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112-517: The park has a wide range of wild animals including the African bush elephant , lion , African leopard , cheetah , eastern black rhinoceros , southern white rhinoceros , Grévy's zebra , hippopotamus . Meru was one of the two areas in which conservationists George Adamson and Joy Adamson raised Elsa the Lioness made famous in the best selling book and award-winning movie Born Free . Elsa

224-523: A nomen dubium and that further analysis needs to be done to confirm whether or not M. furlongi belongs to Zygolophodon instead. In 2023, Wighart von Koenigswald et al. reviewed the North American species of Zygolophodon and Mammut . They synonymized P. adamsi and P. sellardsi with Mammut matthewi and emended M. nevadanus and M. pacificus to M. nevadanum and M. pacificum , respectively. They also said that they were uncertain of

336-513: A bellow while a drawn-out growl is a moan. Growling can escalate into a roaring when the elephant is issuing a threat. Trumpeting is made by blowing through the trunk and signals excitement, distress, or aggression. Juvenile elephants squeal in distress while screaming is made by adults for intimidation. Bulls in musth experience swelling of the temporal glands and secretion of fluid, the musth fluid, which flows down their cheeks. They begin to dribble urine, initially as discrete drops and later in

448-471: A body mass of 5.2–6.9 tonnes (11,500–15,200 lb), with the largest recorded specimen having a shoulder height of 3.96 metres (13.0 ft) and an estimated body mass of 10.4 tonnes (22,900 lb). It is distributed across 37 African countries and inhabits forests, grasslands and woodlands, wetlands and agricultural land. Since 2021, it has been listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List . It

560-401: A broad range of frequencies which are mostly below what a human can hear. Infrasonic rumbles can travel vast distances and are important for attracting mates and scaring off rivals. At Amboseli National Park several different infrasonic calls have been identified: Growls are audible rumbles and happen during greetings. When in pain or fear, an elephant makes an open-mouthed growl known as

672-680: A calf was observed in Tsavo East National Park in October 1990. A group of 80 elephants including eight bulls had gathered in the morning in a 150 m (490 ft) radius around the birth site. A small group of calves and cows stood near the pregnant cow, rumbling and flapping their ears. One cow seemed to assist her. While she was in labour, fluid streamed from her temporal and ear canals. She remained standing while giving birth. The newborn calf struggled to its feet within 30 minutes and walked 20 minutes later. The mother expelled

784-662: A container packed with more than 6.5 t (6.4 long tons; 7.2 short tons) ivory was confiscated in Singapore . It contained 42,120 hanko stamps and 532 tusks of African bush elephants that originated in Southern Africa, centered in Zambia and neighboring countries. Between 2005 and 2006, a total of 23.461 t (23.090 long tons; 25.861 short tons) ivory plus 91 unweighed tusks of African bush elephants were confiscated in 12 major consignments being shipped to Asia. When

896-632: A greater understanding of extinctions. Taxonomically, it was first recognized as a distinct species by Robert Kerr in 1792 then classified to its own genus Mammut by Johann Friedrich Blumenbach in 1799, thus making it amongst the first fossil mammal genera to be erected with undisputed taxonomic authority. The genus served as a wastebasket taxon for proboscidean species with superficially similar molar teeth morphologies but today includes 7 definite species, 1 of questionable affinities, and 4 other species from Eurasia that are pending reassessments to other genera. Mastodons are considered to have had

1008-752: A length of 5 cm (2.0 in). They are composed of dentin and coated with a thin layer of cementum . Their tips bear a conical layer of enamel that is usually worn off when the elephant is five years old. Tusks of bulls grow faster than tusks of cows. Mean weight of tusks at the age of 60 years is 109 kg (240 lb) in bulls and 17.7 kg (39 lb) in cows. The longest known tusk of an African bush elephant measured 3.51 m (11.5 ft) and weighed 117 kg (258 lb). The African bush elephant occurs in sub-Saharan Africa which includes Uganda , Kenya , Tanzania , Botswana , Zimbabwe , Namibia , Zambia , Angola , Malawi , Mali , Rwanda , Mozambique and South Africa . It moves between

1120-578: A letter dating to 1713, Edward Hyde, 3rd Earl of Clarendon (known also as Lord Cornbury) from New York reported to the Royal Society learned society of Great Britain that in 1705, a large-sized tooth was found near the side of the Hudson River by a Dutch country-fellow and was sold to New York General Assembly member Van Bruggen for a gill of rum, and Bruggen eventually gave it to Cornbury. He then stated that he sent Johannis Abeel,

1232-658: A long and complex paleontological history spanning all the way back to 1705 when the first fossils were uncovered from Claverack , New York in the American colonies. Because of the uniquely shaped molars with no modern analogues in terms of large animals, the species caught wide attention of European researchers and influential Americans before and after the American Revolution to the point of, according to American historians Paul Semonin and Keith Stewart Thomson , bolstering American nationalism and contributing to

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1344-585: A lower ranking individual will insert the tip of its trunk into its superior's mouth. Elephants will also stretch out their trunk toward an approaching individual they intend to greet. Mother elephants reassure their young with touches, embraces, and rubbings with the foot while slapping disciplines them. During courtship, a couple will caress and intertwine with their trunks while playing and fighting individuals wrestle with them. Elephant vocals are variations of rumbles, trumpets, squeals, and screams. Rumbles are mainly produced for long-distance communication and cover

1456-635: A mating partner, she will stay away from other bulls, which are threatened and chased away by the favoured bull. Competition between bulls overrides their choice sometimes. Gestation lasts 22 months. The interval between births was estimated at 3.9 to 4.7 years in Hwange National Park . Where hunting pressure on adult elephants was high in the 1970s, cows gave birth once in 2.9 to 3.8 years. Cows in Amboseli National Park gave birth once in 5 years on average. The birth of

1568-655: A predominantly browsing -based diet on leaves, fruits, and woody parts of plants. This allowed mastodons to niche partition with other members of Proboscidea in North America, like gomphotheres and the Columbian mammoth , who had shifted to mixed feeding or grazing by the late Neogene - Quaternary . It is thought that mastodon behaviors were not much different from elephants and mammoths, with females and juveniles living in herds and adult males living largely solitary lives plus entering phases of aggression similar to

1680-643: A recorder of Albany , New York to dig near the original site of the tooth to find more bones. Abeel reported in a later that he went to the town of Claverack , New York where the original bones were found. American historian Paul Semonin said that the accounts written by Cornbury and Abeel match up with that written by in the July 30, 1705 entry in The Boston News-Letter . The account reported skeletal evidence of an antediluvian (or biblical) " giant " uncovered from Claverack. The femur and one of

1792-569: A regular stream. These manifestations of musth last from a few days to months, depending on the age and condition of the bull. When a bull has been urinating for a long time, the proximal part of the penis and the distal end of the sheath show a greenish coloration, termed the 'green penis syndrome' by Joyce Poole and Cynthia Moss . Males in musth become more aggressive. They guard and mate with females in estrus , who stay closer to bulls in musth than to non-musth bulls. Urinary testosterone increases during musth. Bulls begin to experience musth by

1904-542: A second species for Pliomastodon named P. vexillarius based on fossil material from the locality of Elephant Hill in California , determining that it differs from Mammut by differences in the skull and that the etymology of the species name was made in honor of paleontological contributions by the Standard Oil Company of California. In 1933, Childs Frick named the species Mastodon raki from

2016-487: A size of 2 cm (0.79 in) wide by 4 cm (1.6 in) long, are worn by the age of one year and lost by the age of about 2.5 years. The second molars start protruding at the age of about six months, and grow to a size of 4 cm (1.6 in) wide by 7 cm (2.8 in) long and are lost by the age of 6–7 years. The third molars protrude at the age of about one year, grow to a size of 5.2 cm (2.0 in) wide by 14 cm (5.5 in) long, and are lost by

2128-617: A spring on the Pomme de Terre River to assemble a mounted skeleton of the " Missouri Leviathan " and briefly exhibited it at St. Louis . After exhibiting the skeleton throughout Europe, he sold the skeleton to the British Museum of Natural History . Richard Owen then properly reassembled the skeleton, and it today is on display there. In 1845, another skeleton was excavated from Newburgh by laborers hired by Nathaniel Brewster initially to remove lacustrine deposits to fertilize

2240-459: A variety of habitats, including subtropical and temperate forests , dry and seasonally flooded grasslands , woodlands, wetlands , and agricultural land from sea level to mountain slopes. In Mali and Namibia, it also inhabits desert and semi-desert areas. In Ethiopia , the African bush elephant has historically been recorded up to an elevation of 2,500 m (8,200 ft). By the late 1970s,

2352-428: A view followed also by George William Featherstonhaugh . Isaac Hays comparatively defended Godman's taxon, which led to a bitter debate regarding the validity of the genus amongst American naturalists. The validities of both Tetracaulodon and Missourium were rejected by Owen in 1842, although he retained the former name informally. By 1869, American paleontologist Joseph Leidy determined that Mastodon americanus

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2464-409: A view later followed by Franklin. In 1768, Scottish anatomist William Hunter recorded that he and his brother John Hunter observed that the teeth were not like those of modern elephants. He determined that the "grinders" from Ohio were of a carnivorous animal but believed that the tusks belonged to the same animal. After examining fossils from Franklin and Lord Shelburne, Hunter was convinced that

2576-670: Is Z. proavus , which occurs in the Barstovian and Clarendonian stages. M? furlongi from the Black Butte in Oregon also dates back to the Clarendonian stage, but the affinities of the species remains unclear. If it truly is a species of Mammut , then its earliest temporal range is recorded at about 10 Ma. The earliest undisputed appearance of Mammut is of M. nevadanum from Thousand Creek Beds, dating back to

2688-746: Is herbivorous . It is a mixed feeder, consuming both grasses, as well as woody vegetation ( browse ), with the proportions varying wildly depending on the habitat and time of year, ranging from almost exclusively grazing to near-total browsing. African bush elephants consumption of woody plants, particularly their habit of uprooting trees, has the ability to alter the local environment, transforming woodlands into grasslands. African bush elephants also at times consume fruit and serve as seed dispersers. Adults can consume up to 150 kg (330 lb) of food per day. To supplement their diet with minerals , they congregate at mineral-rich water holes, termite mounds, and mineral licks . Salt licks visited by elephants in

2800-491: Is 3.96 m (13.0 ft), with this individual having an estimated weight of 10.4 t (11.5 short tons). Elephants attain their maximum stature when they complete the fusion of long-bone epiphyses , occurring in males around the age of 40 and females around 25 years of age. The dental formula of the African bush elephant is 1.0.3.3 0.0.3.3  × 2 = 26 . They develop six molars in each jaw quadrant that erupt at different ages and differ in size. The first molars grow to

2912-465: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . African bush elephant See text Elephas africanus The African bush elephant ( Loxodonta africana ), also known as the African savanna elephant , is one of two extant African elephant species and one of three extant elephant species. It is the largest living terrestrial animal , with fully grown bulls reaching an average shoulder height of 3.04–3.36 metres (10.0–11.0 ft) and

3024-453: Is a member of the genus Mammut (German for 'mammoth'), which was endemic to North America and lived from the late Miocene to the early Holocene . Mastodons belong to the order Proboscidea , the same order as elephants and mammoths (which belong to the family Elephantidae ). Mammut is the type genus of the extinct family Mammutidae , which diverged from the ancestors of modern elephants at least 27–25 million years ago, during

3136-545: Is considered to be a derived genus of the family because of strong zygodont development. As a family of the Elephantimorpha clade, it is only distantly related to the Deinotheriidae due to major differences in dentition and emergence of adult teeth. The Mammutidae is identified as a monophyletic clade, meaning that it did not leave any derived descendant groups in its evolutionary history. The monophyly of

3248-608: Is extinct and has left no living descendants. He established that it had an overall body form similar to elephants but had molars more similar to hippopotamuses and pigs that did not serve to grind meat. The first species he erected within Mastodon was Mastodon giganteum , giving it the informal name "great mastodon" and writing that that it is designated to the Ohio proboscidean with abundant fossil evidence, equal size but greater proportions to modern elephants, and diamond-shaped points of

3360-457: Is facilitated by corruption and periods of civil war in some elephant range countries. During the 20th century, the African bush elephant population was decimated. Poaching of the elephant has dated back to the years 1970 and 1980, which were considered the largest killings in history. The species is placed in harm's way due to the limited conservation areas provided in Africa. In most cases,

3472-710: Is led by a matriarch who at times also leads the kinship group. Groups cooperate in locating food and water, in self-defense, and in caring for offspring (termed allomothering ). Group size varies seasonally and between locations. In Tsavo East and Tsavo West National Parks , groups are bigger in the rainy season and areas with open vegetation. Aerial surveys in the late 1960s to early 1970s revealed an average group size of 6.3 individuals in Uganda's Rwenzori National Park and 28.8 individuals in Chambura Game Reserve. In both sites, elephants aggregated during

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3584-521: Is recorded in Kenya , Africa and firmly establishes the earliest presence of mammutids in the late Oligocene (~27-24 Ma). The Mammutidae, like other Paleogene proboscideans, was therefore an endemic radiation within the continent akin to other endemic mammals like arsinoitheres , hyracoids , and catarrhine primates plus non-endemics such as anthracotheres and hyaenodonts . In the early Neogene phase of evolution, Eozygodon made an appearance in

3696-403: Is the senior species synonym and listed M. giganteum as a junior synonym. He also listed Mammut , Harpagmotherium , Mastotherium , Missourium , and Leviathan as synonyms of Mastodon . He also noted that M. americanum as a species was highly variable in morphology. In 1902, American paleontologist Oliver Perry Hay listed Mammut as the prioritized genus name given its status as

3808-421: Is threatened foremost by habitat destruction , and in parts of its range also by poaching for meat and ivory . It is a social mammal, travelling in herds composed of cows and their offspring. Adult bulls usually live alone or in small bachelor groups. It is a herbivore, feeding on grasses, creepers, herbs, leaves, and bark. The menstrual cycle lasts three to four months, and females are pregnant for 22 months,

3920-450: Is threatened primarily by habitat loss and fragmentation following conversion of natural habitat for livestock farming, plantations of non-timber crops, and building of urban and industrial areas. As a result, the human-elephant conflict has increased. Poachers target foremost elephant bulls for their tusks, which leads to a skewed sex ratio and affects the survival chances of a population. Access of poachers to unregulated black markets

4032-729: The American Museum of Natural History . Other skeletons of Mammut americanum were excavated within the United States in the first half of the 19th century. One of them was collected by American showman Albert C. Koch in what is today the Mastodon State Historic Site at Missouri in 1839. He hypothesized in 1840 that the proboscidean, which he classified as Missourium , was much larger than an elephant, had horizontal tusks plus trunks, and occupied aquatic habitats. He acquired additional fossils from

4144-575: The Clovis culture ) hunted mastodons based on the finding of mastodon remains with cut marks and/or with lithic artifacts. Mastodons disappeared along with many other North American animals, including most of its largest animals ( megafauna ), as part of the end-Pleistocene extinction event around the end of the Late Pleistocene-early Holocene, the causes typically being attributed to human hunting, severe climatic phases like

4256-690: The Coso Mountains in Inyo County , California where skull fossils were recovered. In 1963, J. Arnold Shotwell and Donald E. Russell created another species Mammut (Pliomastodon) furlongi , assigning it to fossils collected from the Juntura Formation of Oregon. The species name was created in honor of Eustace L. Furlong , who made early fossil collections from the western side of the Juntura Basin. The genus Pliomastodon

4368-551: The Irvingtonian to the Rancholabrean (from around 1.6 million to 11,000 years ago), only M. americanum and the newly appearing M. pacificum are recorded, the former having an exceptional level of diversity based on abundant skeletal evidences from the late Pleistocene that is unusual for the typical mammutid fossil record. The following cladogram defines the phylogeny of certain proboscideans,

4480-508: The Late Pleistocene , following the extinction of the last African Palaeoloxodon species, Palaeoloxodon jolensis . The African bush elephant has grey skin with scanty hairs. Its large ears cover the whole shoulder, and can grow as large as 2 m × 1.5 m (6 ft 7 in × 4 ft 11 in). Its large ears help to reduce body heat; flapping them creates air currents and exposes large blood vessels on

4592-464: The Oligocene . Like other members of Mammutidae, the molar teeth of mastodons have zygodont morphology (where parallel pairs of cusps are merged into sharp ridges), which strongly differ from those of elephantids. In comparison to its likely ancestor Zygolophodon , Mammut is characterized by particularly long and upward curving upper tusks, reduced or absent tusks on the lower jaw, as well as

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4704-663: The Snake Creek Formation of western Nebraska , naming it in honor of William Diller Matthew . He also erected another species M. merriami from the Thousand Creek Formation in Nevada , which was eventually synonymized with Zygolophodon proavus . Osborn in 1926 followed up for Mastodon matthewi by establishing the genus Pliomastodon for the species based on cranial differences from " Miomastodon " (= Zygolophodon ). In 1930, Matthew erected

4816-482: The Younger Dryas , or some combination of the two. The American mastodon had its last recorded occurrence in the earliest Holocene around 11,000 years ago, which is considerably later than other North American megafauna species. Today, the American mastodon is one of the most well-known fossil species in both academic research and public perception, the result of its inclusion in American popular culture. In

4928-467: The musth exhibited by modern elephants. Mammut achieved maximum species diversity in the Pliocene , though the genus is known from abundant fossil evidence in the Late Pleistocene . Mastodons for at least a few thousand years prior to their extinction coexisted with Paleoindians , who were the first humans to have inhabited North America. Evidence has been found that Paleoindians (including those of

5040-408: The placenta about 100 minutes after birth and covered it with soil immediately. Captive-born calves weigh between 100 and 120 kg (220 and 260 lb) at birth and gain about 0.5 kg (1.1 lb) weight per day. Cows lactate for about 4.8 years. Calves exclusively suckle their mother's milk during the first three months. Thereafter, they start feeding independently and slowly increase

5152-551: The " pseudo-elephant ", or " animal incognitum " (shortened as " incognitum "), was an animal species separate from elephants that might have also been the same as the proboscideans found in Siberia. He concluded his article with the opinion that although regrettable to philosophers, humanity should be thankful to heaven that the animal, if truly carnivorous, was extinct. In 1785, Reverend Robert Annan wrote an account recalling an event in which workers discovered bones in his farm near

5264-544: The 19th century before eventually being reclassified into distinct genera. In addition to still-valid species names, several synonymous or dubious species names ultimately belonging to different genera were erected within the Americas as well throughout the 19th century. Also, many species names erected based on M. americanum remains were erected. As a result, M. americanum has many synonymous names. The issue of synonymous species names were especially apparent in

5376-577: The African Elephant Database was initiated to collate and update information on the distribution and status of elephant populations in Africa. The database includes results from aerial surveys, dung counts, interviews with local people, and data on poaching. Researchers discovered that playing back the recorded sounds of African bees is an effective method to drive elephants away from settlements. American mastodon A mastodon ( mastós 'breast' + odoús 'tooth')

5488-441: The African bush elephant and the African forest elephant form a sister group that genetically diverged at least 1.9 million years ago. They are therefore considered distinct species. Gene flow between the two species, however, might have occurred after the split. Some authors have suggested tha t L. africana evolved from Loxodonta atlantica . The fossil record for L. africana is sparse. The earliest possible records of

5600-674: The African bush elephant. As human development grows, the human population faces the trouble of contact with the elephants more frequently, due to the species need for food and water. Farmers residing in nearby areas come into conflict with the African bush elephants rummaging through their crops. In many cases, they kill the elephants as soon as they disturb a village or forage upon its crops. Deaths caused by browsing on rubber vine , an invasive alien plant, have also been reported. Observations at Etosha National Park indicate that African bush elephants die due to anthrax foremost in November at

5712-430: The Americas. He stated that the bones that Buffon previously described from North America were not of elephants but another animal that he referred to as the " mastodonte ," or the " animal of Ohio ." He reinforced the idea that the extinct "mastodon" was an animal close in relationship to elephants that differed by jaws with large tubercles. He suggested that "mammoth" and "carnivorous elephant" be discontinued as names for

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5824-681: The Big Bone Lick locality. He stated that the tusks were similar to elephants while the molars were completely different because they were covered with enamel and had a double row of high conical cusp processes. Kerr was unsure about the taxonomic affinities of the molars and referenced that Thomas Pennant supposed that they belong to an unknown species within the genus Elephas , giving the common name "American elephant." German naturalist Johann Friedrich Blumenbach also followed up with more taxonomic descriptions of fossil proboscideans in 1799. The first fossil species, recovered from Germany,

5936-658: The Blancan, and M. raki specifically is thought to not be synonymous with M. pacificum . M. americanum (known popularly as an "American mastodon" or simply "mastodon") is also stratigraphically recorded first from the early Blancan of the Ringold Formation , Washington . The age of the formation where the mammutid specimen was found dates to about 3.75 Ma. It is also known from multiple other Blancan sites such as Fish Springs Flat in Nevada. From

6048-535: The Hudson River in New York in fall of 1780. The workers found four molars in addition to another that was broken and thrown away. They also uncovered bones, including vertebrae that broke shortly thereafter. Annan expressed his confusion at what the animal could be but speculated based on its "grinders" that it was carnivorous in diet. He speculated also that it was probably extinct due to some catastrophe within

6160-477: The Kalahari contain high concentrations of water-soluble sodium . Elephants drink 180–230 litres (50–60 US gal) of water daily, and seem to prefer sites where water and soil contain sodium. In Kruger National Park and on the shore of Lake Kariba , elephants were observed to ingest wood ash , which also contains sodium. Africa bush elephants use their trunks for tactile communication. When greeting,

6272-718: The Lioness is buried in this park and part of Joy's ashes were scattered on her gravesite. Between the years 2000 and 2005, the Kenya Wildlife Service , helped by the Agence Française de Développement (AFD) and International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW), restored Meru National Park from near ruin to one of the most promising tourist destinations in Eastern Africa, solving the parks poaching problem. IFAW donated $ 1.25 million to this major restoration project, and with this money aided in improving

6384-672: The Mammutidae makes it differ from the Elephantida, where the Gomphotheriidae is paraphyletic (or ancestral to more derived descendant groups in the cladistic sense) in relation to the derived elephantoid families Stegodontidae and Elephantidae (elephants, mammoths, and relatives). Although the separation of the Mammutida and Elephantida is strongly supported based on morphological differences, their origins within

6496-436: The age of 24 years. Periods of musth are short and sporadic in young bulls up to 35 years old, lasting a few days to weeks. Older bulls are in musth for 2–5 months every year. Musth occurs mainly during and following the rainy season when females are in estrus. Bulls in musth often chase each other and are aggressive towards other bulls in musth. When old and high-ranking bulls in musth threaten and chase young musth bulls, either

6608-423: The age of 8–10 years. The fourth molars show by the age of 6–7 years, grow to a size of 6.8 cm (2.7 in) wide by 17.5 cm (6.9 in) long and are lost by the age of 22–23 years. The dental alveoli of the fifth molars are visible by the age of 10–11 years. They grow to a size of 8.5 cm (3.3 in) wide by 22 cm (8.7 in) long and are worn by the age of 45–48 years. The dental alveoli of

6720-529: The basic infrastructure and provided essential equipment and vehicles for law enforcement activities. Since 2005, the protected area is considered part of a Lion Conservation Unit. Aside from the scenery and wildlife, tourist attractions include the once home of George and Joy Adamson, Adamson's Falls, the burial sites of Joy Adamson and Elsa the Lioness , views of Mount Kenya , and the Tana River. This Eastern Province (Kenya) location article

6832-468: The bones were discovered by Native Americans (probably Abenaki hunter-warriors). He came to the conclusion that the femur and tusk belonged to an elephant while the molars (or cheek teeth) came from a separate giant hippopotamus . In Shawnee tradition, the proboscideans roamed in herds and were hunted by giants, who both eventually died out. The accounts told by the Shawnee individuals in 1762 are

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6944-934: The cyanobacteria caused calves and adult elephants to wander around confused, emaciated and in distress. The elephants collapsed when the toxin impaired their motor functions and their legs became paralysed. Poaching, intentional poisoning, and anthrax were excluded as potential causes. Both African elephant species have been listed on Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora since 1989. In 1997, populations of Botswana, Namibia, and Zimbabwe were placed on CITES Appendix II , as were populations of South Africa in 2000. Community-based conservation programmes have been initiated in several range countries, which contributed to reducing human-elephant conflict and increasing local people's tolerance towards elephants. In 1986,

7056-568: The drought when smaller prey species were scarce. Between 1993 and 1996, lions successfully attacked 74 elephants; 26 were older than nine, and one was a bull of over 15 years. Most were killed at night, and hunts occurred more often during waning moon nights than during bright moon nights. In the same park, lions killed eight elephants in October 2005 that were aged between 1 and 11 years, two of them older than 8 years. Successful hunts took place after dark when prides exceeded 27 lions and herds were smaller than 5 elephants. The African bush elephant

7168-409: The earliest Miocene (~23-20 Ma) of Africa after Losodokodon . Eozygodon was subsequently succeeded by Zygolophodon by the early Miocene, and the latter dispersed into Eurasia by around 19-18 million years ago, and into North America by the middle Miocene. The dispersal of mammutids between Africa and Eurasia may have occurred multiple times. The Mammutidae eventually went extinct in Africa prior to

7280-518: The early Hemphillian , or 8.0-7.1 Ma. Historically, North American paleontologists considered that North American Zygolophodon evolved into Mammut in an endemic fashion while European workers generally thought that Mammut was a Eurasian immigrant that replaced North American Zygolophodon during the Miocene or Pliocene . Current evidence supports an endemic origin of North American Mammut from Zygolophodon without later migration because of

7392-702: The end of the dry season. Anthrax spores spread through the intestinal tracts of vultures, jackals and hyaenas that feed on the carcasses. Anthrax killed over 100 elephants in Botswana in 2019. It is thought that wild bush elephants can contract fatal tuberculosis from humans. Infection of the vital organs by Citrobacter freundii bacteria caused the death of an otherwise healthy bush elephant after capture and translocation. From April to June 2020, over 400 bush elephants died in Botswana's Okavango Delta region after drinking from desiccating waterholes that were infested with cyanobacteria . Neurotoxins produced by

7504-785: The first half of the 19th century. Today, the genera that include species formerly classified into Mastodon include Gomphotherium ( G. angustidens , G. pyrenaicum , G. productum , G. libycum , G. subtapiroideum , G. steinheimense ), Zygolophodon ( Z. turicensis , Z. proavus ), Cuvieronius ( C. hyodon ), Stegodon ( S. elephantoides ), Stegolophodon ( S. latidens , S. cautleyi ), Anancus ( A. avernensis , A. sivalensis , A. perimensis ), Tetralophodon ( T. longirostris ), Choerolophodon ( C. pentelici ), Stegomastodon ( S. mirificus ), Rhynchotherium (" R. " euhypodon ), Stenobelodon ( S. floridanus ), and Notiomastodon ( N. platensis ). In 1830, American naturalist John Davidson Godman created

7616-807: The first time at the age of 11 years. They are in estrus for 2–6 days. In captivity, cows have an oestrous cycle lasting 14–15 weeks. Foetal gonads enlarge during the second half of pregnancy. African bush elephants mate during the rainy season. Bulls in musth cover long distances in search of cows and associate with large family units. They listen for the cows' loud, very low frequency calls and attract cows by calling and by leaving trails of strong-smelling urine. Cows search for bulls in musth, listen for their calls, and follow their urine trails. Bulls in musth are more successful at obtaining mating opportunities than those who are not. A cow may move away from bulls that attempt to test her estrous condition. If pursued by several bulls, she will run away. Once she chooses

7728-472: The genus Mammut should be carefully used for non-North American species. Mammut is the type genus of the Mammutidae , the sole family of the elephantimorph clade Mammutida (the other elephantimorph clade is Elephantida ). The Mammutidae is characterized by molars with zygodont-form crests, which have remained morphologically conservative throughout the evolutionary history of the family. Mammut

7840-441: The genus Tetracaulodon plus its species T. Mastodontoideum based on what he determined to be differences between it and Mastodon based on the skull and dentition. Both Richard Harlan and William Cooper pointed out that except for the tusks, all other characteristics of the specimens were consistent with M. giganteum . They therefore argued that there was no reason to assume that the tusks were not just individual variations,

7952-670: The globe. American statesman Thomas Jefferson stated his thoughts on Notes on the State of Virginia (published by 1785) that the fossil proboscideans may have been carnivorous, still exist in the northern parts of North America, and are related to mammoths whose remains were found in Siberia. Jefferson referenced the theory of American social degeneracy by Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon , countering it by using extant and extinct animal measurements, including those of "mammoths," as proof that North America faunas were not "degenerative" in size. Semonin pointed out that social degeneracy

8064-607: The gradual appearance of Mammut morphologies and a lack of solid evidence that Mammut sensu stricto (in a strict sense) ever dispersed outside of North America. M. matthewi is recorded from the late Hemphillian to early Blancan stages. Mammutid specimens of the Hemphillian and Blancan had typically previously been assigned to M. matthewi , but this is seemingly the result of overreliance on stratigraphic positions to define taxa. M. vexillarius , M. raki , and M. cosoensis are definitively recorded from

8176-452: The historic plus taxonomically correct name Mammut over Mastodon . He continued prioritizing Mammut in 1945, stating that people were generally aware of its taxonomic priorities over Mastodon and that people had refused to use it. He stated that he did not want to either but reluctantly set aside his personal preferences to follow taxonomic rules. In 1921, Osborn created the species name Mastodon matthewi based on distinct molars from

8288-480: The increasing birth of tuskless females when the population recovered. Vast areas in Sub-Saharan Africa were transformed for agricultural use and the building of infrastructure. This disturbance leaves the elephants without a stable habitat and limits their ability to roam freely. Large corporations associated with commercial logging and mining have fragmented the land, giving poachers easy access to

8400-537: The inner sides to increase heat loss during hot weather. The African bush elephant's ears are pointed and triangular shaped. Its occipital plane slopes forward. Its back is shaped markedly concave. Its sturdy tusks are curved out and point forward. Its long trunk or proboscis ends with two finger-like tips. The African bush elephant is the largest and heaviest living land animal. Under optimal conditions where individuals are capable of reaching full growth potential, males are about 3.20 m (10.5 ft) tall at

8512-504: The international ivory trade reopened in 2006, the demand and price for ivory increased in Asia. The African bush elephant population in Chad 's Zakouma National Park numbered 3,900 individuals in 2005. Within five years, more than 3,200 elephants were killed. The park did not have sufficient guards to combat poaching, and their weapons were outdated. Well-organized networks facilitated smuggling

8624-808: The ivory through Sudan. Poaching also increased in Kenya in those years. In Samburu National Reserve , 41 bulls were illegally killed between 2008 and 2012, equivalent to 31% of the reserve's elephant population. These killings were linked to confiscations of ivory and increased prices for ivory on the local black market. About 10,370 tusks were confiscated in Singapore, Hong Kong , Taiwan , Philippines , Thailand , Malaysia , Kenya and Uganda between 2007 and 2013. Genetic analysis of tusk samples showed that they originated from African bush elephants killed in Tanzania, Mozambique, Zambia, Kenya, and Uganda. Most of

8736-628: The ivory was smuggled through East African countries. In addition to elephants being poached, their carcasses may be poisoned by the poachers to avoid detection by vultures, which help rangers detect poaching activity by circling dead animals. This poses a threat to those vultures or birds that scavenge the carcasses. On 20 June 2019, the carcasses of two tawny eagles and 537 endangered Old World vultures including 468 white-backed vultures , 17 white-headed vultures , 28 hooded vultures , 14 lappet-faced vultures and 10 Cape vultures found dead in northern Botswana were suspected to have died after eating

8848-468: The killings of the African bush elephant have occurred near the outskirts of the protected areas. Between 2003 and 2015, the illegal killing of 14,606 African bush elephants was reported by rangers across 29 range countries. Chad is a major transit country for smuggling of ivory in West Africa. This trend was curtailed by raising penalties for poaching and improving law enforcement. In June 2002,

8960-558: The last Eurasian mammutid, became extinct during the earliest Pleistocene , around 2.5-2 million years ago. The oldest evidence of mammutids in North America is of a fragmentary molar of Zygolophodon sp. from Massacre Lake , Nevada, dating to 16.5-16.4 Ma (during the Hemingfordian stage of the North American land mammal ages (NALMA)). The only definitively defined species of Zygolophodon from North America

9072-468: The last molars are visible by the age of 26–28 years. They grow to a size of 9.4 cm (3.7 in) wide by 31 cm (12 in) long and are well worn by the age of 65 years. Both sexes have tusks, which erupt when they are 1–3 years old and grow throughout life. Tusks grow from deciduous teeth known as tushes that develop in the upper jaw and consist of a crown , root and pulpal cavity, which are completely formed soon after birth. Tushes reach

9184-439: The late Paleogene remain uncertain. One hypothesis asserts that the Elephantimorpha is monophyletic if the primitive Elephantiformes genus Phiomia was truly ancestral to both the Elephantida and Mammutida. An alternate hypothesis suggests that the Elephantimorpha is diphyletic because Phiomia is ancestral to gomphotheres while Palaeomastodon is ancestral to mammutids. The earliest undisputed mammutid genus Losodokodon

9296-469: The late Miocene. Mammut as currently defined sensu lato (in a broad sense) is most likely polyphyletic (comprising several unrelated groups). This is because the inclusion of Eurasian mammutid species into Mammut implies that they share a common origin with North American Mammut , but this relationship has been doubted. As a result, these Eurasian species may belong to either other existing mammutid genera or entirely new genera. "Mammut" borsoni ,

9408-477: The latter leave the group or their musth ceases. Young bulls in musth killed about 50 white rhinoceros in Pilanesberg National Park between 1992 and 1997. This unusual behavior was attributed to their young age and inadequate socialisation; they were 17–25-year-old orphans from culled families that grew up without the guidance of dominant bulls. When six adult bulls were introduced into

9520-612: The locality in 1801, where he first sketched the fossils then purchased excavation privileges and full ownership of the fossils from Masten and borrowed a loan from the American Philosophical Society (APS) in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . In addition to the first skeleton, the second was excavated using a mill-like device to drain a 12 ft (3.7 m) deep marl pit. Peale assembled a complete skeleton in his Philadelphia Museum in 1804, and its exhibit

9632-490: The locality of Truth or Consequences , New Mexico based on differences on the heel and M 3 tooth from M. americanus , otherwise having proportions similar to it. In 1936, Chester Stock published the species name Pliomastodon nevadanus based on fossils from the Thousand Creek Beds of northwestern Nevada. In 1937, John R. Schultz created the species name Pliomastodon? cosoensis , naming it after

9744-576: The longest gestation period of any mammal. In the 19th and 20th centuries, several zoological specimens were described by naturalists and curators of natural history museums from various parts of Africa, including: Today, these names are all considered synonyms . A genetic study based on mitogenomic analysis revealed that the African and Asian elephant genetically diverged about 7.6 million years ago. Phylogenetic analysis of nuclear DNA of African bush and forest elephants, Asian elephant, woolly mammoth , and American mastodon revealed that

9856-526: The molars. The naturalist also created the second species name Mastodon angustidens and gave it the informal name "narrow-toothed mastodon," diagnosing it as having narrower molars, smaller sizes compared to M. giganteum , and range distributions in Europe and South America. Cuvier also erected several other species of Mastodon originating from other continents in 1824. Despite Cuvier's genus name being younger than multiple other genus names, Mastodon became

9968-428: The most commonly used genus name for the 19th century. " Mastodon " was riddled with major taxonomic problems since species now determined as belonging to other proboscidean genera were classified to Mastodon on the basis of similar dentitions to that of " Mastodon giganteum " (= Mammut americanum ), effectively making it a wastebasket taxon . Various fossil proboscidean species were classified into Mastodon in

10080-514: The neighboring fields. They were observed by a large amount of spectators and uncovered relatively complete fossil evidence of M. americanum . The skeleton was exhibited in New York City and other New England towns then was acquired by John Collins Warren for study. After Warren's death in 1856, the skeleton was sent to Warren's family but was traded to Harvard Medical School for John Warren's skeleton. The "Warren mastodon", under

10192-409: The oldest genus name, making Mastodon , Tetracaulodon , and Missourium classified as junior synonyms. He also established M. americanum as the type species. The genus name Mastodon was subsequently abandoned by many American paleontologists in favor of Mammut within the early 20th century. In 1942, American paleontologist George Gaylord Simpson said that for his study, he prioritized

10304-526: The oldest known documented interpretations of the " Ohio " fossils, although the traditions may have had been told for generations. In 1767, Peter Collinson credited Irish trader George Croghan for having sent him and Benjamin Franklin fossil evidence of the mysterious proboscideans, using them for his studies. He concluded that the peculiar grinders (the molars) were built for herbivorous diets of branches of trees and shrubs as well as other vegetation,

10416-693: The park, the young bulls did not attack rhinos anymore, indicating older bulls suppress the musth and aggressiveness of younger bulls. Similar incidents were recorded in Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Park , where young bulls killed five black and 58 white rhinoceros between 1991 and 2001. After the introduction of ten bulls, each up to 45 years old, the number of rhinos killed by elephants decreased considerably. Spermatogenesis starts when bulls are about 15 years old. However, males have not begun sexual cycles, not experiencing their first musth period until they are 25 or 30 years of age. Cows ovulate for

10528-558: The poisoned carcasses of three elephants. Intensive poaching leads to strong selection on tusk attributes; African elephants in areas with heavy poaching often have smaller tusks and a higher frequency of congenitally tuskless females, whereas congenital tusklessness is rarely if ever observed in males. A study in Mozambique's Gorongosa National Park revealed that poaching during the Mozambican Civil War led to

10640-706: The population had declined to a herd in the Dawa River valley and one close to the Kenyan border. The core of elephant society is the family unit, which mostly comprises several adult cows, their daughters, and their prepubertal sons. Iain Douglas-Hamilton , who observed African bush elephants for 4.5 years in Lake Manyara National Park , coined the term 'kinship group' for two or more family units that have close ties. The family unit

10752-608: The previously established species " Elephas americanus " and argued that the species was different from elephants and mammoths and cannot be found amongst living animals due to extinction from catastrophism . The proboscidean species was subject to several other species names given by other taxonomists within the earliest 18th century as well as the genus name Harpagmotherium by the Russian naturalist Gotthelf Fischer von Waldheim in 1808. In 1806, Cuvier wrote multiple extended research articles on fossil proboscideans of Eurasia and

10864-493: The promotion of the "mastodon" skeleton made it a symbol of the strength of American nationalism and that "mammoth" as a term became associated with gigantism. Decades later, the museum bankrupted, and the first skeleton's specimens were sold to some German spectators in around 1848, who eventually sold it to Hessisches Landesmuseum Darmstadt in Germany where it is now displayed. The second skeleton's specimens landed eventually at

10976-508: The request of American paleontologist Henry Fairfield Osborn , was purchased by the American financier J. P. Morgan for $ 30,000 in 1906 and donated to the American Museum of Natural History where it is exhibited today. In the 1790s, the " American incognitum " was subject to research by multiple taxonomists. Scottish writer Robert Kerr erected the species name Elephas americanus in 1792 based on fossil tusks and "grinders" from

11088-883: The shortening of the mandibular symphysis (the frontmost part of the lower jaw), the latter two traits also having evolved in parallel separately in elephantids. Mastodons had an overall stockier skeletal build, a lower-domed skull, and a longer tail compared to elephantids. Fully grown male M. americanum are thought to have been have been 275 cm (9.02 ft) to 305 cm (10.01 ft) at shoulder height and from 6.8 t (6.7 long tons; 7.5 short tons) to 9.2 t (9.1 long tons; 10.1 short tons) in body mass on average. The size estimates suggest that American mastodon males were on average heavier than any living elephant species; they were typically larger than Asian elephants and African forest elephants of both sexes but shorter than male African bush elephants . M. americanum , known as an "American mastodon" or simply "mastodon," had

11200-587: The shoulder and weigh 6.0 t (6.6 short tons) on average (with 90% of fully grown males under optimal conditions being between 3.04–3.36 m (10.0–11.0 ft) and 5.2–6.9 t (5.7–7.6 short tons)) while mature fully grown females are smaller at about 2.60 m (8 ft 6 in) tall at the shoulder and 3.0 t (3.3 short tons) in weight on average (with 90% of fully grown females ranging between 2.47–2.73 m (8 ft 1 in – 8 ft 11 in) and 2.6–3.5 t (2.9–3.9 short tons)). The maximum recorded shoulder height of an adult bull

11312-478: The species and that it receive a new genus name instead. Cuvier said that for " mastodonte ," he derived the name's etymology (compound μαστός ( mastós , "breast") + ὀδούς ( odoús , "tooth") from Ancient Greek to mean "nipple tooth," since he thought that it expressed the characteristic form of the teeth. In 1817, the French naturalist officially established the genus name Mastodon , reaffirming that it

11424-725: The species are from the Shungura Formation around Omo in Ethiopia, which are dated to the Early Pleistocene , around 2.44-2.27 million years ago. Another possible early record is from the Kanjera site in Kenya, dating to the Middle Pleistocene , around 500,000 years ago. Genetic analysis suggests a major population expansion between 500,000 and 100,000 years ago. Records become more common during

11536-543: The species was distinguished from other animals of the prehistoric world based on the unusual shapes of the large molars. The genus name "Mammut" refers to the German translation for "mammoth." The naming of the genus Mammut in 1799 makes it the second or third genus to be recognized with taxonomic authority given that Megalonyx had been named the same year. French naturalist Georges Cuvier also described known fossil proboscidean species back in 1796, although his account

11648-568: The taxonomic status of M. furlongi , specifically whether or not it was a variant of sexual dimorphism of Z. proavus . Some authors have considered M. nevadanum to be synonymous with M. matthewi while others had retained validity of the species name. Several mammutid species outside of North America are classified to Mammut (or " Pliomastodon "), namely M. borsoni , M. obliquelophus , M. zhupengensis , and M. lufugense (possibly synonymous with M. obliquelophus ). Recent research such as that of von Koenigswald et al. in 2023 warned that

11760-581: The teeth both dissolved before they could be further observed, however. In 1739, a French military expedition under the command of Charles III Le Moyne (known also as "Longueil") explored the locality of " Big Bone Lick " (located in what is now the US state of Kentucky ) and gathered fossil bones and teeth there. The French naturalist Louis Jean-Marie Daubenton examined the fossil collection brought by Longueuil and compared it with specimens of extant elephants and Siberian mammoths in 1762. Daubenton said that

11872-828: The time spent feeding until they are two years old. During the first three years, male calves spend more time suckling and grow faster than female calves. After this period, cows reject male calves more frequently from nursing than female calves. The maximum lifespan of the African bush elephant is between 70 and 75 years. Its generation length is 25 years. Adult elephants are considered invulnerable to predation. Calves, usually under two years, are sometimes preyed on by lions and spotted hyenas . Adult elephants often chase off predators, especially lions, by mobbing behavior. Juveniles are usually well defended by protective adults though serious drought makes them vulnerable to lion predation. In Botswana's Chobe National Park , lions attacked and fed on juvenile and subadult elephants during

11984-742: The wet season, whereas groups were smaller in the dry season. Young bulls gradually separate from the family unit when they are between 10 and 19 years old. They range alone for some time or form all-male groups. A 2020 study highlighted the importance of old bulls for the navigation and survival of herds and raised concerns over the removal of old bulls as "currently occur[ring] in both legal trophy hunting and illegal poaching". The African bush elephant has curved skin with bending cracks, which support thermoregulation by retaining water. These bending cracks contribute to an evaporative cooling process which helps to maintain body temperature via homeothermy regardless of air temperature. The African bush elephant

12096-534: Was an offensive concept to Anglo-American naturalists and that the American proboscidean fossils were used as political tools to inspire American nationalism and counter against the theory of American degeneracy. In 1799, laborers recovered a thighbone while digging a marl pit at John Masten's farm in Newburgh , New York, and subsequent excavations were observed by a crowd of over a hundred people. American painter and exhibitionist Charles Willson Peale visited

12208-400: Was described as belonging to the newly erected species Elephas primigenius ? (now known as Mammuthus primigenius ). The second was what he considered to be an unknown "colossal land monster of the prehistoric world," considering it to be the "mammoth." He created the genus Mammut and erected the species Mammut ohioticum based on fossil bones dug up from Ohio in North America. He said that

12320-456: Was later published in 1799. He considered that the remains uncovered from Siberia were true "mammoths" that had similar dentitions to extant elephants but had some morphological differences. He mentioned the fossil remains that were brought back by Longueil from Ohio back in 1739 and several researchers from previous decades who noted the unusual molars and thought that they belonged to different animals like hippopotamuses. He followed recognition in

12432-679: Was open first to invited members of the American Philosophical Society on December 24 then to the general public on December 25 for an exhibit admission fee in addition to the general admission fee. The special exhibition attracted thousands of visitors, and the skeleton became a US national symbol. Charles Peale's son Rembrandt Peale took the skeleton to Europe used to promote the fossil proboscidean and have it used as support for Jefferson's final rebuttals against Buffon's arguments for supposed inferiority of American faunas. Author Keith Stewart Thomson argued that

12544-522: Was synonymized with Mammut while Miomastodon was synonymized with Zygolophodon by Jeheskel Shoshani and Pascal Tassy in a 1996 appendix, a view that was followed by other authors in later years. In 2019, Alton C. Dooley Jr. et al. established Mammut pacificus based on fossils collected from the Diamond Valley Lake in Hemet , California. They also stated that M. oregonense is

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