solid waste disposal systems in developing countries are often lacking, which means women have no proper place to dispose used products, such as pads. Inappropriate disposal of used materials also creates pressures on sanitation systems as menstrual hygiene products can create blockages of toilets, pipes and sewers. In
10092-425: The menstrual cycle. A lack of periods, known as amenorrhea , is when periods do not occur by age 15 or have not re-occurred in 90 days. The first menstrual period occurs after the onset of pubertal growth, and is called menarche . The average age of menarche is 12 to 15 years. However, it may occur as early as eight. The average age of the first period is generally later in the developing world , and earlier in
10208-475: The menstrual cycle. This includes muscle contractions of the uterus (menstrual cramping) that can precede or accompany menstruation. Many women experience painful cramps, also known as dysmenorrhea , during menstruation. Among adult women, that pain is severe enough to affect daily activity in only 2%–28%. Severe symptoms that disrupt daily activities and functioning may be diagnosed as premenstrual dysphoric disorder . These symptoms can be severe enough to affect
10324-449: The naturally occurring and largely commensal skin bacterium C. acnes readily grows and can cause inflammation within and around the follicle due to activation of the innate immune system . C. acnes triggers skin inflammation in acne by increasing the production of several pro-inflammatory chemical signals (such as IL-1α , IL-8 , TNF-α , and LTB4); IL-1α is essential to comedo formation. C. acnes' ability to bind and activate
10440-456: The next is 21 to 45 days in young women, and 21 to 35 days in adults. The average length is 28 days; one study estimated it at 29.3 days. The variability of menstrual cycle lengths is highest for women under 25 years of age and is lowest, that is, most regular, for ages 25 to 39 years. The variability increases slightly for women aged 40 to 44 years. Perimenopause is when a woman's fertility declines, and menstruation occurs less regularly in
10556-402: The number of conditions experienced by a patient. Evidence is emerging in support of medical nutrition therapy as a way of reducing the severity and incidence of dermatologic diseases, including acne. Researchers observed a link between high glycemic index diets and acne. Dermatologists also recommend a diet low in simple sugars as a method of improving acne. As of 2014, the available evidence
10672-455: The parasitic mite Demodex is associated with the development of acne. It is unclear whether eradication of the mite improves acne. High- glycemic-load diets have been found to have different degrees of effect on acne severity. Multiple randomized controlled trials and nonrandomized studies have found a lower-glycemic-load diet to be effective in reducing acne. There is weak observational evidence suggesting that dairy milk consumption
10788-419: The pore of the hair follicle, thus forming the microcomedone. The C. acnes biofilm within the hair follicle worsens this process. If the microcomedone is superficial within the hair follicle, the skin pigment melanin is exposed to air, resulting in its oxidation and dark appearance (known as a blackhead or open comedo). In contrast, if the microcomedone occurs deep within the hair follicle, this causes
10904-453: The practice in 2017 after deaths were reported after the elongated isolation periods, but "the practice of isolating menstruating women and girls continues." Not all cultures villainize menstruation, the Beng people of West Africa consider menstrual blood as sacred and recognize its significance in reproduction. Even though the average length of the human menstrual cycle is similar to that of
11020-868: The primary source of information about menstruation and puberty. Information about menstruation is often shared among friends and peers, which may promote a more positive outlook on puberty. The quality of menstrual education in a society determines the accuracy of people's understanding of the process. In many Western countries where menstruation is a taboo subject, girls tend to conceal the fact that they may be menstruating and struggle to ensure that they give no sign of menstruation. Effective educational programs are essential to providing children and adolescents with clear and accurate information about menstruation. Schools can be an appropriate place for menstrual education to take place. Programs led by peers or third-party agencies are another option. Low-income girls are less likely to receive proper sex education on puberty, leading to
11136-799: The regimen. Hormonal contraception affects the frequency, duration, severity, volume, and regularity of menstruation and menstrual symptoms. The most common form of hormonal contraception is the combined birth control pill , which contains both estrogen and progestogen . Although the primary function of the pill is to prevent pregnancy, it may be used to improve some menstrual symptoms and syndromes which affect menstruation , such as polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), endometriosis , adenomyosis , amenorrhea , menstrual cramps , menstrual migraines , menorrhagia (excessive menstrual bleeding), menstruation-related or fibroid-related anemia and dysmenorrhea (painful menstruation) by creating regularity in menstrual cycles and reducing overall menstrual flow. Using
11252-482: The regimen. The importance of preserving the acidic mantle and its barrier functions is widely accepted in the scientific community. Thus, maintaining a pH in the range 4.5 – 5.5 is essential in order to keep the skin surface in its optimal, healthy conditions. Causal relationship is rarely observed with diet/nutrition and dermatologic conditions. Rather, associations – some of them compelling – have been found between diet and outcomes including disease severity and
11368-623: The relationship between obesity and acne. Vitamin B 12 may trigger skin outbreaks similar to acne (acneiform eruptions), or worsen existing acne when taken in doses exceeding the recommended daily intake . There are few high-quality studies to demonstrate that stress causes or worsens acne. Despite being controversial, some research indicates that increased acne severity is associated with high stress levels in certain contexts, such as hormonal changes seen in premenstrual syndrome . Some individuals experience severe intensification of their acne when they are exposed to hot humid climates; this
11484-449: The relatively fertile and the relatively infertile days in the cycle; these systems are called fertility awareness . Infrequent or irregular ovulation is called oligoovulation . The absence of ovulation is called anovulation . Normal menstrual flow can occur without ovulation preceding it: an anovulatory cycle . In some cycles, follicular development may start but not be completed; nevertheless, estrogens will be formed and stimulate
11600-664: The severity of the acne from grade 1 (least severe) to grade 4 (most severe). Many skin conditions can mimic acne vulgaris, and these are collectively known as acneiform eruptions . Such conditions include angiofibromas , epidermal cysts , flat warts , folliculitis , keratosis pilaris , milia , perioral dermatitis , and rosacea , among others. Age is one factor that may help distinguish between these disorders. Skin disorders such as perioral dermatitis and keratosis pilaris can appear similar to acne but tend to occur more frequently in childhood. Rosacea tends to occur more frequently in older adults. Facial redness triggered by heat or
11716-658: The skin conditions hidradenitis suppurativa (HS) and rosacea . Although HS shares certain overlapping features with acne vulgaris, such as a tendency to clog skin follicles with skin cell debris, the condition otherwise lacks the hallmark features of acne and is therefore considered a distinct skin disorder. Typical features of acne include increased secretion of oily sebum by the skin, microcomedones, comedones, papules, nodules (large papules), pustules, and often results in scarring. The appearance of acne varies with skin color. It may result in psychological and social problems. Acne scars are caused by inflammation within
11832-490: The skin or take them orally to treat acne. They work by killing C. acnes and reducing inflammation. Although multiple guidelines call for healthcare providers to reduce the rates of prescribed oral antibiotics, many providers do not follow this guidance. Oral antibiotics remain the most commonly prescribed systemic therapy for acne. Widespread broad-spectrum antibiotic overuse for acne has led to higher rates of antibiotic-resistant C. acnes strains worldwide, especially to
11948-441: The skin's hair follicles that cause acne vulgaris manifestations occur as a result of the following four abnormal processes: increased oily sebum production (influenced by androgens ), excessive deposition of the protein keratin leading to comedo formation, colonization of the follicle by Cutibacterium acnes ( C. acnes ) bacteria, and the local release of pro-inflammatory chemicals in the skin. The earliest pathologic change
12064-405: The skin's sensitivity to sunlight and are therefore recommended for use at night. Tretinoin is the least expensive of the topical retinoids and is the most irritating to the skin, whereas adapalene is the least irritating but costs significantly more. Most formulations of tretinoin are incompatible for use with benzoyl peroxide. Tazarotene is the most effective and expensive topical retinoid but
12180-442: The skin's moisture barrier since skin barrier dysfunction may contribute to acne. Moisturizers, especially ceramide -containing moisturizers, as an adjunct therapy are particularly helpful for the dry skin and irritation that commonly results from topical acne treatment. Studies show that ceramide-containing moisturizers are important for optimal skin care; they enhance acne therapy adherence and complement existing acne therapies. In
12296-621: The skin. The proliferation of C. acnes causes the formation of biofilms and a biofilm matrix , making it even harder to treat the acne. Acne vulgaris is diagnosed based on a medical professional's clinical judgment. The evaluation of a person with suspected acne should include taking a detailed medical history about a family history of acne, a review of medications taken, signs or symptoms of excessive production of androgen hormones, cortisol, and growth hormone. Comedones (blackheads and whiteheads) must be present to diagnose acne. In their absence, an appearance similar to that of acne would suggest
12412-439: The structures of the uterus and ovaries of the female reproductive system that makes pregnancy possible. The ovarian cycle controls the production and release of eggs and the cyclic release of estrogen and progesterone . The uterine cycle governs the preparation and maintenance of the lining of the uterus (womb) to receive an embryo . These cycles are concurrent and coordinated, normally last between 21 and 35 days, with
12528-527: The time that menstruation begins. Symptoms typically last less than three days. The pain is usually in the pelvis or lower abdomen. Other symptoms may include back pain , diarrhea or nausea. Dysmenorrhea can occur without an underlying problem. Underlying issues that can cause dysmenorrhea include uterine fibroids , adenomyosis , and most commonly, endometriosis . It is more common among those with heavy periods , irregular periods, those whose periods started before twelve years of age and those who have
12644-443: The trunk of the body. After an inflamed nodular acne lesion resolves, it is common for the skin to darken in that area, which is known as postinflammatory hyperpigmentation (PIH). The inflammation stimulates specialized pigment-producing skin cells (known as melanocytes ) to produce more melanin pigment, which leads to the skin's darkened appearance. PIH occurs more frequently in people with darker skin color . Pigmented scar
12760-405: The underlying mechanism, by causing increased production of sebum . Another common factor is the excessive growth of the bacterium Cutibacterium acnes , which is present on the skin. Treatments for acne are available, including lifestyle changes, medications, and medical procedures. Eating fewer simple carbohydrates such as sugar may minimize the condition. Treatments applied directly to
12876-865: The use of a heating pad. Medications that may help include NSAIDs such as ibuprofen , hormonal birth control and the IUD with progestogen . Taking vitamin B1 or magnesium may help. Evidence for yoga , acupuncture and massage is insufficient. Surgery may be useful if certain underlying problems are present. Menstrual products (also called " feminine hygiene " products) are made to absorb or catch menstrual blood. A number of different products are available – some are disposable, some are reusable. Where women can afford it, items used to absorb or catch menses are usually commercially manufactured products. Menstruating women manage menstruation primarily by wearing menstrual products such as tampons, napkins or menstrual cups to catch
12992-427: The uterine lining. Anovulatory flow resulting from a very thick endometrium caused by prolonged, continued high estrogen levels is called estrogen breakthrough bleeding . Anovulatory bleeding triggered by a sudden drop in estrogen levels is called withdrawal bleeding . Anovulatory cycles commonly occur before menopause (perimenopause) and in women with polycystic ovary syndrome . Very little flow (less than 10 ml)
13108-516: The variation in the population. Studies performed in affected twins and first-degree relatives further demonstrate the strongly inherited nature of acne. Acne susceptibility is likely due to the influence of multiple genes, as the disease does not follow a classic (Mendelian) inheritance pattern. These gene candidates include certain variations in tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) , IL-1 alpha , and CYP1A1 genes, among others. The 308 G/A single nucleotide polymorphism variation in
13224-559: The years leading up to the final menstrual period, when a woman stops menstruating completely and is no longer fertile. The medical definition of menopause is one year without a period and typically occurs between 45 and 55 years in Western countries. Menopause before age 45 is considered premature in industrialized countries. Illnesses, certain surgeries, or medical treatments may cause menopause to occur earlier than it might have otherwise. The average volume of menstrual fluid during
13340-453: Was a miscarriage or a stillbirth , examination under a microscope can confirm if it was endometrial tissue or pregnancy tissue ( products of conception ) that was shed. Sometimes menstrual clots or shed endometrial tissue is incorrectly thought to indicate an early-term miscarriage of an embryo. An enzyme called plasmin – contained in the endometrium – tends to inhibit the blood from clotting . The amount of iron lost in menstrual fluid
13456-474: Was about twice as high with isotretinoin use, although these were mostly dryness-related events. No increased risk of suicide or depression was conclusively found. Medical authorities strictly regulate isotretinoin use in women of childbearing age due to its known harmful effects in pregnancy . For such a woman to be considered a candidate for isotretinoin, she must have a confirmed negative pregnancy test and use an effective form of birth control . In 2008,
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