126-581: The Mizo National Front uprising ( Mizo : Rambuai ) was a revolt against the government of India aimed at establishing a sovereign nation state for the Mizo people , which started on 28 February 1966. On 1 March 1966, the Mizo National Front (MNF) made a declaration of independence , after launching coordinated attacks on the Government offices and security forces post in different parts of
252-622: A Mong . The Chakma circle was centrally located and inhabited mainly by the Chakmas, the Bohmong circle was under the rule of a Bohmong chief of Arakanese extraction, and the Mong circle was also inhabited by Arakanese speaking clans with some Tripura immigrants and headed by another ruler of Arakanese extraction. The division occurred because the British government was not in favour of the power of
378-494: A language shift in the past to consolidate power among the tribes, they adopted an Indo-Aryan language Chakma , which is closely related to the Chittagonian language , predominant near the areas in which they live. Most modern Chakma people practice Theravada Buddhism , due to 19th-century reforms and institutionalisation by Queen regnant Rani Kalindi . In Myanmar , Chakma people are known as Daingnet and are one of
504-584: A few hours, the insurgents took control of all the important centres of the Mizo district, paralysing the civil administration. They also seized all the vehicles in the town. The law and order situation went beyond the control of the local Police and the small units of AR posted in the district. T S Gill, the Deputy Commissioner of the Mizo district, took shelter in the AR headquarters. The insurgents attacked
630-704: A greater Mizoram encompassing Souther Manipur and Chin State . The first election for the State Legislative Assembly took place in February of 1987, leading to an MNF victory and the inauguration of Mizoram as a fully-fledged state. The Armed Forces Special Powers Act was extended to cover Mizoram as a disturbed area in 1966. The act encompasses wide-ranging powers to security forces in counter-insurgency operations. Powers granted include allowing commissioned military personnel to use lethal force if it
756-770: A leading newspaper in Mizoram, Vanglaini , the magazine Kristian Ṭhalai , and other publishers began using Á , À , Ä , É , È , Ë , Í , Ì , Ï , Ó , Ò , Ö , Ú , Ù , Ü to indicate the long intonations and tones. However, this does not differentiate the different intonations that short tones can have. The following is a sample text in Mizo of Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights : Mizo: Mi zawng zawng hi zalèna piang kan ni a, zahawmna leh dikna chanvoah intluk tlâng vek kan ni. Chhia leh ṭha hriatna fîm neia siam kan nih avangin kan mihring puite chungah inunauna thinlung kan pu tlat tur
882-480: A memorandum for peace talks in good faith. Chief Minister Lal Thanhawla expressed cooperation for peace talks upon his inauguration, but this became severely delayed following the assassination of Indira Gandhi . Rajiv Gandhi continued with negotiations with encouragement from Church leaders in 1985. The Mizo National Front under Laldenga and the Indian National Congress under Arun Singh signed
1008-640: A ni. English: All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience. Therefore, they should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. Mizo has a thriving literature, which has both written and oral traditions . It has undergone a considerable change in the 20th century. The Mizoram Press Information Bureau lists some twenty Mizo daily newspapers just in Aizawl city, as of March 2013. Chakma people The Chakma people or Changhma people ( Chakma : 𑄌𑄋𑄴𑄟𑄳𑄦 ), are an ethnic group from
1134-635: A political settlement on 25th May 1986, which was finalised as the Mizo Accord on June 30, 1986. The agreement outlined the incumbent Chief Minister Lal Thanhawla to vacate his position in favour of Laldenga, and to perform duties as a Deputy Chief Minister under a coalition government. The Mizo National Front laid down their arms, suspended ties with groups such as the Tripura National Volunteers and People's Liberation Army of Manipur . The MNF also conceded their desire and goal for
1260-814: A powerful and stable government naturally brought the chiefs by degree under control and every leading chief paid to the Chittagong collector a certain tribute or yearly gifts. These sums were at first fluctuating in amount but gradually were brought to a specific and fixed limit, eventually taking the shape not of tribute but of revenue to the state. Jan Baksh Khan shifted his capital to a new place near present-day Rangunia , naming it Rajanagar. After Jan Baksh's death in 1800, his son Tabbar Khan became king but died shortly after. In 1802, Tabbar Khan's younger brother Jabbar Khan became king and ruled for ten years. After his death, his son Dharam Baksh Khan became king in 1812 and ruled until his death in 1832. Without any male heir,
1386-475: A small building. None of the civilian officials and government servants were hurt, as MNF expected their support in running the administration of the proposed sovereign state. According to a statement made by the Chief Minister of Assam Bimala Prasad Chaliha , on 1 March, the insurgents who attacked the Aizawl treasury and Lunglei numbered around 10,000. The Indian Home Minister Gulzari Lal Nanda , in
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#17327903398021512-549: A superintendent over the tribes. Both of these recommendations were adopted by Act XXII in 1860, which came into effect on 18 August of that year. The Hill Tracts were separated from Chittagong district, a superintendent was appointed for the Chittagong Hill Tracts, and its headquarters were established at Chandraghona . The hills in his charge were henceforth known as the Hill Tracts of the Chittagong. For
1638-750: A treaty with Jallal Khan , Raja of the Chakma, in 1715. While the Mughals controlled significant amounts of yam and cotton crops in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT), the Chakma's independence from the Mughals was recognised. Three years after the Battle of Plassey , Mir Qasim , the new Nawab of Murshidabad , rewarded the East India Company with Chittagong, Burdwan and Midnapur . On 5 January 1761, company representative Harry Verelst took charge of Chittagong from Subedar Mohammad Reza Khan, but
1764-545: A victory parade on 2 March 1966. The MNF arsenal would be supplemented by capturing the armouries of 1 AR, the Border Security Force (BSF) and the local police. The MNF leaders had hoped that they would have a large number of sympathisers among the local police, the government officials and the AR, which would make the takeover peaceful. They also hoped that if they could keep their flag flying in Aizawl for 48 hours, other countries such as Pakistan would recognise
1890-563: Is a tonal language , differences in pitch and pitch contour can change the meanings of words. Tone systems have developed independently in many daughter languages, largely by simplifications in the set of possible syllable-final and syllable-initial consonants. Typically, a distinction between voiceless and voiced initial consonants is replaced by a distinction between high and low tone, and falling and rising tones developed from syllable-final h and glottal stop, which themselves often reflect earlier consonants. The eight tones and intonations that
2016-570: Is a significant part of almost every culture. Chakma women wear Pinon hadi . The pinon (𑄛𑄨𑄚𑄮𑄚𑄴) and the hadi (𑄦𑄘𑄨) are colourfully handwoven with various designs. The design is first embroidered on a piece of cloth known as Alam . Chakma men wear Siluhm (𑄥𑄨𑄣𑄪𑄟𑄴) & Dudi(𑄘𑄪𑄘𑄨) as their traditional outfit. In the past, most Chakmas practised slash-and-burn cultivation ( jhum ) as their main occupation. However, many Chakmas today have adopted plow cultivation and some have taken up poultry farming. Traditional temporary homes of
2142-596: Is achieved by adding the particle lo (not) at the end of a sentence: The Mizo alphabet is based on the Roman alphabet and has 25 letters. In its current form, it was devised by the first Christian missionaries of Mizoram, J. H. Lorrain and F. W. Savidge, based on the Hunterian system of transliteration . A circumflex ^ was later added to the vowels to indicate long vowels, viz., Â , Ê , Î , Ô , Û , which were insufficient to fully express Mizo tone. Recently,
2268-649: Is also known as Duhlian and Lushai , a colonial term, as the Duhlian people were the first among the Mizo people to be encountered by the British in the course of their colonial expansion . Mizo is related to the other languages of the Sino-Tibetan language family . The Kuki-Chin-Mizo languages (which native Mizo speakers call Zohnahthlâk ṭawngho / Mizo ṭawngho ) have a substantial number of words in common. Mizo has eight tones and intonations for each of
2394-706: Is felt necessary for the maintenance of public order, empowerment to destroy property suspected of insurgency operations, arresting without warrants with any amount of force necessary to enforce, and immunity to military personnel from legal proceedings against acts under the AFSA unless permitted by the central government. Security officers, after the events of the MNF uprising, engaged in detainment of men, looting of property, mass rapes of women, unjustified killings and torture in settlements such as Kolasib and Kawnpui. Closely after Kolasib, detainment and starvation of communities over
2520-763: Is the Chakma Autonomous District Council in India, the legitimacy of which is questioned by the Mizo people . There are another 80,000 Chakmas in Rakhine state , Myanmar, who are known as Daingnet people . In September 2015, the Supreme Court of India passed a judgment directing the government of India and of Arunachal Pradesh to grant Indian citizenship rights to all of the Chakmas, holding that they cannot be discriminated against any other Indian. According to 2022 census, Chakmas are
2646-616: Is the official language and lingua franca . It is the mother tongue of the Mizo people and some members of the Mizo diaspora . Other than Mizoram, it is also spoken in Meghalaya , Manipur , Tripura , and Assam states of India, Sagaing Region and Chin State in Myanmar, and Chittagong Hill Tracts of Bangladesh. It is mainly based on the Lusei dialect but it has also derived many words from its surrounding Mizo clans. The language
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#17327903398022772-655: Is the nationality and Bangladeshi is citizenship and refused to acknowledge that Bangladesh had indigenous people. Bengali nationalism is part of the BNP's ideology. Jumma nationalism was spawned from Bengali nationalism due to the hegemony exerted by the Bengalis. The rights of CHT natives were ignored when the Rangmati Kaptai Dam was built. Because the CHT Jummas were apathetic towards Bangladeshi independence,
2898-516: The Mizo language , led to further discontent and protests. The growing discontent with the Government ultimately resulted in a secessionist movement led by Mizo National Front (MNF), an organisation that had evolved out of a famine relief team. While the Mizo Union's demand was limited to a separate state for the Mizos within India, the MNF aimed at establishing a sovereign independent nation for
3024-557: The Mughal Governor of Bengal, Shaista Khan , defeated the Arakanese, conquered Chittagong, and renamed it Islamabad. Mughal rule, however, was confined to the plain areas of Chittagong early on, leaving the Chakmas largely unaffected. The Mughals eventually demanded tribute from the Chakmas after a trade dispute developed between the two groups. In 1713, the conflict was resolved, and a stable relationship developed between
3150-532: The 1 AR headquarters in Aizawl unsuccessfully. They also attacked the AR post at Chhimluang on the Aizawl-Silchar road, but were repulsed by the Riflemen. To stop any reinforcements from Silchar, they created several roadblocks and damaged the only bridge on the road. Around this time, several MNF leaders had gathered in Aizawl on the pretext of a General Assembly. A few of the MNF leaders strongly opposed
3276-534: The 10,000 people whose 54,000 acres of farmland were flooded in 1962 by the Karnafuli power plant and Kaptai Dam. Inept relocation and insufficient compensation were offered to the Chakmas. India used NEFA as a resettlement area for Chakma refugees. The Chittagong Hill Tracts Chakma population was estimated at 250,000 in 1964. The CHT was described as being hilly, forested, a verdant green landscape filled with fountains of water. A deputy commissioner administered
3402-531: The 135 officially recognised ethnic groups there. The Chakmas are divided into 31 clans or gozas . The community is headed by the Chakma Raja , whose status as a tribal head has been historically recognised by the government of British India and the government of Bangladesh . According to Pamela Gutman Chakma derives from the Sanskrit word śaktimāna, which means powerful and great. The name
3528-644: The 1950s. These included the Kaptai Dam hydro-electric project, built-in 1959–1963 by the Pakistan government, with the assistance of the United States Agency for International Development , to provide electricity for much of East Pakistan. The project flooded forty per cent of the farmland in the Chittagong Hill Tracts and displaced nearly 100,000 Chakmas. About sixty per cent were resettled, and forty per cent fled to India. Chakmas made up 90% of
3654-515: The 1960s, hundreds of Muslim families from other parts of East Pakistan were resettled in the Matamuhuri Valley region of Alikadam, Feni Valley regions of Belchari and Tulanchari, and the regions of Lama, Bandarban, and Ramgarh. Tridev Roy continued to collaborate with Pakistani forces and declined to join the freedom movement of Bangladesh. Pakistani president Yahya Khan assigned a south-east Asian diplomatic post to Tridiv Roy during
3780-465: The 1964 Enemy Property Ordinance. Lands in CHT were taken by Bengali colonists; the hill peoples of the CHT were not afforded any cultural or ethnic recognition, and sympathy from successive Bangladesh governments, despite culture and ethnicity being used as an argument against Pakistan by Bengalis during the war. A 1997 peace agreement ended the over the twenty-year-long war on autonomy between Bangladesh and
3906-441: The 5th Battalion, Border Security Force (5 BSF) and the local police. On the night of 28 February/1 March 1966, the MNF launched a series of simultaneous attacks on the 1 AR garrisons at Aizawl, Lunglei and Champhai and the 5 BSF posts at Chawngte , Demagiri , Hnahlan , Marpara , Tipaimukh , Tuipang , Tuipuibari , Vaphai and Vaseitlang . The first attack by MNF began at about 10:30 pm IST on 28 February 1966, at
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4032-598: The Assam state, Stanley DD Nichols Roy and Hoover H Hynniewta, visited the Mizo district to take a stock of the situation. Later in April, Roy moved a motion in the Assam Legislative Assembly on the Aizawl air attack, calling the use of air force "excessive". By the end of 1966, reinforcements were sent to the district by the Government in form of: The MNF insurgents dispersed in smaller units, merged with
4158-683: The Bangladeshi government upon the non-Islamic Chittagong Hill Tracts Jumma natives. In February 1972, the Prime Ministers of India and Bangladesh issued a joint statement by virtue of which the government of India decided to confer citizenship on the Chakmas under Section 5(1)(a) of the Citizenship Act, 1955 but the state of Arunachal Pradesh had reservations. Chakmas were thus allowed to be rehabilitated. The Election Commission of India framed guidelines to enable Chakmas to have
4284-697: The Bengali majority regarded them as disloyal. No autonomy was awarded to the Chittagong Hill Tracts in the Bangladesh Constitution of 1972. The Chakma conflict is both a religious and ethnic problem in Bangladesh. The Chittagong Hill Tracts saw tribal Chakma leave the area due to religious and ethnic strife caused by Bangladesh's Islamisation policy. The Chittagong Hill Tracts was colonised by Northern Burmese and Bangladeshi Muslims. The label "genocidal" has been used to describe actions by
4410-623: The British through the Deputy Commissioner took over absolute control of the Chittagong Hill Tracts (including the Chakma circle) after the implementation of the Chittagong Hill Tracts manual . The Chittagong Hill Tracts (Lushai Hills) were again designated an "Excluded Area" under the Government of India Act 1935 . Local tribes demanded an independent state for the Chittagong Hill Tract because Bengalis and
4536-459: The CHT accessible to all non-tribals. As a result, Chakmas' jhum cultivation was hampered, and numerous unauthorised settlers invaded this territory. The Bangladeshi Constitution does not refer to any group (inclusive of Bengalis) as indigenous. As in India's Tripura State, the Chakmas lived in Bangladesh before it gained its independence. Recent migrations of ethnic Bengalis into traditionally Chakma regions of Bangladesh have raised tensions in
4662-513: The Chakma Raja and was vested with the title Roy Bahadur . After the war with the British, the Chakmas became very weak militarily. The Lushai used to make frequent raids on British subjects because their hunting ground was converted to tea gardens by the British in Cachar , Noakhali , Comilla , and other neighbouring tracts under Rani Kalindi . They raided the Chittagong Hill Tracts and
4788-530: The Chakma chief, who controlled the hill tribes. Further, the government was increasingly concerned about the political and administrative affairs of the tracts. Hence, they wished to lay the foundation of administration in a restricted manner with the following objectives: After the creation of a separate district and the three circles, the Kuki (Lushai) threat to the Chittagong Hill Tracts and other adjoining areas did not stop. The Shendus made occasional raids in
4914-471: The Chakma king Sher Doulat Khan, who was practically independent though nominally paid tribute to the Mughals, did not accept the hegemony of the company and its demand for increased taxes. Encroachments on the Chittagong Hill Tracts by the British led to a protracted war between the East India Company and the Chakmas from 1777 to 1787. The East India Company launched four offensives against
5040-606: The Chakmas and earned the enmity of the Awami League by rejecting Sheikh Mujibur Rahman 's offer to stand as the Awami League candidate. Autonomy was refused to the CHT tribals. CHT hills people were enrolled as Mujahids and Razakars by the Pakistan army during the Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971. The Bangladesh government provided financial support for thousands of Bengalis to settle in
5166-417: The Chakmas and the Mughals; the latter never demanded complete subjugation of the former. The Mughals also rewarded the Chakma king Shukdev Roy; he established a new capital in his name in an area still known as Shukbilash. Ruins of the royal palace and other historic buildings still exist. Subsequently, the capital was shifted to Rajanagar, Ranirhat , Rangunia Upazila, Chittagong District. The Mughals signed
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5292-789: The Chakmas in 1770, 1780, 1782 and 1785. In 1785, the Company started peace negotiations with the Chakma king Jan Baksh Khan, son of Sher Doulat Khan. In 1787 a peace treaty was signed in Calcutta . Raja Jan Baksh Khan pledged loyalty to the British in exchange for autonomy in administering Chakma territory. The main provisions of the treaty between Governor-General Lord Cornwallis and the Chakma king were as follows: In 1829, Halhed, then Commissioner of Chittagong, reaffirmed that: The hill tribes were not British subjects but merely tributaries and we recognized no right on our part to interfere with their internal arrangements. The near neighborhood of
5418-555: The Chittagong Hill Tracts Division under Pakistani rule. Manabendra Narayan Larma requested autonomy in 1970. Tripura state had to deal with the issue of Chakma families. Agriculture, employment, and education are dominated by Chakmas compared to Arunachal natives because they are more skilled and have a higher literacy rate. The issue of returning Chakma refugees from India to Bangladesh was raised in 1995. The hill tribes' conflict with Bangladesh caused
5544-485: The Chittagong Hill Tracts Jumma inhabitants. The Chittagong Hill Tracts showed that only Bengalis were to be beneficiaries of Bengali nationalism and its "liberalism", which was aimed against the hegemony of Pakistan. Even the "pro-minority" and participant of the CHT peace agreement, the Awami League, refused to grant the status of Adibashi, declaring that according to the constitution, Bengali
5670-630: The Chittagong Hill Tracts, the Shanti Bahini launched guerrilla attacks against the government. Jumma guerrillas made up of Shanti Bahini forces. The party heads of PCJSS are mostly Chakma because of their 59% literacy rate, which is more than other CHT tribes, so they control the PCJSS. During the war, most of the Pahadis remained passive, although the Mukti Bahini enrolled some. In 1971,
5796-582: The Chittagong Hill Tracts. Successive governments have dealt forcefully with Chakma uprisings and finally ended the conflict with the 1997 peace treaty . This force and the construction of Kaptai Dam by the then-Pakistan government in Chakma areas which submerged cultivable lands and displaced thousands resulted in the migration during 1964–1969 of a large population of Chakmas into Diyun , Arunachal Pradesh. Many Buddhist Chakmas migrated from East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) to India. Projects for infrastructure development negatively impacted CHT tribals starting in
5922-430: The Government of Assam on the charge of conspiring against the nation, but were released in February 1964 after an undertaking of good conduct by Laldenga. However, shortly after their release, MNF intensified its secessionist activities. The MNF members forcibly collected donations from the Mizo people, recruited volunteers and trained them with arms supplied by Pakistan. By the end of 1965, the MNF weapon cache consisted of
6048-482: The Government of India resorted to a "grouping" policy in the Mizo district, starting in January 1967. The plan was initially proposed by Lt. Gen Sam Manekshaw and the Government of Assam to an initial rejection from the central government before intense lobbying by the army granted the scheme to be executed. The grouping policy was subsequently named Operation Accomplishment . Under the grouping policy, nearly 80% of
6174-710: The Hill Tract tribes in 1881. Tribals complained to Britain after the Hill Tracts experienced attempts at penetration by lowlander Bengali Muslims. On 1 April 1900, the South and the North Lushai Hills (then a part of the Chittagong Hill Tracts) were merged to form the district of Assam Province with headquarters at Aizawl . The Lushai hills were now the Mizoram state of India. Later,
6300-405: The Hill Tracts between 1865 and 1888 and killed many people, including Lt. Steward and his survey party. In 1872, 1,890 military offensives were launched simultaneously into Lushai Hills (Mizoram) from Chittagong district and Burma in collaboration with the governments of Bengal, Assam and Burma, and the whole of the CHT was brought under British control. Autonomous police forces were created by
6426-612: The Independence of Bangladesh, the NEC under Malsawma Colney met with leader of the Union Territory of Mizoram to begin initiating talks with India. Following a series of meetings with RAW agents, Laldenga visited Delhi with his family in 1976 to begin the first official rounds of talk with the Government of India. A 1976 accord was signed where the MNF accepted that Mizoram is an integral part of India and acknowledged to accept
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#17327903398026552-699: The Indian parliament on 3 March, stated the total number of rebels in Aizawl , Lunglei , Vairengte , Chawngte and Chhimluang as 800–1300. On 2 March 1966, the Government of Assam invoked the Assam Disturbed Areas Act, 1955 and the Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act, 1958 , proclaiming the entire Mizo district as "disturbed". Bimala Prasad Chaliha condemned Laldenga for his "betrayal", while Gulzari Lal Nanda promised "stern action" with "all
6678-408: The MNF not to attack the army. After some resistance, the MNF rebels withdrew from Lunglei on 13 March, taking away some arms, ammunition and vehicles with them. The security forces secured Lunglei on 14 March, and Champhai on 15 March. The 5th battalion, Parachute Regiment (5 Para), was flown in by helicopters to Lunglei on 14–15 March, set out for Demagiri and secured it on 17 March. By the 25th, all
6804-402: The Mizo Congress Party came to power and reopened channels for peace talks, which eventually culminated towards the 1986 Mizo Accord . Concerns were raised by Chief Minister T. Sailo over the violent incidents by the MNF in breach of the 1976 agreement. Public resentment led to student marches and shutting down of educational institutions. However many organizations actively supported an end to
6930-414: The Mizo district in Assam . The government retaliated and recaptured all the places seized by the MNF by 25 March 1966. In the initial response of the government operations to suppress the rebellion in 1966, the Indian Air Force carried out airstrikes in Aizawl ; this remains the only instance of India carrying out an airstrike in its own civilian territory. Counter-insurgency operations continued over
7056-406: The Mizo territory as a sovereign nation and take up their case in the United Nations. The volunteers and the sympathisers of MNF were promised a prosperous future in the proposed sovereign state. The plan was kept in strict secrecy. As a cover, the MNF leaders indulged in public propaganda advocating use of "non-violent means" to achieve independence for Mizos. The MNF commander Lt. Col. Laimana, who
7182-572: The Mizos. The extremist section within MNF advocated the use of violence to seek independence from India. A special armed wing called the Mizo National Army (MNA) was created for the purpose. The MNA consisted of eight infantry "battalions" organised on the pattern of the Indian army. One of the battalions was named after Joshua , while the rest were named after the legendary Mizo heroes: Chawngbawla, Khuangchera, Lalvunga, Saizahawla, Taitesena, Vanapa and Zampui Manga. The Lion Brigade (Chawngbawla, Khuangchera, Saizahawla and Taitesena battalions) operated in
7308-510: The PPV, such as the stopping of the food ration system in 1968, increased prices of basic commodities such as rice and sugar, which further exacerbated starvation among the population. This grouping has also been said to be the beginning of social evils in Mizoram. The villagers were forced to move to these camps and agreement papers were often signed at gunpoint. Three phrases of displacement and regrouping were planned. The first phase saw 45,000 Mizos from 109 villages herded into 18 group centres,
7434-424: The Pakistan army enrolled CHT hill men. After the war, Tridev Roy maintained his allegiance to Pakistan, which he supported in the war. In 1970, he served as independent in the Parliament of Pakistan while serving as Raja of the Chakma. The Awami League candidate Sheikh Mujibur Rahman lost the election to Roy. Roy was in Southeast Asia when Bangladesh came under Indian army control in December 1971. Bhutto assigned
7560-399: The Public Works Department office in Aizawl, looting items for the "Mizoram Sawrkar" ("Mizoram Government") Office. On 11 March, the insurgents burned the houses of the senior officials of the Mizo Union . At about 01:30 IST on 1 March 1966, around 150 insurgents armed with lathis surrounded the sub-divisional officer of the Public Works Department at Vairengte and asked him to get out of
7686-486: The administration of India, including the Chittagong Hill Tracts, which were not yet formally separated from Chittagong, from the East India Company. The territorial jurisdiction of the Chakma Raja, however, was fixed by a proclamation dated 6th Shraavana 1170M.S (1763 CE) by the company as "All the hills from the Feni River to the Sangoo and from Nizampur Road in Chittagong to the hills of Kooki Raja". After Rani Kalindi's death in 1873, her grandson Harish Chandra became
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#17327903398027812-402: The administrative unit of East Pakistan was dissolved. The dissolution of this strategic region and partnership crippled the insurgency's ability to evade government forces and be resupplied with weapons and resources to continue their fight. As early as December 1971, the National Emergency Committee was formed while Laldenga worked in Pakistan for foreign affairs. As early as December 1972 upon
7938-422: The air drops meant for the riflemen fell into the hands of MNF members. The same day, the insurgents released all the prisoners from the Aizawl jail, who looted the shops of the non-Mizos ("Vai"s), and also burned several huts in the Aizawl bazaar. Due to the AR's refusal to surrender, the victory parade proposed to be held on 2 March was postponed to 10 March. On 5 March, the insurgents led by Pu Hruaia plundered
8064-440: The capacity of grouped communities to procure food sources. From 1967-192, farming output went down a cliff and people had to face near-famine conditions. In one year, farming output was 35,000 tonnes for a demand of 75,000 tonnes. The grouping policy also impacted the cultural values of Mizo society in relation to jhumming, such as the obsolescence of Tlawbawk (huts on the jhum land for camping and harvest). Inconsistent policies in
8190-426: The circumflex from short tones. As well, the need of at least seven diacritics may cause complications to design easy keyboard layouts, even if they use dead keys and even if not all basic Latin letters are needed for Mizo itself, and so publications may represent the short tones using digrams (e.g. by appending some apostrophe or glottal letter) to reduce the number of diacritics needed to only four (those used now for
8316-441: The civilian population fled Aizawl, and took refuge in the remote villages in the adjacent hills. In the history of independent India, this remains the only instance of the Government of India resorting to air strikes in its own territory. Locals claim that Rajesh Pilot and Suresh Kalmadi were among the IAF pilots who dropped the bombs. Pu Zoramthanga , who went on to become the Chief Minister of Mizoram in 1998, once said that
8442-564: The course of several days took place in Kelkang by being confided in their Church with no food and water. Officers of the Army would also abuse their power and demand women from village councils or engage in rape, which would-be underreported due to cultural stigma and shame. The grouping policies of Operation Accomplishment oversaw the settlement of Protected and Progressive Villages ( PPV ), which unfolded many human rights violations and abuses. Evacuation from old village settlements often required signing consents at gunpoint. Freedom of movement
8568-518: The district. They also took over the departmental stores and the jeep. Similar incidents were reported from Coinluang and Chawngte. On the same day, the insurgents easily captured the AR post at Champhai , with help from their sympathisers in the security forces. At Kolasib , the insurgents took around 250 civil officials, the policemen, the intelligence personnel and the road builders as captives, and kept them without food and water. The women and children were also taken as captives and kept separately in
8694-455: The disturbed area on 3 March. The forces could reach Aizawl only on 6 March, due to the roadblocks caused by the militants. On 7 March, they relieved the besieged AR garrison at Aizawl. On 8 March, the 2nd battalion, 11 Gorkha Rifles (2/11 GR) moved towards Champhai and the 3rd battalion, Bihar Regiment (3 Bihar) towards Lunglei. By 15 March, all of 61 Brigade with its four battalions and supporting arms and services had moved into Mizoram and by
8820-500: The eastern-most regions of the Indian subcontinent and Western Myanmar . They are the second largest ethnic group of the Chittagong Hill Tracts region of southeastern Bangladesh , and the largest in the Chakma Autonomous District Council of Mizoram , India. Significant Chakma populations are found in the northeast Indian states of Arunachal Pradesh , Tripura and Assam . The Chakma possess strong ethnic affinities to Tibeto-Burman -speaking groups in Northeast India. Because of
8946-611: The end of the month had regained control of Mizoram. The insurgents had managed to capture all the posts of 1 AR except their headquarters at Aizawl. Their chances of capturing the AR headquarters were low after the IAF airstrikes. When the MNF leaders heard about the likely arrival of the Indian Army in Aizawl on 7 March, they decided to retreat to Lunglei , which was under the MNF control. The security forces threatened to bomb Lunglei , but two Christian clergymen – H. S. Luaia and Pastor C.L. Hminga – requested them to avoid it in order to prevent loss of civilian lives. The two also persuaded
9072-464: The exodus of 50,000 Chakmas to India from the Chittagong Hill Tracts. A 1992 deal between India and Bangladesh arranged that Bangladesh would take them back. A March 1997 agreement between Chakma leaders and Bangladesh provided for the repatriation to Bangladesh of Chakma refugees in Tripura. Both East Pakistan's partition and Bangladesh's independence caused an influx into India of Chakma refugees. In
9198-423: The failure of the policy. While insurgency continued at lower levels, the space for political negotiations was created and led to Mizoram becoming a Union Territory and the entry of the MNF into mainstream politics. In August 1968, the Government of India offered amnesty to the insurgents, which resulted in the surrender of 1524 MNF members. This was followed by more amnesty offers during 1969–70. In 1976, Laldenga
9324-545: The force" at the Government's command. A 24-hour curfew was imposed in Aizawl on 3 March, and reinforcements were sent for 1 AR by helicopters. The IAF was asked to carry the troops in Mi-4 helicopters into the besieged AR camp, accompanied with fighter escorts, but failed due to heavy and accurate fire by the insurgents. The Toofani fighters of 29 Squadron operating from Kumbhirgram and Hunter fighters of 17 Squadron operating from Jorhat undertook independent missions to escort
9450-414: The government appointed Suklal Dewan as manager. Rani Kalindi , the widow of Dharam Baksh Khan, applied to the government to allow her to run state affairs. The government accepted her application and in 1844 issued an order to that effect. In 1846, the annual revenue payable to the company was reset to 11,803.00 Rs. After the great Sepoy Mutiny in 1857, the British government assumed direct control of
9576-484: The hands of the Assam Government, and demanded a separate state for the Mizos. Every 48 years, a cyclic ecological phenomenon called Mautam leads to widespread famine in this region. When such a famine started in 1959, the Mizos were left disappointed by the Assam Government's handling of the situation. The introduction of Assamese as the official language of the state in 1960, without any consideration for
9702-452: The highest and most powerful king of Arakan, Chacomas, and Bengal in a 1607 letter to Portuguese mercenary Filipe de Brito e Nicote . After their defeat by the Arakanese, the Chakmas migrated to the present Chittagong Hill Tracts and founded their capital city Alekyangdong (present-day Alikadam ). From Alekyangdong, they continued north and settled in present-day Rangunia , Raozan , and Fatikchari Upazilas of Chittagong District. In 1666,
9828-580: The important towns and the posts had been freed from the MNF control. By the end of March 1966, the Indian security forces had captured 467 muzzle loading guns, 332 shotguns, 175 rifles, 57 pistols/revolvers and about 70,000 rounds of ammunition from MNF. However, MNF had also managed to obtain a large amount of ammunition from the captured security forces posts. Its weapon cache consisted of: around 1500 shotguns, 600 rifles (mostly .303 bore), 75 sten-guns, 30 revolvers/pistols, 25 carbines and 20 light machine guns. The MNA headquarters, originally located in Aizawl
9954-487: The indigenous populace as their farms and houses were burnt, and they could not have enough farmland while being interred in these camps. Animal husbandry was limited, and food rations were kept within the PPVs to prevent sympathizers from providing the MNF with food. A curfew was enforced for seven years, which limited the working distance of Jhum cultivations and errands for economic stimulation. Confiscation of arms also limited
10080-482: The insurgents ambushed a patrol of 1 AR, and inflicted heavy casualties on them. After 1 AR at Aizawl refused to surrender, the MNF suicide squad launched an attack on them at 9:00 on 4 March. They lost 13 men in a counter-attack by the Assam Rifles soldiers. Two helicopters with reserves, ammunition and water sent by the Government to help the Riflemen could not land due to constant firing by the insurgents. Some of
10206-567: The insurgents kidnapped R.V. Pillai, the Sub-divisional Officer. By 7 March, they had captured the AR post as well as the Border Roads Task Force camp at Lunglei. The MNF insurgents entered Aizawl on the night of 28 February 1966. The same day, the Mizo district administration came across the copies of the two-page declaration of independence distributed among the MNF leaders. Since the insurgents had cut all
10332-568: The intervention and appeal of the Mizo Congress Party. Peace talks began once more in 1980, and Laldenga demanded the dissolution of the Union Territory of Mizoram with an interim government headed under the Mizo National Front, which was unable to be fulfilled by both the central government and Brig T. Sailo's local government. With a breakdown in peace negotiations, the MNF was declared illegal in January 1982. In 1984,
10458-734: The largest ethnic group in Rangamati Hill District (42.67%) and second largest in Khagrachhari District (24.53%). They are the largest ethnic group in Juraichhari Upazila (91.15%), Naniarchar Upazila (79.89%), Barkal Upazila (69.33%), Bagaichhari Upazila (66.19%), Dighinala Upazila (53.38%), Lakshmichhari Upazila (51.33%), Panchhari Upazila (44.04%) and Mahalchhari Upazila (43.52%). The Chakmas are people with their own culture, folklore, literature and traditions. Traditional clothing
10584-514: The local population and continued to carry out armed attacks against the security forces in the district. The villagers suffered from both sides as the insurgents would kill those resisting their entry into the villages while the villages suffered reprisals from the security forces in case ambushes had taken place in their vicinity. The Mizo National Front was outlawed in 1967. The same year, the Counterinsurgency and Jungle Warfare School
10710-506: The long tones) on only two dead keys. In Mizo verb tense is indicated by the aspect and the addition of particles, such as: Mizo gerunds and past participles are formed by a change in word ending called tihdanglamna . Mizo nouns undergo declension into cases . Nouns are pluralised by suffixing -te , -ho , -teho or -hote . All Mizo pronouns occur in two forms, namely in free form and clitic form and are declined into cases. For declarative sentences, negation
10836-421: The main reason he joined the MNF and became a rebel was the "relentless bombing of Aizawl in 1966". The people of Mizoram now observe Zoram Ni ("Zoram Day") to commemorate the air raids. The operations were overseen by HQ Eastern Command under Lt. Gen. Sam Manekshaw. The local responsibility for the army operations was given to 101 Communication Zone under Maj. Gen. Sagat Singh. 311 (Independent) Infantry Brigade
10962-714: The nearby hills of the Chittagong Hill Tracts. The Arakanese people referred to the Chakmas as Saks, Theks, or Thaikhs . In 1546 CE, while the Arakanese king Min Bin was fighting a battle with the Burmese, the Sak king attacked Northern Arakan Roma and occupied the Arakanese-controlled Chacomas of the Northern Arakan Mountains . Diego de Astor created a map of Bengal , which
11088-483: The neighbouring tracts in 1847, 1848, 1859, and 1860. As a consequence, with a view to paying attention to the areas experiencing repeated raids and to protecting the people from the aggression of the independent tribes living further east but primarily to occupy the Chakma land, the Lieutenant Governor of Bengal recommended the removal of the hill tracts from the regulation district and the appointment of
11214-480: The next few years, attention focused on preserving peace on the frontier. In 1869, the headquarters were shifted to Rangamati . The official designation of the post of superintendent was changed to Deputy Commissioner and full control of matters about revenue and justice throughout the Hill Tracts was vested in his office. The frontier situation put pressure on the Chakma chief to shift his capital, and in 1874, he did so, from Rajanagar to Rangamati. At that time, cotton
11340-626: The next two decades, although the intensity of the rebellion diminished over time progressively. In 1986, the government and the MNF signed the Mizoram Peace Accord , thereby ending the rebellion. Before the formation of the Mizoram state in 1987, the Mizo -dominated areas in India were a part of the Mizo district of the Assam state. The Mizo organisations, including the Mizo Union , had long complained of step-motherly treatment at
11466-680: The northern half of the district, while the Dagger Brigade (Joshua, Lalvunga, Vanapa and Zampui Manga) operated in its southern half. MNA consisted of around 2000 men, supported by another group called the Mizo National Volunteers (MNV), which comprised an equal number of irregulars . In the early 1960s, the MNF leaders including Pu Laldenga visited East Pakistan (now Bangladesh), where the Government of Pakistan offered them supply of military hardware and training. Laldenga and his lieutenant Pu Lalnunmawia were arrested by
11592-450: The officials except for some British during British India rule. Pakistan received the CHT from Radcliffe after the issue of Punjab districts and the CHT revised boundaries were pushed onto him by Lord Mountbatten on 17 August 1947. The decision by Radcliffe to draw this boundary paved the way for future war, violence, and conflict. The 1956 Pakistani Constitution, which designated the CHT as an "excluded area," kept things as they were. It
11718-432: The operation which prevented the third phase from being carried out. Despite the grouping of villages under the operation, the intensity of the insurgency continued until 1970 with significant military skirmishes continuing up to 1976. The implementation of the policy also harmed agricultural output and caused near-famine conditions, prompting villagers to return to their previous settlements to cultivate crops, further showing
11844-537: The party direction for the settlement with India. With the Janata Party coming to power, Morarji Desai committed to peace talks. His meeting with Laldenga requested acceptance of Indian citizenship and a written pledge to end violent activities. However, the talks drifted, and the negotiations failed. Laldenga was arrested briefly in July 1979 and bailed out. The cases against him were revoked by Indira Gandhi on
11970-798: The plastic explosives stolen from the Border Roads Organisation , rifles and ammunition obtained from the 1st Battalion, Assam Rifles (1 AR) headquartered at Aizawl, crude bombs and Sten guns. The Indian armed forces, fresh from the Sino-Indian War of 1962 and the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 , were focused on the Indo-Pakistan and Indo-China borders. The extremist MNF leaders wanted to take advantage of this situation by starting an armed rebellion to establish an independent Mizo nation. The rehabilitation of
12096-718: The position of Minorities Affairs Minister to Roy and he helped lobby the United Nations (UN) for Pakistan after the war. The post of ambassador and tourism was also awarded to Roy. Roy represented Pakistan when it protested at the UN over Bangladesh. Pakistan retained the allegiance of only Nurul Amin and Tridiv Roy among their East Pakistan MPs. Roy refused to join Bangladesh because the hill tracts were not granted autonomy and stayed on Pakistan's side despite Mujib trying to urge Tridiv to quit Pakistan. Meghalaya and Tripura were destinations of Buddhist Chakma refugees fleeing from
12222-451: The pro-government Chakma refugees from East Pakistan in the Mizo district further instigated them. Accordingly, a plan (codenamed "Operation Jericho") was created to systematically capture the power in the Mizo district. The MNF aimed at taking over the treasuries and the petrol pumps, neutralising the police force and capturing all the important non-Mizo ("Vai") officials. The MNF flag was to be hoisted at Aizawl on 1 March 1966, followed by
12348-617: The right to vote by having their names enrolled in the electoral rolls of the constituency where they have been settled. The persecution of the ethnic tribes of the Chittagong Hill Tracts, of which the Chakma are the predominant ethnicity, has been greatly reduced after the 1997 Chittagong Hill Tracts Peace Accord . The Chakmas now have representation in the Mizoram Legislative Assembly , Tripura Legislative Assembly and Tripura Tribal Areas Autonomous District Council . The only seat of political power and identity
12474-416: The rural population was shifted from their villages and resettled along the highways. The old villages were burnt, and the new settlements were kept under the control of the security forces until 1970. The Indian Army got greater freedom of action and succeeded in isolating the insurgents from the people and cutting the insurgents' supply chain. This grouping of villages resulted in a great deal of suffering for
12600-605: The second phase subsequently saw 87,000 Mizos grouped in 84 new groups. The orders of Operation Accomplishment was challenged on the basis of violation of the Fundamental Rights guaranteed in the Constitution which led to a suspension in the grouping operation. Upon scrutiny by the Gauhati High Court to justify the continuation of the policy, the Government of Assam assured no further implementation of
12726-484: The settlement of the problem within the framework of the Indian constitution. Other terms included the hand over of arms and ammunition and an end to violent activity. However, internal struggle in the party over Laldenga's direction divided the party apparatus to have cohesion in foreign policy conduct for a few years, hence delaying the opportunity for peace. Laldenga eventually purged opponents of peaceful cooperation in his party through demotion and expulsions, which united
12852-404: The sub-treasury at Lunglei. A group 500–1000 strong attacked the camp of the security forces and the AR post. The attack was repulsed, leaving two AR personnel and a few MNF militants dead, and three more AR personnel wounded. The AR camp was surrounded and starved by the MNF militants for three days. The IAF Helicopter at last flew over the camp to supply the prior needs of Assam Rifles. On 5 March,
12978-533: The telephone lines, the local authorities could not seek immediate help from Shillong or Silchar . Later, the commanding officer of the Border Roads Organisation managed to send a wireless message to Silchar. At 02:00 IST, on 1 March 1966, the insurgents attacked the telephone exchange at Aizawl. An hour later, around 150 insurgents led by Pu Lalnundawta, attacked the Aizawl District Treasury and looted money, arms and .303 ammunition . Within
13104-667: The term "Chakma" originates from two constituent words: "Tsak" and "Ma". In this context, "Tsak" is believed to be derived from " Shak " which is associated with the Shakya clan, and "Ma" signifies "man" in Tibeto-Burmese languages. The Chakma script shows similarities to Brahmi script suggesting Chakmas may descend from the Shakya lineage. Bijak of the Chakmas says that the Chakmas were part of Buddha's Sakya clan. They gradually migrated to Arakan and extended their territory to
13230-446: The tracts. By 1981, a third of the population of the tracts were Bengali migrants. Parbatya Chattagram Jana Samhati Samiti (PCJSS; Chittagong Hill Tracts Peoples Solidarity Association), which was founded by Chakmas, demanded a halt to Bengali settlement, settlers returning lands to CHT natives, and autonomy. On 7 January 1973, Shanti Bahini (Peace Force) was founded as the military army of PCJSS. In an effort to win independence for
13356-476: The tribals did not share a religion, language, or ethnicity, and they asked for their own independent area in the 1930s when the Indian national movement was launched. During World War II , to retain Chakma loyalty in the face of Japanese advances, local British officials guaranteed the tribals that the Chittagong Hill Tracts would be split of separately in the event of Indian independence. In British India, there
13482-520: The troop reinforcements and to suppress the insurgents. Later, when the GOC Eastern Command, Lt. Gen. Sam Manekshaw , flew over parts of Mizoram in 1968, his helicopter was fired at by the insurgents. On the afternoon of 4 March 1966, the IAF jet fighters strafed the MNF targets in Aizawl using machine guns, allegedly causing few civilian casualties. The next day, a more extensive airstrike
13608-507: The upcoming armed action, but failed to anticipate its intensity. On the night of 27 February, Rokima, the brother of the MNF lieutenant Pu Lalnunmawia was killed in an apparently accidental blast, which was noticed by the AR personnel. All AR posts were alerted to keep a watch on the movements of MNF members. The security forces stationed in the Mizo Hills district included the 1st Battalion, Assam Rifles (1 AR) headquartered at Aizawl ,
13734-412: The violence, and asked Laldenga to withdraw his orders for an armed action. However, it was too late to discontinue the operation, as the rebels had already attacked multiple places including Lunglei , Champhai and Demagiri . On 1 March, Laldenga made a declaration of independence, and exhorted all the Mizos to join the revolt against the "illegal Indian occupation" of the Mizo territory. On 2 March,
13860-652: The violence. The Students Joint Action Committee (SJAC) organised support for the peace talks by performing a general strike for two days from 3-4 June 1986 and requesting the stepping down of Lal Thanhawla to secure a peaceful transition of power. The Mizoram Church Leaders Committee (MCLC) was a coalition of church denominations consisting of Presbyterians, Baptists, Salvation Army, Roman Catholics, Pentecostals, Seventh Day Adventists, Assembly of God, Lairam Baptist and Isua Krista Kohran supporting non-violence and return to peace. The MCLC actively participated in organising peace channels, convening an all-party meeting and submitting
13986-456: The vowel a (and the vowels aw , e , i , u , which constitutes all the tones in Mizo) can have are shown by the letter sequence p - a - n - g , as follows: Note that the exact orthography of tones with diacritics is still not standardised (notably for differentiating the four short tones with confusive or conflicting choices of diacritics) except for the differentiation of long tones by using
14112-454: The vowels a , aw , e , i and u , four of which are reduced tones and the other four long tones. The vowel o has only three tones, all of them of the reduced type. The vowels can be represented as follows: Mizo has the following triphthongs : Mizo has the following consonants, with the first symbol being its orthographical form and the second one its representation in the IPA : As Mizo
14238-465: The war as a reward for his collaboration. Roy chose the Pakistani side, fearing that an independent Bangladesh would likely have democratic rule and he might lose his feudal interests. Pakistan retained his support and allegiance, Roy agreed on 25 March, and in exchange British artillery would refrain from shelling the CHT capital, Rangamati . Roy believed Bangladesh would not award autonomy to CHT and
14364-571: The war started by plains-dwelling Muslim Bangladeshis settling the CHT, as well as the government of Bangladesh implementing a military police force to expel Chittagong Hill Tracts natives. "The Muslim World" complained about alleged immigration from Bangladesh to Arakan by Buddhists of Magh and Chakma background. In 1974, the Garo people were stripped of their property by the XLVI Vested and Non-President Property Act by Bangladesh and affected by
14490-592: Was a measure of security and protection afforded to the non-Muslim and non-Bengali Chittagong Hill Tract Chakmas and other tribal people. Bengal and Assam did not govern the CHT during this period. Rather the CHT was a distinct administrative unit that enjoyed a large degree of self-rule. Despite the CHT being 97.2–98.5% non-Muslim, it was given to Pakistan by the Boundary Commission Chairman Sir Cyril Radcliffe in 1947 upon independence . Native Chakmas made up most of
14616-571: Was called to New Delhi for peace talks with the government. Failure on the terms of the negotiation led to banning of MNF in January 1982. Along with some relatives, Ladenga was arrested and expatriated in April. Later, the Mizo Union's negotiations with the Union Government resulted in the Mizo district gaining the status of a Union Territory as "Mizoram" on 21 January 1972. After the Bangladesh Independence War ,
14742-496: Was carried out for about five hours. According to some Mizos, the planes used incendiary bombs , resulting in fires that destroyed several houses in the Dawrpui and Chhinga Veng areas. According to some other accounts, the houses were destroyed in the fires started by the prisoners released from the Aizawl jail by the insurgents. Apart from Aizawl, the neighbouring villages of Tualbung and Hnahlan were also allegedly bombarded. Most of
14868-417: Was curtailed with military oversight and registries, and the distribution of rations was implemented. Forced labour was utilised in these camps, and resistance was punished physically. Crimes rates were high both within the Mizo communities confined in PPVs and offences from military personnel. Mizo language Mizo is a Tibeto-Burman language spoken mainly in the Indian state of Mizoram , where it
14994-511: Was given to the Chakmas by one of the Burmese kings during the Bagan Era . Burmese kings hired Chakmas as ministers, advisers, and translators of Buddhist Pali texts. As employees of the king, the Chakmas wielded power in the Burmese court that was disproportionate to their number. The Burmese people still refer to Chakmas as Sak (သက်) or Thet, which are shortened and corrupted forms of śaktimāna . The modern linguistic study suggests that
15120-418: Was grown in the Chittagong Hill Tracts and was important to the British for their mills, so effective control of the Chittagong Hill Tracts was also important for them. In 1881, the government divided the Chittagong Hill Tracts into Chakma Circle , Bohmong Circle , and Mong Circle . Each circle was headed by a chief. Chakma circle was headed by a Chakma, Bohmong circle by a Bohmong and the Burmese circle by
15246-608: Was located at that point of time in Silchar. An additional formation, 61 Mountain Brigade (under Brig. R.Z. Kabraji) was moved from Agartala to Aizawl. Subsequently, a regular division, HQ 57 Mountain Division was raised at Masimpur, near Silchar which oversaw counter-insurgency operations in Mizoram in the later stages. The leading battalion of 61 Mountain Brigade, the 8th battalion, Sikh Regiment (8 Sikh) advanced from Silchar into
15372-549: Was moved multiple times during the conflict: first to South Hlimen (on 3 March), then to Reiek (on 18 March) and finally to the Chittagong Hill Tracts in East Pakistan. The Mizo Union leaders blamed the MNF for the loss of civilian life, and condemned the armed insurrection. The MNF accused the Indian Government of "indiscriminate bombing on civilian population" during the airstrikes in Aizawl. Two MLAs of
15498-537: Was published as Descripção do Reino de Bengalla in the book Quarta decada da Asia (Fourth decade of Asia) by João de Barros in 1615. The map shows an area named Chacomas on the eastern bank of the Karnaphuli River in what is now Chittagong Bangladesh , suggesting that the Chakmas inhabited this area during the time. The Arakan king Min Razagyi (1593–1612) conquered the areas and styled himself as
15624-470: Was set up at Vairengte to train the soldiers in fighting with the rebels in the North-East India. As the insurgents found security and refuge in the large number of tiny hamlets from which they would launch attacks on the patrols of the security forces and later merge into the civilian population, the military need was felt to deny the militants access to the common people. To solve the problem,
15750-566: Was suspected of being a government informant, was assassinated on 1 January 1966. On 27 February 1966, Pu Laldenga and some other MNF leaders decided that the armed insurrection would start on 1 March. The instructions were sent to launch simultaneous attacks on the posts of the 1st AR and the BSF. In case the attack failed, an alternate plan of concentrating near the Indo-Pak border was also made. The government authorities did get some indications of
15876-400: Was the fact that the CHT was governed under a different set of rules since 1900 in order to prevent mainlanders from acquiring ownership of the tribal land. The CHT underwent a significant change when the Pakistani armed forces overthrew the government in 1958 and renamed the protected area "Tribal Area." Finally, the 1962 Constitution was amended in 1963 to repeal the earlier designation, making
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