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158-403: Valeria Messalina ( Latin: [waˈlɛria mɛssaːˈliːna] ; c.  17/20–48 ) was the third wife of Roman emperor Claudius . She was a paternal cousin of Emperor Nero , a second cousin of Emperor Caligula , and a great-grandniece of Emperor Augustus . A powerful and influential woman with a reputation for promiscuity , she allegedly conspired against her husband and was executed on

316-526: A Bacchic ritual as they were in the midst of celebrating the Vinalia , a festival of the grape harvest. Tacitus and Dio state that Narcissus convinced Claudius that it was a move to overthrow him and persuaded him to appoint the deputy Praetorian Prefect , Lusius Geta , to the charge of the Guard because the loyalty of the senior Prefect Rufrius Crispinus was in doubt. Claudius rushed back to Rome, where he

474-403: A conspiracy with his father Crassus Frugi . Another plot involved the consulars Lusius Saturninus , Cornelius Lupus , and Pompeius Pedo. In 46, Asinius Gallus , grandson of Asinius Pollio , and Titus Statilius Taurus Corvinus were exiled for a plot hatched with several of Claudius's own freedmen. Valerius Asiaticus was executed without public trial for unknown reasons. Ancient sources say

632-623: A curtain, according to Tacitus ( Annales , 13.5). While the Roman assemblies continued to meet after the founding of the Empire, their powers were all transferred to the Senate, and so senatorial decrees ( senatus consulta ) acquired the full force of law. The legislative powers of the Imperial Senate were principal of a financial and an administrative nature, although the senate did retain

790-646: A decree ( damnatio memoriae or "damnation from memory") which would attempt to cancel every trace of that emperor from the life of Rome, as if he had never existed. The emperor Tiberius transferred all electoral powers from the assemblies to the Senate, and, while theoretically, the senate elected new magistrates, the approval of the Emperor was always needed before an election could be finalized. Despite this fact, however, elections remained highly contested and vigorously fought. Under Vespasian (69-79 AD) senators were accorded an increased role as senior officials of

948-538: A decree (the adlectio ). Beginning in 9 BC, with the passage of Augustus' lex Julia de senatu habendo , an official list of Senators (the album senatorium ) was maintained and revised each year. Individuals were added to the list if they had recently satisfied the requirements for entry into the Senate, and were removed from the list if they no longer satisfied the requirements necessary to maintain Senate membership. The list named each senator by order of rank. The Emperor always outranked all of his fellow senators and

1106-476: A direct hand in the assassination, although it has been argued that he knew about the plot – particularly since he left the scene of the crime shortly before his nephew was murdered. However, after the deaths of Caligula's wife and daughter , it became apparent that Cassius intended to go beyond the terms of the conspiracy and wipe out the Imperial family. In the chaos following the murder, Claudius witnessed

1264-544: A dragon chariot, which commemorated his part in the Roman conquest of Britain . This was modelled on depictions of Dionysus and Ariadne after his Indian victory and is now in the Bibliothèque nationale de France (Cabinet des Médailles). In its Roman adaptation, Messalina is in front guiding the chariot while Claudius stands behind her steadying his flying robe. The piece was once in the collection of Peter Paul Rubens , who made an ink sketch of it, although identifying

1422-425: A fall from a horse. Claudius was then raised by his mother, who never remarried. When his disability became evident, the relationship with his family turned sour. Antonia referred to him as a monster, and used him as a standard for stupidity. She seems to have passed her son off to his grandmother Livia for a number of years. Livia was a little kinder, but nevertheless sent Claudius short, angry letters of reproof. He

1580-676: A future empress, stepsister, and first wife to the emperor Nero ; and a son, Britannicus . When the Emperor Caligula was murdered in 41, the Praetorian Guard proclaimed Claudius the new emperor and Messalina became empress. After her accession to power, Messalina enters history with a reputation as ruthless, predatory, and sexually insatiable, while Claudius is painted as easily led by her and unaware of her many adulteries. The historians who relayed such stories, principally Tacitus and Suetonius , wrote some 70 years after

1738-423: A large temple was dedicated in his honour . He left Britain after 16 days, but remained in the provinces for some time. The Senate granted him a triumph for his efforts. Only members of the Imperial family were allowed such honours, but Claudius subsequently lifted this restriction for some of his conquering generals. He was granted the honorific "Britannicus" but only accepted it on behalf of his son, never using

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1896-484: A large rebellion was undertaken by the Senator Vinicianus and Scribonianus - governor of Dalmatia - and gained quite a few senatorial supporters. It ultimately failed because of the reluctance of Scribonianus' troops, which led to the suicide of the main conspirators. Many other senators tried different conspiracies and were condemned. Claudius's son-in-law Pompeius Magnus was executed for his part in

2054-458: A law requiring plaintiffs to remain in the city while their cases were pending, as defendants had previously been required to do. These measures had the effect of clearing out the docket. The minimum age for jurors was also raised to 25 to ensure a more experienced jury pool. Claudius also settled disputes in the provinces. He freed the island of Rhodes from Roman rule for their good faith and exempted Ilium ( Troy ) from taxes. Early in his reign,

2212-550: A list of her various offences compiled by the freedman. Despite the mounting evidence against her, Claudius's feelings were softening and he asked to see her in the morning for a private interview. Narcissus, pretending to act on Claudius' instructions, ordered an officer of the Praetorian Guard to execute her. When the troop of guards arrived at the Gardens of Lucullus, where Messalina had taken refuge with her mother, she

2370-510: A lot of his time with the latter, as well as the philosopher Athenodorus . Augustus, according to a letter, was surprised at the clarity of Claudius's oratory. Claudius' work as a historian damaged his prospects for advancement in public life. According to Vincent Scramuzza and others, he began work on a history of the Civil Wars that was either too truthful or too critical of Octavian, then reigning as Caesar Augustus . In either case, it

2528-484: A means to secure army loyalty and rewarded the soldiers of the Praetorian Guard that had elevated him with 15,000 sesterces. Tiberius and Augustus had both left gifts to the army and guard in their wills , and upon Caligula's death the same would have been expected, even if no will existed. Claudius remained grateful to the guard, issuing coins with tributes to the Praetorians in the early part of his reign. Pliny

2686-527: A million since the census conducted at Augustus's death. He had helped increase this number through the foundation of Roman colonies that were granted blanket citizenship . These colonies were often made out of existing communities, especially those with elites who could rally the populace to the Roman cause. Several colonies were placed in new provinces or on the border of the Empire to secure Roman holdings as quickly as possible. Claudius personally judged many of

2844-589: A naked gladiator. Juvenal's account of her nights spent in the brothel is commonly portrayed. Gustave Moreau painted her leading another man onto the bed while an exhausted prostitute sleeps in the background, while in Paul Rouffio's painting of 1875 she reclines bare-breasted as a slave offers grapes. The Dane Peder Severin Krøyer depicted her standing, her full body apparent under the thin material of her dress. The ranks of her customers are just visible behind

3002-429: A personal interest in law , he presided at public trials, and issued edicts daily. He was seen as vulnerable throughout his reign, particularly by elements of the nobility. Claudius was constantly forced to shore up his position, which resulted in the deaths of many senators . Those events damaged his reputation among the ancient writers, though more recent historians have revised that opinion. Many authors contend that he

3160-422: A profound effect on public affairs. Nevertheless, a passage such as helps explain how the novel was at once among the most popular, and the most frequently banned, books of the century, despite its moral pretensions. Much the same point about the catastrophic effect of sexuality was made by Gregorio Leti 's political pamphlet, The amours of Messalina, late queen of Albion, in which are briefly couch'd secrets of

3318-507: A prostitute in Book X of Pliny the Elder 's Natural History , according to which the competition lasted "night and day" and Messalina won with a score of 25 partners. The poet Juvenal mentions Messalina twice in his satires. As well as the story in his tenth satire that she compelled Gaius Silius to divorce his wife and marry her, the sixth satire contains the notorious description of how

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3476-511: A range of powers over the provinces. The Senate could also regulate festivals and religious cults, grant special honors, excuse an individual (usually the Emperor) from legal liability, manage temples and public games, and even enact tax laws (but only with the acquiescence of the Emperor). However, it had no real authority over either the state religion or over public lands. During the early Roman Empire, all judicial powers that had been held by

3634-422: A requirement than acting ability. Wilbrandt's Arria und Messalina was specially written for Charlotte Wolter , who was painted in her role by Hans Makart in 1875. There she reclines on a chaise-longue as the lights of Rome burn in the background. As well as a preparatory photograph of her dressed as in the painting, there were also posed cabinet photos of her in a plainer dress. Other stars were involved when

3792-455: A rival claimant to the imperial succession, – with the result that Claudius ordered her execution. In the final two years of her life, she also intensified her attacks on her husband's only surviving niece, Agrippina the Younger , and Agrippina's young son Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (the later Emperor Nero). The public sympathized with Agrippina, who had twice been exiled and

3950-476: A senator. Under Augustus' reforms, a senator had to be a citizen of free birth, have not been convicted of any crimes under lex Julia de vi private , and have property worth at least 1,000,000 sesterces . Under the Empire, as was the case during the late Republic, one could become a senator by being elected quaestor . Under the Empire, however, one could only stand for election to the Quaestorship if one

4108-459: A staircase, seated while a bearded character in a dark tunic stands to one side, or the same character stands and kneels before her, as well as resting extras. Later there was also an Italian production of the opera in translation. In 2009 the theme was updated by Benjamin Askew in his UK play In Bed With Messalina , which features her final hours. From the last quarter of the 19th century onwards,

4266-534: A very successful TV series in 1976. In 19th century France, the story of Messalina was subject to literary transformation. It underlaid La femme de Claude (Claudius' wife, 1873), the novel by Alexandre Dumas fils , where the hero is Claude Ruper, an embodiment of the French patriotic conscience after the country's defeat in the Franco-Prussian War . In contrast, his wife Césarine (the female Caesar)

4424-461: Is a creature totally corrupt at all levels, who sells her husband's work to the enemy and is eventually shot by him. Alfred Jarry 's 'pataphysical' novel Messaline of 1901 (titled The Garden of Priapus in Louis Colman's English translation), though lightly based on the historical account, is chiefly the product of the author's fanciful and extravagant imagination and has been compared with

4582-404: Is a reprise of the same scene. A mourning woman dressed in black leaves with her face covered as a soldier drags back Messalina's head, watched by a courtier with the order for execution in his hand. The Danish royal painter Nicolai Abildgaard , however, preferred to feature "The Dying Messalina and her Mother" (1797) in a quieter setting. The mother weeps beside her daughter as she lies extended on

4740-407: Is described as "rooted in the hostile Roman literary tradition". Similar literary tactics, including the suggestive mingling of historical fact and gossip in the officially approved annals, is what has helped prolong the scandalous reputation of Messalina as well. To call a woman "a Messalina" indicates a devious and sexually voracious personality. The historical figure and her fate were often used in

4898-685: Is not clearly known when the Roman Senate disappeared in the West, but it is known from Gregorian register that the Senate acclaimed new statues of Emperor Phocas and Empress Leontia in 603. The institution must have ended by 630 when the Curia was transformed into a church by Pope Honorius I . The Byzantine Senate did continue to exist in the Eastern Roman Empire 's capital Constantinople , however, having been instituted there during

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5056-465: Is some speculation that the inscription was added by Claudius himself decades later, and that he originally did not appear at all. When Augustus died in AD ;14, Claudius – then aged 23 – appealed to his uncle Tiberius to allow him to begin the cursus honorum . Tiberius, the new Emperor, responded by granting Claudius consular ornaments. Claudius requested office once more and was snubbed. Since

5214-489: Is the explanation that "she reached such a point of insolence that, because of the stupidity of her husband, she dared to marry a young Roman publicly in the Emperor's absence". The wild scenes following the wedding that took place in Rome are dramatised by Tacitus. "Messalina meanwhile, more wildly profligate than ever, was celebrating in mid-autumn a representation of the vintage in her new home. The presses were being trodden;

5372-514: The Claudian tunnel to three times its original size. Because of the circumstances of his accession, Claudius took great pains to please the Senate . During regular sessions, the Emperor sat among the Senate body, speaking in turn. When introducing a law, he sat on a bench between the consuls in his position as holder of the power of Tribune , (the Emperor could not officially serve as a Tribune of

5530-555: The German guard cut down several uninvolved noblemen, including many of his friends. He fled to the palace to hide. According to tradition, a Praetorian named Gratus found him hiding behind a curtain and suddenly declared him princeps . Claudius was spirited away to the Praetorian camp and put under their protection. The Senate met and debated a change of government, but this devolved into an argument over which of them would be

5688-613: The Greeks and Jews of Alexandria each sent him embassies after riots broke out between the two communities. This resulted in the famous "Letter to the Alexandrians", which reaffirmed Jewish rights in the city but forbade them to move in more families en masse. According to Josephus , he then reaffirmed the rights and freedoms of all the Jews in the Empire . One of Claudius's investigators discovered that many old Roman citizens based in

5846-527: The Ides (around the fifteenth day of the month), although scheduled meetings occurred more frequently in September and October. Other meetings were held on an ad hoc basis. Under Augustus, a quorum was set at 400 senators, although eventually excessive absenteeism forced the Senate to lower the number of senators necessary for a quorum, and, on some matters, to revoke the quorum rules altogether. Most of

6004-625: The Julio-Claudian family . He adopted the name "Caesar" as a cognomen , as the name still carried great weight with the populace. To do so, he dropped the cognomen "Nero", which he had adopted as pater familias of the Claudii Nerones when his brother Germanicus was adopted. As Pharaoh of Egypt, Claudius adopted the royal titulary Tiberios Klaudios, Autokrator Heqaheqau Meryasetptah, Kanakht Djediakhshuemakhet ("Tiberius Claudius, Emperor and ruler of rulers, beloved of Isis and Ptah,

6162-468: The Louvre is thought to be of Messalina holding her child Britannicus. In fact it is based on a famous Greek sculpture by Cephisodotus the Elder of Eirene carrying the child Ploutos , of which there were other Roman imitations. Some of the surviving engraved gems that feature Messalina were also indebted to ancient Greek models. They include the carved sardonyx of Messalina accompanied by Claudius in

6320-401: The Roman equestrian order were sold back into slavery. Numerous edicts were issued throughout Claudius's reign. These were on a number of topics, everything from medical advice to moral judgments. A famous medical example is one promoting yew juice as a cure for snakebite . Suetonius wrote that he is even said to have thought of an edict allowing public flatulence for good health. One of

6478-611: The Second Triumvirate altogether; but the damage was done, and his family pushed him into the background. When the Arch of Pavia was erected to honour the Imperial clan in AD 8, Claudius's name (now Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus after his elevation to pater familias of the Claudii Nerones on the adoption of his brother) was inscribed on the edge, past the deceased princes, Gaius and Lucius , and Germanicus's children. There

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6636-563: The Venetian Pietro Zaguri's La Messalina (1656). This was a 4-act prose tragedy with four songs, described as an opera scenica , that revolved around the affair with Gaius Silius that brought about her death. Carlo Pallavicino was to follow with a full blown Venetian opera in 1679 that combined eroticism with morality. During the last quarter of the 19th century the idea of the femme fatale came into prominence and encouraged many more works featuring Messalina. 1874 saw

6794-440: The conquest of Britain . Since these were important positions, the senators were aghast at their being placed in the hands of former slaves and "well-known eunuchs ". If freedmen had total control of money, letters and law, it seemed it would not be hard for them to manipulate the Emperor. This is exactly the accusation put forth by ancient sources. However, these same sources admit that the freedmen were loyal to Claudius. He

6952-480: The 1524 illustrations of 16 sexual positions known as I Modi , each was named after a couple from Classical history or myth, which included "Messalina in the Booth of Lisisca". Although early editions were destroyed by religious censorship, Agostino Caracci 's later copies have survived (see above). Other artistic illustrations of Messalina's reported depravity, supposedly based on ancient medals and cameos, appear in

7110-592: The 1905 productions in Nancy and Lille. After a slow start in the first half of the 20th century, the momentum of films about or featuring Messalina increased with censorship 's decline. The following starred in her part: An early fiction concerning the Empress, La Messalina by Francesco Pona , appeared in Venice in 1633. This managed to combine a high degree of eroticism with a demonstration of how private behavior has

7268-583: The American author Edward Maturin 's Sejanus And Other Roman Tales (1839). But the part she plays in Robert Graves ' novels, I, Claudius and Claudius the God (1934–35), is better known. In it she is portrayed as a teenager at the time of her marriage but credited with all the actions mentioned in the ancient sources. An attempt to create a film based on them in 1937 failed, but they were adapted into

7426-553: The Austrian verse tragedy Arria und Messalina by Adolf Wilbrandt which was staged with success across Europe for many years. It was followed in 1877 by Pietro Cossa 's Italian verse tragedy, where Messalina figures as a totally unrestrained woman in pursuit of love. Another 5-act verse tragedy was published in Philadelphia in 1890, authored by Algernon Sydney Logan (1849–1925), who had liberal views on sex. As well as plays,

7584-590: The Czech Jan Štursa 's standing statue of 1912 she is holding a last piece of clothing by her side at the outset. One of the earliest stage productions to feature the fall of the empress was The Tragedy of Messalina (1639) by Nathanael Richards , where she is depicted as a monster and used as a foil to attack the Roman Catholic wife of the English king Charles I . She is treated as equally villainous in

7742-451: The Elder noted, according to the 1938 Loeb Classical Library translation by Harris Rackham, "... many people do not allow any gems in a signet-ring, and seal with the gold itself; this was a fashion invented when Claudius Cæsar was emperor." Claudius restored the status of the peaceful Imperial Roman provinces of Macedonia and Achaea as senatorial provinces . Under Claudius, the Empire underwent its first major expansion since

7900-554: The Empress used to work clandestinely all night in a brothel under the name of the She-Wolf. In the course of that account, Juvenal coined the phrase frequently applied to Messalina thereafter, meretrix augusta (the imperial whore). In so doing, he coupled her reputation with that of Cleopatra , another victim of imperially directed character assassination , whom the poet Propertius had earlier described as meretrix regina (the harlot queen). The earlier propaganda against Cleopatra

8058-542: The Great and Emperor Anastasius I Dicorus supported Pope Symmachus . The peaceful co-existence of senatorial and barbarian rule continued until the Ostrogothic leader Theodahad began an uprising against Emperor Justinian I and took the senators as hostages. Several senators were executed in 552 as a revenge for the death of the Ostrogothic king Totila . After Rome was recaptured by the Imperial ( Byzantine ) army,

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8216-622: The Imperial bureaucracy. Around 300 AD, the Emperor Diocletian enacted a series of constitutional reforms. In one such reform, Diocletian asserted the right of the Emperor to take power without the theoretical consent of the Senate, thus depriving the Senate of its status as the ultimate depository of supreme power. Diocletian's reforms also ended whatever illusion had remained that the Senate had independent legislative, judicial, or electoral powers. The Senate did, however, retain its legislative powers over public games in Rome, and over

8374-514: The Imperial household in Rome or as provincial rulers directly representing the emperor. At the same time, members of the Equestrian order were employed in administrative positions that earlier emperors had reserved for freedmen. In the case of the Senate this expanded responsibility ensured an increased opportunity for providing advice and exercising authority. At the end of the Flavian dynasty

8532-761: The Italian A. Pigma in When Claudius is away, Messalina will play (1911), hint that it will soon follow. What was to follow is depicted in Federico Faruffini 's The orgies of Messalina (1867–1868). A more private liaison is treated in Joaquín Sorolla 's Messalina in the Arms of the Gladiator (1886). This takes place in an interior, with the empress reclining bare breasted against the knees of

8690-514: The Plebes since he was a patrician , but this was a power taken by previous rulers, which he continued). He refused to accept all his predecessors' titles (including Imperator ) at the beginning of his reign, preferring to earn them in due course. He allowed the Senate to issue its own bronze coinage for the first time since Augustus. He also put the Imperial provinces of Macedonia and Achaea back under Senate control. Claudius set about remodeling

8848-405: The Roman assemblies were also transferred to the Senate. For example, the senate now held jurisdiction over criminal trials. In these cases, a consul presided, the senators constituted the jury, and the verdict was handed down in the form of a decree ( senatus consultum ), and, while a verdict could not be appealed, the Emperor could pardon a convicted individual through a veto. Each province that

9006-576: The Roman shipping season. The other part of his solution was to insure the ships of grain merchants who were willing to risk travelling to Egypt in the off-season. He also granted their sailors special privileges, including citizenship and exemption from the Lex Papia Poppaea , a law that regulated marriage. In addition, he repealed the taxes that Caligula had instituted on food, and further reduced taxes on communities suffering drought or famine . The last part of Claudius's plan to avoid famine

9164-558: The Senate into a more efficient, representative body. He chided the senators about their reluctance to debate bills introduced by himself, as noted in the fragments of a surviving speech: If you accept these proposals, Conscript Fathers, say so at once and simply, in accordance with your convictions. If you do not accept them, find alternatives, but do so here and now; or if you wish to take time for consideration, take it, provided you do not forget that you must be ready to pronounce your opinion whenever you may be summoned to meet. It ill befits

9322-465: The Senate rose considerably under barbarian leaders who sought to protect the institution. This period was characterized by the rise of prominent Roman senatorial families such as the Anicii, while the Senate's leader, the princeps senatus , often served as the right hand of the barbarian leader. It is known that the Senate installed Laurentius as antipope in 498 despite the fact that both King Theoderic

9480-458: The Senate sent envoys to Constantinople who delivered 3000 pounds of gold as a gift to the new emperor Tiberius II Constantinus along with a plea for help against the Lombards who had invaded Italy ten years earlier. Pope Gregory I , in a sermon from 593 (Senatus deest, or.18), lamented the almost complete disappearance of the senatorial order and the decline of the prestigious institution. It

9638-610: The Senate was able to choose Nerva as the new emperor – the first time under the Empire that such an initiative had been possible. However, after the death of Marcus Aurelius , the Senate became increasingly irrelevant, as Emperors become more hostile to its members and less frequently consulted it. By the Severan dynasty, the Senatorial class was also increasingly separated from the actual operations of government, which were increasingly taken over by equestrians and other members of

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9796-466: The Senate was forced to give in. In return, Claudius granted a general amnesty, although he executed a few junior officers involved in the conspiracy. The actual assassins, including Cassius Chaerea and Julius Lupus, the murderer of Caligula's wife and daughter, were put to death to ensure Claudius's own safety and as a future deterrent. Claudius took several steps to legitimize his rule against potential usurpers, most of them emphasizing his place within

9954-684: The Senate was restored, but the institution (like classical Rome itself) had been mortally weakened by the long war between the Byzantines and the Ostrogoths. Many senators had been killed and many of those who had fled to the East chose to remain there thanks to favorable legislation passed by emperor Justinian, who however abolished virtually all senatorial offices in Italy. The importance of the Roman Senate thus declined rapidly. In 578 and again in 580,

10112-430: The Senate, and the like. According to Cassius Dio , Claudius became sickly and thin by the end of Caligula's reign, most likely due to stress . A possible surviving portrait of Claudius from this period may support this. On 24 January 41, Caligula was assassinated in a conspiracy involving Cassius Chaerea – a military tribune in the Praetorian Guard – and several senators . There is no evidence that Claudius had

10270-425: The Senate. Tiberius turned down both motions, but the sentiment remained. During the period immediately after the death of Tiberius's son, Drusus , Claudius was pushed by some quarters as a potential heir to the throne. This again suggests the political nature of his exclusion from public life. However, as this was also the period during which the power and terror of the commander of the Praetorian Guard , Sejanus ,

10428-465: The Senatorial rolls. The conspiracy of Gaius Silius in the year after his Censorship, 48, is detailed in book 11 of Tacitus' Annals. This section of Tacitus' history narrates the alleged conspiracy of Claudius's third wife, Messalina . Suetonius states that a total of 35 senators and 300 knights were executed for offenses during Claudius's reign. Needless to say, the responses to these conspiracies could not have helped Senate–emperor relations. Claudius

10586-873: The Succubus series (#4, 2014), in which "a woman without taboos or scruples throws light on pitiless ancient Rome". Contrasting views have lately been provided by two French biographies. Jacqueline Dauxois gives the traditional picture in her lurid biography in Pygmalion's Legendary Queens series (2013), while the historian Jean-Noël Castorio (b. 1971) seeks to uncover the true facts of the woman behind Juvenal's 6th satire in his revisionist Messaline, la putain impériale (The imperial whore, 2015). Claudius Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( / ˈ k l ɔː d i ə s / KLAW -dee-əs , Classical Latin: [tɪˈbɛri.ʊs ˈkɫau̯di.ʊs ˈkae̯sar au̯ˈɡʊstʊs ɡɛrˈmaːnɪkʊs] ; 1 August 10 BC – 13 October AD 54)

10744-439: The Younger . Antonia Major was the elder daughter of Octavia by her marriage to Mark Antony , and was Claudius' maternal aunt. There was, therefore, a large amount of inbreeding in the family. Little is known about Messalina's life prior to her marriage in 38 to Claudius , her first cousin once removed, who was then about 47 years old. Two children were born as a result of their union: a daughter Claudia Octavia (born 39 or 40),

10902-484: The arts to make a moral point, but there was often as well a prurient fascination with her sexually-liberated behaviour. In modern times, that has led to exaggerated works which have been described as romps. The ambivalent attitude to Messalina can be seen in the late mediaeval French prose work in the J. Paul Getty Museum illustrated by the Master of Boucicaut , Tiberius, Messalina, and Caligula reproach one another in

11060-418: The avenues to drawing a moral lesson from the story of Messalina in painting was to picture her violent end. An early example was Francesco Solimena 's The Death of Messalina (1708). In this scene of vigorous action, a Roman soldier pulls back his arm to stab the Empress while fending off her mother. A witness in armour observes calmly from the shadows in the background. Georges Rochegrosse 's painting of 1916

11218-472: The behaviour of Messalina that led up to her end by picturing her wedding with Gaius Silius. The one by Nicolaus Knüpfer , dated about 1650, is so like contemporary brothel scenes that its subject is ambiguous and has been disputed. A richly dressed drunkard lies back on a bed between two women while companions look anxiously out of the window and another struggles to draw his sword. The later "Landscape with Messalina's Wedding" by Victor Honoré Janssens pictures

11376-438: The bills that came before the Senate were presented by the Emperor or his supporters in the body. In the early Principate, Augustus and Tiberius made conscious efforts to hide their influence on the body, lobbying in private instead of directly proposing legislation. Since no senator could stand for election to a magisterial office without the emperor's approval, senators usually did not vote against bills that had been presented by

11534-707: The capital and in the provinces. He built or finished two aqueducts , the Aqua Claudia , begun by Caligula, and the Aqua Anio Novus . These entered the city in 52 and met at the Porta Maggiore . He also restored a third, the Aqua Virgo . He paid special attention to transportation. Throughout Italy and the provinces he built roads and canals. Among these was a large canal leading from the Rhine to

11692-568: The charge was adultery , and that Claudius was tricked into issuing the punishment. However, Claudius singles out Asiaticus for special damnation in his speech on the Gauls, which dates over a year later, suggesting that the charge must have been much more serious. Asiaticus had been a claimant to the throne in the chaos following Caligula's death and a co-consul with Titus Statilius Taurus Corvinus. Most of these conspiracies took place before Claudius's term as Censor , and may have induced him to review

11850-492: The child Britannicus in complete armour, with his elder sister Octavia next to him. Yet another carved sardonyx now in the national library of France represents a bust of the laureled Messalina, with on either side of her the heads of her son and daughter emerging from a cornucopia . This too once belonged to Rubens and a Flemish engraving after his drawing of it is in the British Museum . A simple white portrait bust of

12008-528: The chorus of condemnation against Messalina from these writers is largely a result of the political sanctions that followed her death, although some authors have still seen "something of substance beyond mere invention". The accusations against Messalina center largely on three areas: her treatment of other members of the imperial family; her treatment of members of the senatorial order ; and her unrestrained sexual behaviour. Her husband's family, especially female, seemed to be specially targeted by Messalina. Within

12166-509: The city of Tridentum (modern Trento ) were not in fact citizens. The Emperor issued a declaration, contained in the Tabula clesiana , that they would be allowed to hold citizenship from then on, since to strip them of their status would cause major problems. However, in individual cases, Claudius punished the false assumption of citizenship harshly, making it a capital offense. Similarly, any freedmen found to be laying false claim to membership of

12324-428: The condemnation of damnatio memoriae followed on an offence within the context of the Roman imperial cult . The cult was directed from above by members of the imperial circle through official initiatives within the pro-imperial power structure. It was effective among the wider public, however, only insofar as there was personal assent. Theoretically the sentence of damnatio memoriae was supposed to erase all mention of

12482-409: The curtain against which she stands (see above). Two drawings by Aubrey Beardsley were produced for a private printing of Juvenal's satires (1897). The one titled Messalina and her companion showed her on the way to the brothel, while a rejected drawing is usually titled Messalina returning from the bath . About that period, too, Roman resident Pavel Svedomsky reimagined the historical scene. There

12640-517: The dignity of the Senate that the consul designate should repeat the phrases of the consuls word for word as his opinion, and that every one else should merely say 'I approve', and that then, after leaving, the assembly should announce 'We debated'. In 47, he assumed the office of censor with Lucius Vitellius , which had been allowed to lapse for some time. He struck out the names of many senators and equites who no longer met qualifications, but showed respect by allowing them to resign in advance. At

12798-517: The discovery of the plot. Her notorious reputation may have resulted from political bias, but works of art and literature have perpetuated it into modern times. Messalina was the daughter of Domitia Lepida and her first cousin Marcus Valerius Messalla Barbatus . Her mother was the youngest child of the consul Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus and Antonia Major . Her mother's brother, Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus , had been

12956-435: The disguised seductress is at work in a light-suffused alley, enticing a passer-by into the brothel from which a maid looks out anxiously. Alternatively, artists drew on Pliny's account of her sex competition. The Brazilian Henrique Bernardelli (1857–1936) showed her lying across the bed at the moment of exhaustion afterwards. So also did Eugène Cyrille Brunet 's dramatic marble sculpture, dating from 1884 (see above), while in

13114-425: The divine Augustus. Claudius frequently used the term "filius Drusi" (son of Drusus) in his titles, to remind the people of his legendary father and lay claim to his reputation. Since Claudius was the first emperor proclaimed on the initiative of the Praetorian Guard instead of the Senate, his repute suffered at the hands of commentators (such as Seneca ). Moreover, he was the first emperor who resorted to bribery as

13272-446: The dwindling number of noble lines. Here he followed the precedent of Lucius Junius Brutus and Julius Caesar . Nevertheless, many in the Senate remained hostile to Claudius, and many plots were made on his life. This hostility carried over into the historical accounts. As a result, Claudius reduced the Senate's power for the sake of efficiency. The administration of Ostia was turned over to an Imperial procurator after construction of

13430-520: The early Empire could ask extraneous questions or request that a certain action be taken by the Senate. Higher ranking senators spoke before lower ranking senators, although the Emperor could speak at any time. Besides the Emperor, Consuls, and Praetors could also preside over the Senate. The Senate ordinarily met in the Curia Julia , usually on either the Kalends (the first day of the month), or

13588-473: The emperor. If a senator disapproved of a bill, he usually showed his disapproval by not attending the Senate meeting on the day that the bill was to be voted on. Each emperor selected a quaestor to compile the proceedings of the Senate into a document (the Acta Senatus ), which included proposed bills, official documents, and a summary of speeches that had been presented before the Senate. The document

13746-573: The empress is also held by the Bibliothèque nationale. A portrait oval in yellow carnelian was once recorded as being in the collection of Lord Montague; another in sardonyx once belonged to the Antikensammlung Berlin . Two authors especially supplemented the gossip and officially dictated versions recorded by later historians and added to Messalina's notoriety. One such story is the account of her all-night sex competition with

13904-482: The events in an environment hostile to the imperial line to which Messalina had belonged. There was also the later Greek account of Cassius Dio who, writing a century and a half after the period described, was dependent on the received account of those before him. It has also been observed of his attitude throughout his work that he was "suspicious of women". Neither can Suetonius be regarded as trustworthy. Encyclopaedia Britannica suggests of his fictive approach that he

14062-646: The face of the spreading Christianity, and several times attempted to facilitate the return of the Altar of Victory , first removed by Constantius II , to the senatorial curia. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire , the Roman Senate continued to function under the barbarian chieftain Odoacer , and then under Theoderic the Great who founded the Ostrogothic Kingdom . The authority of

14220-529: The fighters. Isidore de Lara 's opera Messaline , based on a 4-act verse tragedy by Armand Silvestre and Eugène Morand, centred upon the love of the empress for a poet and then his gladiator brother. It opened in Monte Carlo in 1899 and went on to Covent Garden . The ailing Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec saw the Bordeaux production and was inspired to paint six scenes from it, including Messalina descending

14378-411: The first husband of the future Empress Agrippina the Younger and the biological father of the future Emperor Nero , making Nero Messalina's first cousin despite a seventeen-year age difference. Messalina's grandmothers Claudia Marcella the Younger and Antonia the Elder were maternal half sisters. Claudia Marcella Minor, Messalina's paternal grandmother, was the daughter of Augustus ' sister Octavia

14536-508: The first year of Claudius' reign, his niece Julia Livilla , only recently recalled from banishment upon the death of her brother Caligula , was exiled again on charges of adultery with Seneca the Younger . Claudius ordered her execution soon after, while Seneca was allowed to return seven years later, following the death of Messalina. Another niece, Julia Livia , was attacked for immorality and incest by Messalina in 43 – possibly because she feared Julia's son Rubellius Plautus as

14694-499: The first, Messalina sits naked while a maid dresses her hair in preparation for taking up her role as the courtesan Lisisica; in the other she offers fourteen myrtle wreaths to Priapus following her triumph in exhausting as many fit young men in a sexual contest. She also sits before a private shrine to Priapus in an illustration for the author's other pornographic work, Monuments of the Secret Cult of Roman Women (1787). One of

14852-464: The gardens, he found Messalina stretched upon the ground, while by her side sat Lepida, her mother, who, though estranged from her daughter in prosperity, was now melted to pity by her inevitable doom, and urged her not to wait for the executioner". In Messalina's hand is the thin dagger that she dare not use, while Evodus bends over her threateningly and Lepida tries to fend him off. In an earlier French treatment by Victor Biennoury  [ fr ] ,

15010-482: The ground in a garden setting. In 1870 the French committee for the Prix de Rome set Messalina's death as the competition subject for that year. The winning entry by Fernand Lematte , The Death of Messalina , is based on the description of the occasion by Tacitus . Following the decision that she must die, "Evodus, one of the freedmen, was appointed to watch and complete the affair. Hurrying on before with all speed to

15168-529: The imposture of the Cambrion prince, the Gothick league, and other court intrigues of the four last years reign, not yet made publick (1689). This was yet another satire on a Stuart Queen, Mary of Modena in this case, camouflaged behind the character of Messalina. A very early treatment in English of Messalina's liaison with Gaius Silius and her subsequent death appeared in the fictionalised story included in

15326-535: The instigation of Messalina. The former was married to Messalina's mother Domitia Lepida, but according to Dio and Tacitus, Messalina coveted him for herself. In 42, Messalina and the freedman Narcissus devised an elaborate ruse, whereby they each informed Claudius that they had had identical dreams during the night portending that Silanus would murder Claudius. When Silanus arrived that morning (after being summoned by either Messalina or Narcissus), he confirmed their portent and Claudius had him executed. Valerius Asiaticus

15484-464: The leadership of one freedman. Narcissus was the secretary of correspondence. Pallas became the secretary of the treasury. Callistus became secretary of justice. There was a fourth bureau for miscellaneous issues, which was put under Polybius until his execution for treason. The freedmen could also officially speak for the Emperor, as when Narcissus addressed the troops in Claudius's stead before

15642-410: The legal cases tried during his reign. Ancient historians have many complaints about this, stating that his judgments were variable and sometimes did not follow the law. He was also easily swayed. Nevertheless, Claudius paid detailed attention to the operation of the judicial system. He extended the summer court session, as well as the winter term, by shortening the traditional breaks. Claudius also made

15800-405: The lesson of poetic justice is made plainer by specifically identifying the scene of Messalina's death as the garden which she had obtained by having its former owner executed on a false charge. Now she crouches at the foot of a wall carved with the name of Lucullus and is condemned by the dark-clothed intermediary as a soldier advances on her drawing his sword. Two Low Countries painters emphasised

15958-483: The midst of flames . It recounts a dialogue that takes place in hell between the three characters from the same imperial line. Messalina wins the debate by demonstrating that their sins were far worse than hers and suggests that they repent of their own wickedness before reproaching her as they had done. While Messalina's wicked behavior towards others is given full emphasis, and even exaggerated in early works, her sexual activities have been treated more sympathetically. In

16116-545: The more famous edicts concerned the status of sick slaves. Masters had been abandoning ailing slaves at the temple of Aesculapius on Tiber Island to die instead of providing them with medical assistance and care, and then reclaiming them if they lived. Claudius ruled that slaves who were thus abandoned and recovered after such treatment would be free. Furthermore, masters who chose to kill slaves rather than take care of them were liable to be charged with murder. Claudius embarked on many public works throughout his reign, both in

16274-584: The most successful and inventive stylistically was Felicien Champsaur 's novel L'Orgie Latine (1903) Although Messalina is referenced throughout its episodic coverage of degenerate times, she features particularly in the third section, "The Naked Empress" ( L'impératice nue ), dealing with her activities in the brothel, and the sixth, "Messalina's End", beginning with her wedding to Silius and ending with her enforced death. Sensational fictional treatments have persisted, as in Vivian Crockett's Messalina,

16432-528: The new princeps . When they heard of the Praetorians' claim, they demanded that Claudius be delivered to them for approval, but he refused, sensing the danger that would come with complying. Some historians, particularly Josephus , claim that Claudius was directed in his actions by the Judaean King Herod Agrippa . However, an earlier version of events by the same ancient author downplays Agrippa's role so it remains uncertain. Eventually

16590-479: The new emperor was no more generous than the old, Claudius gave up hope of public office and retired to a scholarly, private life. Despite the disdain of the Imperial family, it seems that from very early on the general public respected Claudius. At Augustus's death, the equites , or knights, chose Claudius to head their delegation. When his house burned down, the Senate demanded it be rebuilt at public expense. They also requested that Claudius be allowed to debate in

16748-549: The offender from the public sphere. The person's name was gouged from inscriptions and even from coinage. Sculptures might be smashed or at the very least would be dismounted and stored away out of sight. Such measures were not totally effective and several images of Messalina have survived for one reason or another. One such is the doubtfully ascribed bust in the Uffizi Gallery that may in fact be of Agrippina, Messalina's successor as wife of Claudius (see above). Another in

16906-766: The play went on tour in various translations. Lilla Bulyovszkyné (1833–1909) starred in the Hungarian production in 1878 and Irma Temesváryné-Farkas in that of 1883; Louise Fahlman (1856–1918) played in the 1887 Stockholm production, Marie Pospíšilová (1862–1943) in the 1895 Czech production. In Italy, Cossa's drama was acted with Virginia Marini in the role of Messalina. Both the Parisian leads in Danesi's ballet were photographed by Nadar : Elena Cornalba in 1885 and Mlle Jaeger later. During its 1898 production in Turin, Anita Grassi

17064-413: The poisoning of Marcus Vinicius  – because he refused to sleep with her according to gossip. About this time she also arranged for the execution of one of Claudius' freedmen secretaries, Polybius . According to Dio, this murder of one of their own turned the other freedmen, previously her close allies, against Messalina for good. In AD 48, Claudius went to Ostia to visit the new harbor he

17222-429: The port. Administration of many of the empire's financial concerns was turned over to Imperial appointees and freedmen. This led to further resentment and suggestions that these same freedmen were ruling the Emperor. Several coup attempts were made during Claudius's reign, resulting in the deaths of many senators. Appius Silanus was executed early in Claudius's reign under questionable circumstances. Shortly after this,

17380-584: The proper form for state religion. He refused the request of Alexandrian Greeks to dedicate a temple to his divinity, saying that only gods may choose new gods. He restored lost days to festivals and got rid of many extraneous celebrations added by Caligula. He re-instituted old observances and archaic language. Senate of the Roman Empire The first emperor, Augustus, inherited a Senate whose membership had been increased to 900 senators by his adoptive father, Julius Caesar. Augustus sought to reduce

17538-423: The recommendation of Messalina's ally, and Claudius' partner in the consulship for that year, Lucius Vitellius . The murder of Asiaticus, without notifying the senate and without trial, caused great outrage amongst the senators, who blamed both Messalina and Claudius. Despite this, Messalina continued to target Poppaea Sabina until she committed suicide. The same year as the execution of Asiaticus, Messalina ordered

17696-557: The reign of Augustus. The provinces of Thrace , Noricum , Lycia , and Judea were annexed (or put under direct rule) under various circumstances during his term. The annexation of Mauretania , begun under Caligula, was completed after the defeat of rebel forces, as well as the official division of the former client kingdom into two Imperial provinces. The most far-reaching conquest was that of Britannia . In 43, Claudius sent Aulus Plautius with four legions to Britain ( Britannia ) after an appeal from an ousted tribal ally. Britain

17854-415: The role of Messalina has been as much about the stardom of those who played her as about the social message of the works in which she appeared. The star's name appeared in large print on the posters of the works in which she played. She was constantly featured in the gossip columns. Her role was iconised photographically, copies of which she often inscribed for her admirers. Pictures of her as Messalina adorned

18012-445: The same time, he sought to admit to the senate eligible men from the provinces. The Lyon Tablet preserves his speech on the admittance of Gallic senators, in which he addresses the Senate with reverence but also with criticism for their disdain of these men. He even joked about how the Senate had admitted members from beyond Gallia Narbonensis ( Lyons ), i.e. himself. He also increased the number of patricians by adding new families to

18170-487: The sea, as well as a road from Italy to Germany – both begun by his father, Drusus . Closer to Rome, he built a navigable canal on the Tiber , leading to Portus , his new port just north of Ostia . This port was constructed in a semicircle with two moles and a lighthouse at its mouth, reducing flooding in Rome. The port at Ostia was part of Claudius's solution to the constant grain shortages that occurred in winter, after

18328-399: The seated empress being attired before the ceremony. Neither scene looks much like a wedding, but rather they indicate the age's sense of moral outrage at this travesty of marriage. That was further underlined by a contemporary Tarot card in which card 6, normally titled " The Lover(s) ", has been retitled "Shameless" ( impudique ) and pictures Messalina leaning against a carved chest. Beneath

18486-415: The senatorial order were distinguished by a broad reddish-purple stripe edging their togas – the formal dress of all Roman citizens. Under the Empire, the power that the Emperor held over the Senate was absolute, which was due, in part, to the fact that the Emperor held office for life. During Senate meetings, the Emperor sat between the two Consuls, and usually acted as the presiding officer. Senators of

18644-415: The senatorial order" (David Magie's translation). According to the same work, Elagabalus also established a women's senate called the senaculum , which enacted rules to be applied to matrons, regarding clothing, chariot riding, the wearing of jewelry, etc. ( Elagabalus 4.3 and Aurelian 49.6). Before this, Agrippina the Younger , mother of Nero , had been listening to Senate proceedings, concealed behind

18802-418: The senatorial order. The Senate also retained the power to try treason cases, and to elect some magistrates, but only with the permission of the Emperor. In the final years of the Empire, the Senate would sometimes try to appoint their own emperor, such as in the case of Eugenius who was later defeated by forces loyal to Theodosius I . The Senate remained the last stronghold of the traditional Roman religion in

18960-426: The size of the Senate, and did so through three revisions to the list of senators. By the time that these revisions had been completed, the Senate had been reduced to 600 members, and after this point, the size of the Senate was never again drastically altered. To reduce the size of the Senate, Augustus expelled senators who were of low birth, and then he reformed the rules which specified how an individual could become

19118-452: The story of Messalina was adapted to ballet and opera. The 1878 ballet by Luigi Danesi (1832–1908) to music by Giuseppe Giaquinto (d. 1881) was an Italian success with several productions. On its arrival in France in 1884 it was made a fantastical spectacle at the Éden-Théâtre , with elephants, horses, massive crowd scenes and circus games in which rows of bare-legged female gladiators preceded

19276-511: The strong bull of the stable moon on the horizon"). While Claudius had never been formally adopted either by Augustus or his successors, he was nevertheless the grandson of Augustus's sister Octavia, and so he felt that he had the right of family. He also adopted the name "Augustus" as the two previous emperors had done at their accessions. He kept the honorific "Germanicus" to display the connection with his heroic brother. He deified his paternal grandmother Livia to highlight her position as wife of

19434-406: The theatre magazines and were sold in their thousands as postcards. This was as true in drama and opera as it was of those who portrayed the empress in movies and television films or miniseries. The role itself added to or established their reputations. And, with the growing permissiveness of modern times, that might rather amount to notoriety for those adult films in which athletic stamina was more of

19592-468: The title himself. When the British general Caractacus was captured in 50, Claudius granted him clemency. Caractacus lived out his days on land provided by the Roman state, an unusual end for an enemy commander. Claudius conducted a census in 48 that found 5,984,072 (adult male) Roman citizens (women, children, slaves, and free adult males without Roman citizenship were not counted), an increase of around

19750-463: The treatment of Classical themes by Art Nouveau artists. In fact, Jarry's was just one of five contemporary French novels treating Messalina in a typically fin de siècle manner. They also included Prosper Castanier's L'Orgie Romaine (Roman Orgy, 1897), Nonce Casanova's Messaline, roman de la Rome impériale (Mesalina, a novel of imperial Rome, 1902) and Louis Dumont's La Chimère, Pages de la Décadence (The Chimaera, Decadent Pages, 1902). However,

19908-413: The vats were overflowing; women girt with skins were dancing, as Bacchanals dance in their worship or their frenzy. Messalina with flowing hair shook the thyrsus , and Silius at her side, crowned with ivy and wearing the buskin , moved his head to some lascivious chorus". Such was the scene of drunken nudity painted by fr:Gustave Surand in 1905. Other artists show similar scenes of debauchery or, like

20066-403: The wickedest woman in Rome (1924), Alfred Schirokauer 's Messalina – Die Frau des Kaisers (Caesar's wife, 1928), Marise Querlin's Messaline, impératrice du feu (The fiery empress, 1955), Jack Oleck 's Messalina: a novel of imperial Rome (1959) and Siegfried Obermeier 's Messalina, die lasterhafte Kaiserin (The empress without principle, 2002). Oleck's novel went through many editions and

20224-452: The woman erroneously as Agrippina. However, there is another version of this victory celebration known as the Hague cameo, which may be a later imitation. In a chariot drawn by centaurs , the laurel-wreathed Messalina reclines in the post of honour, bearing the attributes of Ceres . Beside her sits Claudius with one arm about her neck and Jupiter's thunderbolt in his other hand. In front stands

20382-586: The works of Pierre-François Hugues d'Hancarville . His main account, padded with more general quotations condemning the laxity of the times, takes up three chapters of his Monuments of the Private Lives of the Twelve Caesars (1780). Chapter 29 deals with Messalina's public marriage to Gaius Silius. The following chapters are illustrated by cameos ascribed to a certain Pythodorus of Trallès. In

20540-663: The young Nero could be a potential rival to her own son, who was three years younger. He repeated a tale that Messalina sent several assassins into Nero's bedchamber to murder him, but they were frightened off by what they thought was a snake slithering out from under his bed. In the Secular Games of 48, Nero won greater applause from the crowd than did Messalina's own son Britannicus, something which scholars have speculated led Messalina to plot to destroy Nero and his mother once and for all. Two very prominent senators, Appius Silanus and Valerius Asiaticus , also met their death on

20698-420: Was "free with scandalous gossip," and that "he used 'characteristic anecdote' without exhaustive inquiry into its authenticity." He manipulates the facts to suit his thesis. Tacitus himself claimed to be transmitting "what was heard and written by my elders" but without naming sources other than the memoirs of Agrippina the Younger , who had arranged to displace Messalina's children in the imperial succession and

20856-457: Was a Roman emperor , ruling from AD 41 to 54. A member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty , Claudius was born to Drusus and Antonia Minor at Lugdunum in Roman Gaul , where his father was stationed as a military legate. He was the first Roman emperor to be born outside Italy . As he had a limp and slight deafness due to an illness he suffered when young, he was ostracised by his family and

21014-454: Was an attractive target for Rome because of its material wealth: mines and the potential of slave labor, as well as being a haven for Gallic rebels. Claudius himself traveled to the island after the completion of initial offensives, bringing with him reinforcements and elephants. The Roman colonia of Colonia Claudia Victricensis was established as the provincial capital of the newly established province of Britannia at Camulodunum , where

21172-554: Was archived, while parts of it were published (in a document called the Acta Diurna or "daily doings") and then distributed to the public. According to the Historia Augusta ( Elagabalus 4.2 and 12.3) emperor Elagabalus had his mother or grandmother take part in Senate proceedings. "And Elagabalus was the only one of all the emperors under whom a woman attended the Senate like a man, just as though she belonged to

21330-440: Was at its peak, Claudius chose to downplay this possibility. After the death of Tiberius, the new emperor Caligula (the son of Claudius's brother Germanicus ) recognized Claudius to be of some use. He appointed Claudius his co-consul in 37 to emphasize the memory of Caligula's deceased father Germanicus. Despite this, Caligula tormented his uncle: playing practical jokes, charging him enormous sums of money, humiliating him before

21488-603: Was constructing and was informed while there that Messalina had gone so far as to marry her latest lover, Senator Gaius Silius in Rome. It was only when Messalina held a costly wedding banquet in Claudius' absence that the freedman Narcissus decided to inform him. The exact motivations for Messalina's actions are unknown – it has been interpreted as a move to overthrow Claudius and install Silius as Emperor, with Silius adopting Britannicus and thereby ensuring her son's future accession. Other historians have speculated that Silius convinced Messalina that Claudius' overthrow

21646-613: Was crooked and not large enough to carry the water, which caused it to back up when opened. The resultant flood washed out a large gladiatorial exhibition held to commemorate the opening, causing Claudius to run for his life along with the other spectators. The draining of the lake continued to present a problem well into the Middle Ages. It was finally achieved by the Prince Torlonia in the 19th century, producing over 160,000 acres (650 km ) of new arable land. He expanded

21804-433: Was excluded from public office until his consulship (which was shared with his nephew, Caligula , in 37). Claudius's infirmity probably saved him from the fate of many other nobles during the purges throughout the reigns of Tiberius and Caligula, as potential enemies did not see him as a serious threat. His survival led to his being declared emperor by the Praetorian Guard after Caligula's assassination, at which point he

21962-402: Was far too early for such an account, and may have only served to remind Augustus that Claudius was Antony's descendant. His mother and grandmother quickly put a stop to it, and this may have convinced them that Claudius was not fit for public office, since he could not be trusted to toe the existing party line . When Claudius returned to the narrative later in life, he skipped over the wars of

22120-486: Was firmly in control throughout. Regardless of the extent of their political power, the freedmen did manage to amass wealth through their positions. Pliny the Elder notes that several of them were richer than Crassus , the richest man of the Republican era . Claudius, as the author of a treatise on Augustus's religious reforms, felt himself in a good position to institute some of his own. He had strong opinions about

22278-470: Was followed by " Consuls " (the highest-ranking magistrate) and former Consuls, then by " Praetors " (the next highest ranking magistrate) and former Praetors, and so on. A senator's tenure in elective office was considered when determining rank, while Senators who had been elected to an office did not necessarily outrank Senators who had been appointed to that same office by the Emperor Members of

22436-455: Was given the honorable option of taking her own life. Unable to muster the courage to slit her own throat, she was run through with a sword by one of the guards. Upon hearing the news, the Emperor did not react and simply asked for another chalice of wine. The Roman Senate then ordered a damnatio memoriae so that Messalina's name would be removed from all public and private places and all statues of her would be taken down. In Messalina's time,

22594-419: Was hardly the first emperor to use freedmen to help with the day-to-day running of the Empire. He was, however, forced to increase their role as the powers of the princeps became more centralized and the burden of running the government became larger. Claudius did not want free-born magistrates to serve under him as if they were not peers. The secretariat was divided into bureaus, with each being placed under

22752-409: Was inevitable, and her best hopes of survival lay in a union with him. Tacitus stated that Messalina hesitated even as Silius insisted on marriage, but ultimately conceded because "she coveted the name of wife", and because Silius had divorced his own wife the previous year in anticipation of a union with Messalina. Another theory is that Messalina and Silius merely took part in a sham marriage as part of

22910-537: Was later joined by Kevin Matthews' The Pagan Empress (1964). Both have since been included under the genre "toga porn". They are rivalled by Italian and French adult comics, sometimes of epic proportions, such as the 59 episodes devoted to Messalina in the Italian Venus of Rome series (1967–74). More recent examples include Jean-Yves Mitton's four-part series in France (2011–13) and Thomas Mosdi's Messaline in

23068-444: Was met by Messalina on the road with their children. The leading Vestal Virgin , Vibidia, came to entreat Claudius not to rush to condemn Messalina. He then visited the house of Silius, where he found a great many heirlooms of his Claudii and Drusii forebears, taken from his house and gifted to Silius by Messalina. When Messalina attempted to gain access to her husband in the palace, she was repulsed by Narcissus and shouted down with

23226-608: Was murdered by his own wife, Agrippina the Younger . After his death at the age of 63, his grandnephew and legally adopted step-son, Nero , succeeded him as emperor. As a consequence of Roman customs , society, and personal preference, Claudius' full name varied throughout his life: Claudius was born on 1 August 10 BC at Lugdunum (modern Lyon , France ). He had two older siblings, Germanicus and Livilla . His mother, Antonia Minor , may have had two other children who died young. Claudius's maternal grandparents were Mark Antony and Octavia Minor , Augustus 's sister, and he

23384-469: Was of senatorial rank, and to be of senatorial rank, one had to be the son of a senator. If an individual was not of senatorial rank, there were two ways for that individual to become a senator. Under the first method, the Emperor granted that individual the authority to stand for election to the Quaestorship, while under the second method, the Emperor appointed that individual to the Senate by issuing

23542-645: Was one of Messalina's final victims. Asiaticus was immensely rich and incurred Messalina's wrath because he owned the Gardens of Lucullus , which she desired for herself, and because he was the lover of her hated rival Poppaea Sabina the Elder , with whom she was engaged in a fierce rivalry over the affections of the actor Mnester . In 46, she convinced Claudius to order his arrest on charges of failing to maintain discipline amongst his soldiers, adultery with Sabina, and for engaging in homosexual acts. Although Claudius hesitated to condemn him to death, he ultimately did so on

23700-413: Was put under the care of a former mule-driver to keep him disciplined, under the logic that his condition was due to laziness and a lack of willpower. However, by the time he reached his teenage years, his symptoms apparently waned and his family began to take some notice of his scholarly interests. In AD 7, Livy was hired to tutor Claudius in history, with the assistance of Sulpicius Flavus. He spent

23858-403: Was similarly appreciative of them and gave them due credit for policies where he had used their advice. However, if they showed treasonous inclinations, the Emperor punished them with just force, as in the case of Polybius and Pallas's brother, Felix . There is no evidence that the character of Claudius's policies and edicts changed with the rise and fall of the various freedmen, suggesting that he

24016-442: Was the last adult male of his family. Despite his lack of experience, Claudius was an able and efficient administrator. He expanded the imperial bureaucracy to include freedmen, and helped restore the empire's finances after the excesses of Caligula's reign. He was also an ambitious builder, constructing new roads, aqueducts, and canals across the Empire. During his reign, the Empire started its successful conquest of Britain . Having

24174-467: Was the lead. Meyriane Héglon starred in the Monte Carlo and subsequent London productions of De Lara's Messaline , while Emma Calvé starred in the 1902 Paris production, where she was succeeded by Cécile Thévenet . Others who sang in the role were Maria Nencioni in 1903, Jeanne Dhasty in the Nancy (1903) and Algiers (1907) productions, Charlotte Wyns (1868– c.  1917 ) in the 1904 Aix les Bains production, and Claire Croiza , who made her debut in

24332-496: Was the only surviving daughter of Germanicus after Messalina secured the execution of Julia Livilla. Agrippina was implicated in the alleged crimes of Statilius Taurus , whom it was alleged she directed to partake in "magical and superstitious practices". Taurus committed suicide, and, according to Tacitus, Messalina was only prevented from further persecuting Agrippina because she was distracted by her new lover, Gaius Silius . According to Suetonius, Messalina realized early on that

24490-461: Was therefore particularly interested in sullying her predecessor's name. Examining his narrative style and comparing it to that of the satires of Juvenal , another critic remarks on "how the writers manipulate it in order to skew their audience's perception of Messalina". Indeed, Tacitus seems well aware of the impression he is creating when he admits that his account may seem fictional, if not melodramatic ( fabulosus ). It has therefore been argued that

24648-497: Was therefore the great-great-grandnephew of Gaius Julius Caesar . His paternal grandparents were Livia , Augustus's third wife, and Tiberius Claudius Nero . During his reign, Claudius revived the rumour that his father Nero Claudius Drusus was actually the illegitimate son of Augustus, to give the appearance that Augustus was Claudius's paternal grandfather. In 9 BC, Claudius's father Drusus died on campaign in Germania from

24806-465: Was to increase the amount of arable land in Italy. This was to be achieved by draining the Fucine lake , also making the nearby river navigable year-round. A serious famine is mentioned in the book of Acts as taking place during Claudius' reign, and had been prophesied by a Christian called Agabus while visiting Antioch . A tunnel was dug through the lake bed, but the plan was a failure. The tunnel

24964-464: Was under the jurisdiction of the Senate had its own court, and, upon the recommendation of a consul, decisions of these provincial courts could be appealed to the Senate. In theory, the Senate elected new emperors, while in conjunction with the popular assemblies, it would then confer upon the new emperor his command powers ( imperium ). After an emperor had died or abdicated his office, the Senate would often deify him, although sometimes it would pass

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