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125-479: Haast physically extracted venom from venomous snakes by holding them by the head and forcing them to bite a rubber membrane covering a vial. As a result of handling these snakes, Haast had been bitten 172 times by mid-2008, all of which but the last few were validated by the Guinness Book of World Records "for surviving the most deadly snake bites", a distinction Haast disliked as he did not think being bitten

250-409: A blood alcohol level of 0.1 percent or more. It is also important to avoid snakes that appear to be dead , as some species will actually roll over on their backs and stick out their tongue to fool potential threats. A snake's detached head can immediately act by reflex and potentially bite. The induced bite can be just as severe as that of a live snake. As a dead snake is incapable of regulating

375-501: A moonshiner on the edge of the Everglades , and became proficient at capturing all kinds of snakes. Haast eventually returned home, where his mother had leased a concession stand at a lakeside resort. Haast added a snake exhibit to the business. There he met and eloped with his first wife, Ann. They moved to Florida so that Haast could pursue his dream of opening a "snake farm". After his wife became pregnant, Haast lost his job when

500-475: A racing heart and feeling faint . The venom may cause bleeding , kidney failure , a severe allergic reaction , tissue death around the bite, or breathing problems. Bites may result in the loss of a limb or other chronic problems or even death. The outcome depends on the type of snake, the area of the body bitten, the amount of snake venom injected, the general health of the person bitten and whether or not anti-venom serum has been administered by

625-462: A client who recovered and was discharged in 10 days after being treated by accurate antivenom and inpatient care . It can deliver up to 420 mg venom in dry weight (400–600 mg overall) per bite, with a LD 50 toxicity in mice of 1.28 mg/kg through intravenous injection , 1.5 to 1.7 mg/kg through subcutaneous injection , and 1.644 mg/kg through intraperitoneal injection . For research purposes, up to 1 g of venom

750-461: A combination of many toxins, including cytotoxins , hemotoxins , neurotoxins , and myotoxins , allowing for an enormous variety of symptoms. Snake venom may cause cytotoxicity as various enzymes including hyaluronidases , collagenases , proteinases and phospholipases lead to breakdown (dermonecrosis) and injury of local tissue and inflammation which leads to pain, edema and blister formation. Metalloproteinases further lead to breakdown of

875-796: A doctor in a timely manner. Problems are often more severe in children than adults, due to their smaller size. Allergic reactions to snake venom can further complicate outcomes and can include anaphylaxis , requiring additional treatment and in some cases resulting in death. Snakes bite both as a method of hunting, and as a means of protection. Risk factors for bites include working outside with one's hands such as in farming , forestry , and construction. Snakes commonly involved in envenomations include elapids (such as kraits , cobras and mambas ), vipers , and sea snakes . The majority of snake species do not have venom and kill their prey by constriction (squeezing them). Venomous snakes can be found on every continent except Antarctica . Determining

1000-460: A dominant frequency near 7,500 Hz, king cobra growls consist solely of frequencies below 2,500 Hz, with a dominant frequency near 600 Hz, a much lower-pitched frequency closer to that of a human voice. Comparative anatomical morphometric analysis has led to a discovery of tracheal diverticula that function as low-frequency resonating chambers in king cobra and its prey, the rat snake, both of which can make similar growls. The female

1125-457: A female snake charmer. The charmer is a priestess who is usually tattooed with three pictograms and kisses the snake on the top of its head at the end of the ritual. Members of the Pakokku clan tattoo themselves with ink mixed with cobra venom on their upper bodies in a weekly inoculation that they believe would protect them from the snake, though no scientific evidence supports this. It

1250-476: A flaccid paralysis that is descending; starting at the facial muscles, causing ptosis or drooping eyelids and dysarthria or poor articulation of speech, and descending to the respiratory muscles causing respiratory compromise. The neurotoxins can either bind to and block membrane receptors at the post-synaptic neurons or they can be taken up into the pre-synaptic neuron cells and impair neurotransmitter release. Venom toxins that are taken up intra-cellularly, into

1375-683: A geographic shift in risk of snakebite: northwards in North America and southwards in South America and in Mozambique, and increase in incidence of bite in Sri Lanka. Most snakebites are caused by non-venomous snakes. Of the roughly 3,000 known species of snake found worldwide, only 15% are considered dangerous to humans. Snakes are found on every continent except Antarctica . The most diverse and widely distributed snake family,

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1500-450: A golden iris and round pupils. Its hood is oval shaped and covered with olive green smooth scales and two black spots between the two lowest scales. Its cylindrical tail is yellowish green above and marked with black. It has a pair of large occipital scales on top of the head, 17 to 19 rows of smooth oblique scales on the neck, and 15 rows on the body. Juveniles are black with chevron shaped white, yellow or buff bars that point towards

1625-445: A king cobra receives chemical information via its forked tongue , which picks up scent particles and transfers them to a sensory receptor ( Jacobson's organ ) located in the roof of its mouth. Following envenomation , it swallows its prey whole. Because of its flexible jaws, it can swallow prey much larger than its head. It is considered diurnal because it hunts during the day, but has also been seen at night, rarely. The king cobra

1750-496: A maximum length of 2.75 m (9 ft 0 in) and a weight of 5 kg (11 lb). The largest known king cobra was 5.59 m (18 ft 4 in) long and captured in Thailand . It differs from other cobra species by size and hood. It is larger, has a narrower and longer stripe on the neck. The king cobra has a wide distribution throughout tropical Asia . It occurs in elevations of 2,000 m (6,600 ft) from

1875-660: A minor vespryn protein component specific to this species, causes hypolocomotion and hyperalgesia in experimental mice. It is believed that it contributes to neurotoxicity on the central nervous system of the victim. A king cobra's bite, and subsequent envenomation, is an immediate medical emergency in humans or domesticated animals, as, if not treated as soon as possible, death can occur in as little as 30 minutes. Local symptoms include dusky discolouration of skin, edema and pain; in severe cases, swelling extends proximally, with necrosis and tissue sloughing that may require amputation. Onset of general symptoms follows while

2000-540: A multigene analysis showed that the king cobra was an early offshoot of a genetic lineage giving rise to the mambas , rather than the Naja cobras. A phylogenetic analysis of mitochondrial DNA showed that specimens from Surat Thani Province and Nakhon Si Thammarat Provinces in southern Thailand form a deeply genetically divergent clade from those in northern Thailand, which grouped with specimens from Myanmar and Guangdong in southern China. The king cobra's skin

2125-525: A person may bleed spontaneously from the mouth, nose, and even old, seemingly healed wounds. Internal organs may bleed, including the brain and intestines, and ecchymosis (bruising) of the skin is often seen. The venom of elapids, including sea snakes , kraits , cobras , king cobra , mambas , and many Australian species, contains toxins which attack the nervous system, causing neurotoxicity . The person may present with strange disturbances to their vision, including blurriness. Paresthesia throughout

2250-470: A person. Snakes may deliver such a " dry bite " rather than waste their venom on a creature too large for them to eat, a behaviour called venom metering . However, the percentage of dry bites varies among species: 80 percent of bites inflicted by sea snakes , which are normally timid, do not result in envenomation, whereas for pit viper bites the number is closer to 25 percent. Furthermore, some snake genera , such as rattlesnakes , can internally regulate

2375-424: A pile and are bitten. Most however occur when people handle rattlesnakes. In South Asia, it was previously believed that Indian cobras , common kraits , Russell's viper , and carpet vipers were the most dangerous; other snakes, however, may also cause significant problems in this area of the world. Since envenomation is completely voluntary, all venomous snakes are capable of biting without injecting venom into

2500-409: A result. Furthermore, the death toll of such an injury could range between 80,000 and 130,000 people per year. The purpose was to encourage research, expand accessibility of antivenoms, and improve snakebite management in " developing countries ". Prevention of snake bites can involve wearing protective footwear, avoiding areas where snakes live, and not handling snakes. Treatment partly depends on

2625-536: A second person bitten, and generally is not recommended. The three types of venomous snakes that cause the majority of major clinical problems are vipers , kraits , and cobras . Knowledge of what species are present locally can be crucial, as is knowledge of typical signs and symptoms of envenomation by each type of snake. A scoring system can be used to try to determine the biting snake based on clinical features, but these scoring systems are extremely specific to particular geographical areas and might be compromised by

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2750-602: A snake is near. Since most venomous snakes move about during the dawn dusk or night, one may expect more encounters during the early morning or late afternoon, though many species such as the Western Diamondback may be encountered at any time of day and in fact most bites occur during the month of April when both snakes and humans are out and about and encounter one another hiking, in yards, or on pathways. Children playing within short distances of their homes crawl under porches, jump into bushes, pull boards of wood from

2875-443: A variety of H. elaps . Naja ingens proposed by Alexander Willem Michiel van Hasselt in 1882 was a king cobra captured near Tebing Tinggi in northern Sumatra. The earliest scientific name for the king cobra was Naja bungaroides , given by Friedrich Boie in 1828 based on a juvenile specimen from Java . This description was improperly done, leaving it a nomen nudum at the time. However, Johann Georg Wagler validated

3000-423: A venomous snake is the presence of two puncture wounds from the animal's fangs . Sometimes venom injection from the bite may occur. This may result in redness, swelling, and severe pain at the area, which may take up to an hour to appear. Vomiting , blurred vision, tingling of the limbs, and sweating may result. Most bites are on the hands, arms, or legs. Fear following a bite is common with symptoms of

3125-522: Is gravid for 50 to 59 days. The king cobra is the only snake that builds a nest using dry leaf litter , starting from late March to late May. Most nests are located at the base of trees, are up to 55 cm (22 in) high in the centre and 140 cm (55 in) wide at the base. They consist of several layers and have mostly one chamber, into which the female lays eggs. Clutch size ranges from 7 to 43 eggs, with 6 to 38 eggs hatching after incubation periods of 66 to 105 days. Temperature inside nests

3250-418: Is olive green with black and white bands on the trunk that converge to the head. The head is covered by 15 drab-coloured and black-edged shields ( large scales consistently present between individuals ). The muzzle is rounded, and the tongue black. It has two fangs and 3–5 maxillary teeth in the upper jaw, and two rows of teeth in the lower jaw. The nostrils are between two shields. The large eyes have

3375-453: Is a limited resource, larger animals are less susceptible to the effects of venom, and various situations require different levels of force. There is a lot of evidence to support the venom metering hypothesis. For example, snakes frequently use more venom during defensive strikes, administer more venom to larger prey, and are capable of dry biting. A dry bite is a bite from a venomous snake that results in very little or no venom expulsion, leaving

3500-588: Is advised not to reach blindly into hollow logs, flip over large rocks, and enter old cabins or other potential snake hiding-places. When rock climbing , it is not safe to grab ledges or crevices without examining them first, as snakes are cold-blooded and often sunbathe atop rock ledges. In the United States, more than 40 percent of people bitten by snakes intentionally put themselves in harm's way by attempting to capture wild snakes or by carelessly handling their dangerous pets—40 percent of that number had

3625-405: Is an apex predator and dominant over all other snakes except large pythons . Its diet consists primarily of other snakes and lizards , including Indian cobra , banded krait , rat snake , pythons , green whip snake , keelback , banded wolf snake and Blyth's reticulated snake . It also hunts Malabar pit viper and hump-nosed pit viper by following their odour trails. In Singapore, one

3750-403: Is an overwhelming fear, which may contribute to other symptoms, and may include nausea and vomiting , diarrhea , vertigo , fainting , tachycardia , and cold, clammy skin. Snake bites can have a variety of different signs and symptoms depending on their species. Dry snakebites and those inflicted by a non-venomous species may still cause severe injury. The bite may become infected from

3875-475: Is being developed. Earlier estimates for snakebite vary from 1.2 to 5.5 million, with 421,000 to 2.5 million being envenomings, and causing 20,000 to 125,000 deaths. More recent modelling estimates that in 2019, about 63,400 people died globally from snakebite, with 51,100 of these deaths happenning in India. Since reporting is not mandatory in much of the world, the data on the frequency of snakebites

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4000-526: Is fusion of the meiotic products formed at the anaphase II stage of meiosis. The venom of hatchlings is as potent as that of the adults. They may be brightly marked, but these colours often fade as they mature. They are alert and nervous, being highly aggressive if disturbed. The average lifespan of a wild king cobra is about 20 years. Venom of the king cobra, produced by the postorbital venom glands , consists primarily of three-finger toxins (3FTx) and snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs). Of all

4125-459: Is hard. Sometimes, you feel useless. But I always felt I would live this long. It was intuitive. I always told people I'd live past 100, and I still feel I will. Is it the venom? I don't know." Haast turned 100 in December 2010 and died on June 15, 2011. Snakebite A snakebite is an injury caused by the bite of a snake, especially a venomous snake . A common sign of a bite from

4250-479: Is known to aggressively defend incubating eggs and attack intruders rapidly. When alarmed, it raises the front part of its body, extends the hood, shows the fangs and hisses loudly. Wild king cobras encountered in Singapore appeared to be placid, but reared up and struck in self defense when cornered. The king cobra can be easily irritated by closely approaching objects or sudden movements. When raising its body,

4375-491: Is made by injecting a small amount of venom into an animal (usually a horse or sheep) to initiate an immune system response. The resulting antibodies are then harvested from the animal's blood. Antivenom is injected into the person intravenously , and works by binding to and neutralizing venom enzymes. It cannot undo damage already caused by venom, so antivenom treatment should be sought as soon as possible. Modern antivenoms are usually polyvalent, making them effective against

4500-505: Is no longer the sole member of its genus but is now a species complex; these differences in pattern and other aspects may cause the genus to be split into at least four species, spread across its large geographic range . It chiefly hunts other snakes , including those of its own kind , although other lizards and rodents are occasional prey items. This is the only ophidian that constructs an above-ground nest for its eggs, which are purposefully and meticulously gathered and protected by

4625-565: Is not limited to non-healing and chronic ulcers, musculoskeletal disorders, amputations, chronic kidney disease, and other neurological and endocrine complications. The treatment of chronic complications of snakebite has not been well researched and there a systems approach consisting of a multi-component intervention. The following treatments, while once recommended, are considered of no use or harmful, including tourniquets, incisions, suction, application of cold, and application of electricity. Cases in which these treatments appear to work may be

4750-478: Is not precise. Many people who survive bites have permanent tissue damage caused by venom, leading to disability. Most snake envenomings and fatalities occur in South Asia , Southeast Asia , and sub-Saharan Africa , with India reporting the most snakebite deaths of any country. Available evidence on the effect of climate change on the epidemiology of snakebite is limited but it is expected that there will be

4875-487: Is not recommended for bites from non-neurotoxic snakes such as those found in North America and other regions of the world. The British military recommends pressure immobilization in all cases where the type of snake is unknown. The object of pressure immobilization is to contain venom within a bitten limb and prevent it from moving through the lymphatic system to the vital organs. This therapy has two components: pressure to prevent lymphatic drainage, and immobilization of

5000-479: Is not steady but varies depending on elevation from 13.5 to 37.4 °C (56.3 to 99.3 °F). Females stay by their nests between two and 77 days. Hatchlings are between 37.5 and 58.5 cm (14.8 and 23.0 in) long and weigh 9 to 38 g (0.32 to 1.34 oz). The king cobra was shown to be capable of facultative parthenogenesis . The parthenogenetic mechanism appears to be a variation of meiosis referred to as terminal fusion automixis in which there

5125-633: Is protected in China and Vietnam. In India, it is placed under Schedule II of Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 . Killing a king cobra is punished with imprisonment of up to six years. In the Philippines , king cobras (locally known as banakon ) are included under the list of threatened species in the country. It is protected under the Wildlife Resources Conservation and Protection Act (Republic Act No. 9147), which criminalises

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5250-408: Is regarded as the national reptile of India . In India, the king cobra is believed to possess exceptional memory; according to a myth, the killer of a king cobra stays in the eyes of the snake as an image, which is later picked up by the snake's partner and used to hunt down the killer for revenge . Because of this myth, whenever a cobra is killed especially in India, the head, if not the entire body,

5375-428: Is snake species and size, larger snakes have been shown to administer larger quantities of venom. Snake bites are classified as either predatory or defensive in nature. During defensive strikes, the rate of venom expulsion and total volume of venom expelled is much greater than during predatory strikes. Defensive strikes can have 10 times as much venom volume expelled at 8.5 times the flow rate. This can be explained by

5500-576: Is the world's longest venomous snake and among the heaviest. Under the genus Ophiophagus , it is not phylogenetically a true cobra despite its common name and some resemblance. Spanning from the Indian Subcontinent through Southeastern Asia to Southern China , the king cobra is widely distributed albeit not commonly seen. Individuals have diversified colouration across its habitats , from black with white strips to unbroken brownish grey, although after taxonomic re-evaluation, it

5625-650: Is unknown, antivenom is often given based on the types known to be in the area. In some areas of the world, getting the right type of antivenom is difficult and this partly contributes to why they sometimes do not work. An additional issue is the cost of these medications. Antivenom has little effect on the area around the bite itself. Supporting the person's breathing is sometimes also required. The number of venomous snakebites that occur each year may be as high as five million. They result in about 2.5 million envenomations and 20,000 to 125,000 deaths. The frequency and severity of bites vary greatly among different parts of

5750-412: Is usually treatable in a hospital setting and hence the benefit outweighs the potential consequences of not using antivenom. Giving adrenaline (epinephrine) to prevent adverse reactions to antivenom before they occur might be reasonable in cases where they occur commonly. Antihistamines do not appear to provide any benefit in preventing adverse reactions. Chronic health effects of snakebite include but

5875-622: The Gaboon viper able to potentially deliver from 450 to 600 milligrams of venom in a single bite, the most of any snake. Opisthoglyphous colubrids have venom ranging from life-threatening (in the case of the boomslang ) to barely noticeable (as in Tantilla ). Snakes are most likely to bite when they feel threatened, are startled, are provoked, or when they have been cornered. Snakes are likely to approach residential areas when attracted by prey, such as rodents . Regular pest control can reduce

6000-532: The Great Andaman chain. It may have reached the furthest west of its distributional range in extreme western India & eastern Pakistan, in the vicinity of Lahore and Palanpur . These populations have sometimes been thought to be the result of introduction by snake charmers or transport along rivers, but are now more likely considered natural populations. However, it remains uncertain if any populations continue to persist there. Like other snakes,

6125-531: The IUCN Red List since 2010. Regarded as the national reptile of India , it has an eminent position in the mythology and folk traditions of India , Bangladesh , Sri Lanka and Myanmar . The king cobra is also referred to by the common name " hamadryad ", especially in older literature. Hamadryas hannah was the scientific name used by Danish naturalist Theodore Edward Cantor in 1836 who described four king cobra specimens , three captured in

6250-517: The Salk polio vaccine was released in 1955. On September 3, 1977, a 6-year-old boy sitting atop the wall surrounding the Serpentarium's alligator and crocodile pit fell into the pit, and a 12-foot crocodile lunged ten feet and grabbed the boy. The boy's father and another man, Nicolas Caulineau, jumped into the pit and straddled the crocodile. Nonetheless, the boy, who was battered and submerged,

6375-475: The Sundarbans and one in the vicinity of Kolkata . The origin of the species name hannah was not specified during description and has long been uncertain, but may potentially refer to Hannah Sarah Wallich, the eldest daughter of Cantor's uncle, botanist Nathaniel Wallich , who hosted Cantor during his studies in India. The genus Ophiophagus was proposed by Günther in 1864 in place of Hamadryas , as

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6500-802: The Terai in India and southern Nepal to the Brahmaputra River basin in Bhutan and northeast India, down to Bangladesh, Myanmar, southern China , Cambodia, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam; to the maritime Southeast Asian countries of Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia and the Philippines. In northern India, it has been recorded in Garhwal and Kumaon , and in the Sivalik hills and terai regions of Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh . In northeast India,

6625-498: The colubrids , has approximately 700 venomous species, but only five genera — boomslangs , twig snakes , keelback snakes , green snakes , and slender snakes —have caused human fatalities. Worldwide, snakebites occur most frequently in the summer season when snakes are active and humans are outdoors. Agricultural and tropical regions report more snakebites than anywhere else. In the United States, those bitten are typically male and between 17 and 27 years of age. Children and

6750-561: The kraits , coral snake , Mojave rattlesnake , and the speckled rattlesnake , may cause little or no pain, despite their serious and potentially life-threatening venom. Some people report experiencing a "rubbery", "minty", or "metallic" taste after being bitten by certain species of rattlesnake. Spitting cobras and rinkhalses can spit venom in a person's eyes. This results in immediate pain, ophthalmoparesis , and sometimes blindness . Some Australian elapids and most viper envenomations will cause coagulopathy , sometimes so severe that

6875-773: The speakeasy he was working at was raided by IRS agents . The couple moved back to New Jersey, where Haast studied aviation mechanics, and was certified after four years. With his certification, he moved to Miami to work for Pan American World Airways . After the United States entered World War II , Haast served as a flight engineer on Pan Am airliners flying under contract to the United States Army Air Corps . These flights took him to South America , Africa and India , where he bought snakes to bring back to America, including his first cobra . In those days there were no laws prohibiting it, but

7000-424: The 3FTx, alpha-neurotoxins are the predominant and most lethal components when cytotoxins and beta-cardiotoxins also exhibit toxicological activities. It is reported that cytotoxicity of its venom varies significantly, depending upon the age and locality of an individual. Clinical cardiotoxicity is not widely observed, nor is nephrotoxicity present among patients bitten by this species, presumably due to

7125-522: The Miami Serpentarium Laboratories. Haast's hands suffered venom-caused tissue damage, culminating in the loss of a finger following a bite from a Malayan pit viper in 2003. As a result of the damage, Haast gave up handling venomous snakes, and no longer kept any at his facility. As of 2008 he continued to have his wife inject him with small amounts of snake venom. In an August 2008 Florida Trend interview, he stated, "Aging

7250-577: The Middle East, it is carpet vipers and elapids . In Latin America , it is snakes of the Bothrops and Crotalus types, the latter including rattlesnakes . In North America, rattlesnakes are the primary concern, and up to 95% of all snakebite-related deaths in the United States are attributed to the western and eastern diamondback rattlesnakes. The greatest number of bites are inflicted on

7375-438: The Serpentarium. During this time Haast met and married his second wife, Clarita Matthews. The Serpentarium opened at the end of 1947, still not completed. For the first five years Bill, Clarita, and his son were the only staff. Bill Jr. eventually left, having lost interest in snakes, but not before he had been bitten four times by venomous snakes. By 1965 the Serpentarium housed more than 500 snakes in 400 cages and three pits in

7500-633: The Sunda king cobra O. bungarus , the Western Ghats king cobra ( O. kaalinga ) and the Luzon king cobra ( O. salvatana ) . These distinct genetic lineages are geographically isolated and adapted to specific ecological regions. In 1838, Cantor proposed the name Hamadryas ophiophagus for the king cobra and explained that it has dental features intermediate between the genera Naja and Bungarus . Naia vittata proposed by Walter Elliot in 1840

7625-474: The Thai Red Cross Society can effectively neutralise venom of the king cobra. In India and Thailand , a concoction (or liquid blend) of turmeric ( Curcuma longa ) and other potent, medically relevant herbs reportedly creates a strong resilience against the venom of the king cobra when ingested. Proper and immediate treatments are critical to avoid death. Successful precedents include

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7750-511: The amount of venom they inject. There is a wide variance in the composition of venoms from one species of venomous snake to another. Some venoms may have their greatest effect on a victim's respiration or circulatory system. Others may damage or destroy tissues. This variance has imparted to the venom of each species a distinct chemistry. Sometimes antivenins have to be developed for individual species. For this reason standard therapeutic measures will not work in all cases. Some dry bites may also be

7875-600: The area. However, this generally only applies to vipers, as some larger and more aggressive snakes in other parts of the world, such as mambas and cobras , will respond more aggressively. If presented with a direct encounter, it is best to remain silent and motionless. If the snake has not yet fled, it is important to step away slowly and cautiously. The use of a flashlight when engaged in camping activities, such as gathering firewood at night, can be helpful. Snakes may also be unusually active during especially warm nights when ambient temperatures exceed 21 °C (70 °F). It

8000-422: The bitten limb to prevent the pumping action of the skeletal muscles . Until the advent of antivenom , bites from some species of snake were almost universally fatal. Despite huge advances in emergency therapy, antivenom is often still the only effective treatment for envenomation. The first antivenom was developed in 1895 by French physician Albert Calmette for the treatment of Indian cobra bites. Antivenom

8125-411: The blood. These clotting factors normally work as part of the coagulation cascade in the blood to form blood clots and prevent hemorrhage. Toxins in snake venom (especially the venom of new world pit vipers (the family crotalina )) may also cause low platelets ( thrombocytopenia ) or altered platelet function also leading to bleeding. Snake venom is known to cause neuromuscular paralysis, usually as

8250-403: The body, a condition known as rhabdomyolysis . Rhabdomyolysis can result in damage to the kidneys as a result of myoglobin accumulation in the renal tubules. This, coupled with hypotension , can lead to acute kidney injury , and, if left untreated, eventually death. Snakebite is also known to cause depression and post-traumatic stress disorder in a high proportion of people who survive. In

8375-411: The body, as well as difficulty in speaking and breathing, may be reported. Nervous system problems will cause a huge array of symptoms, and those provided here are not exhaustive. If not treated immediately they may die from respiratory failure . Venom emitted from some types of cobras, almost all vipers and some sea snakes causes necrosis of muscle tissue. Muscle tissue will begin to die throughout

8500-407: The boy's father did not blame Haast for his son's death, Haast told reporters he wanted nothing else to do with the Serpentarium and, in any event, would never again house crocodiles there. The incident did not end Haast's interest in venom research. Haast closed the Serpentarium in 1984, and moved to Utah for a few years. In 1990 he moved to Punta Gorda, Florida, with his snakes, where he established

8625-414: The camp's first aid tent, by which time his arm was swollen. He was rushed to see a doctor, but quickly recovered without further treatment. His next bite, later the same year, came from a four-foot copperhead . He was carrying a snake-bite kit, and had a friend inject him with antivenom ; the bite hospitalized him for a week. Haast started collecting snakes and, after initial opposition from his mother,

8750-470: The cells of the pre-synaptic neurons are much more difficult to reverse using anti-venom as they are inaccessible to the anti-venom when they are intracellular. The strength of venom differs markedly between species and even more so between families, as measured by median lethal dose (LD 50 ) in mice. Subcutaneous LD 50 varies by over 140-fold within elapids and by more than 100-fold in vipers. The amount of venom produced also differs among species, with

8875-448: The courtyard. Haast extracted venom 70 to 100 times a day from some 60 species of venomous snakes, usually in front of an audience of paying customers. He would free the snakes on a table in front of him, then catch the snakes bare-handed, and force them to eject their venom into glass vials with a rubber membrane stretched across the top. Soon after opening the Serpentarium, Haast began experimenting with building up an acquired immunity to

9000-405: The crew members didn't appreciate it. In 1946 Haast decided he had enough money saved to start his snake farm. He bought a plot of land facing U.S. 1 , south of Miami, then sold his house and started construction on the Serpentarium. His wife Ann did not approve, and they eventually divorced. Haast retained custody of their son, Bill Jr. and continued to work as a mechanic for Pan Am while he built

9125-466: The developing world most snakebites occur in those who work outside such as farmers, hunters, and fishermen. They often happen when a person steps on the snake or approaches it too closely. In the United States and Europe snakebites most commonly occur in those who keep them as pets. The type of snake that most often delivers serious bites depends on the region of the world. In Africa, it is mambas , Egyptian cobras , puff adders , and carpet vipers . In

9250-420: The elderly are the most likely to die. When venomous snakes bite a target, they secrete venom through their venom delivery system. The venom delivery system generally consists of two venom glands, a compressor muscle, venom ducts, a fang sheath, and fangs . The primary and accessory venom glands store the venom quantities required during envenomation . The compressor muscle contracts during bites to increase

9375-451: The evidence base from majority of treatment modalities is low quality. An analysis of World Health Organization guidelines found that they are of low quality, with inadequate stakeholder involvement and poor methodological rigour. In addition, access to effective treatment modalities is a major challenge in some regions, particularly in most African countries. Identification of the snake is important in planning treatment in certain areas of

9500-424: The extracellular matrix (releasing inflammatory mediators) and cause microvascular damage, leading to hemorrhage, skeletal muscle damage (necrosis), blistering and further dermonecrosis. The metalloproteinase release of the inflammatory mediators leads to pain, swelling and white blood cell ( leukocyte ) infiltration. The lymphatic system may be damaged by the various enzymes contained in the venom leading to edema; or

9625-680: The female throughout the incubation period. Typical threat display of this elapid includes neck-flap spreading, head raising, hissing and sometimes charging. Capable of striking at a considerable range and height with an immense venom yield, envenomation from this species may induce rapid onset of neurotoxic and cytotoxic symptoms, requiring prompt antivenom administration. Despite the fearsome reputation, aggression toward humans usually only arises from an individual inadvertently exposing itself or being cornered; encounters happen through chance, including negative interactions . Threatened by habitat destruction , it has been listed as Vulnerable on

9750-399: The genus Hamadryas was already used for the cracker butterflies . The name is derived from its propensity to eat snakes. Ophiophagus hannah was accepted as the valid name for the king cobra by Charles Mitchill Bogert in 1945 who argued that it differs significantly from Naja species. It has been suggested that three more king cobra species exist in addition to O. hannah , namely

9875-413: The hands. People get bitten by handling snakes or in the outdoors by putting their hands on the wrong places. The next largest number of bites occur on the ankles, as snakes are often hidden or camouflaged extremely well to fend off predators. Most bite victims are bitten by surprise, and it is a comfortable fiction that rattlesnakes always forewarn their bite victims - often the bite is the first indication

10000-544: The head. Adult king cobras are 3.18 to 4 m (10.4 to 13.1 ft) long. The longest known individual measured 5.85 m (19.2 ft). Ventral scales are uniformly oval shaped. Dorsal scales are placed in an oblique arrangement. The king cobra is sexually dimorphic , with males being larger and paler in particular during the breeding season. Males captured in Kerala measured up to 3.75 m (12.3 ft) and weighed up to 10 kg (22 lb). Females captured had

10125-414: The highly efficient envenoming machines - like the rattlesnakes - with large capacity venom storage, hollow fangs that swing into position immediately before the snake bites, and spare fangs ready to replace those damaged or lost. Other research on Toxicofera , a hypothetical clade thought to be ancestral to most living reptiles, suggests an earlier time frame for the evolution of snake venom, possibly to

10250-454: The killing, trade, and consumption of threatened species with certain exceptions (like indigenous subsistence hunting or immediate threats to human life), with a maximum penalty of two years imprisonment and a fine of ₱ 20,000. The king cobra has an eminent position in the mythology and folklore of India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Myanmar. A ritual in Myanmar involves a king cobra and

10375-450: The king cobra and improperly assigned to the broad-headed snake, became conflated with the broad-headed snake and used as the type species of Hoplocephalus , while the species name Naja bungarus was treated as a junior synonym of the king cobra (until its revival as the species name for the Sunda king cobra in 2024). This longstanding discrepancy, which breaks the principle of priority ,

10500-420: The king cobra can still move forward to strike with a long distance, and people may misjudge the safe zone. It can deliver multiple bites in a single attack. The hiss of the king cobra is a much lower pitch than many other snakes and many people thus liken its call to a "growl" rather than a hiss. While the hisses of most snakes are of a broad- frequency span ranging from roughly 3,000 to 13,000  Hz with

10625-640: The king cobra has been recorded in northern West Bengal , Sikkim , Assam , Meghalaya , Arunachal Pradesh , Nagaland , Manipur and Mizoram . In the Eastern Ghats , it occurs from Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh to coastal Odisha , and also in Bihar and southern West Bengal , especially the Sundarbans . In the Western Ghats, it was recorded in Kerala , Karnataka and Maharashtra , and also in Gujarat . It also occurs on Baratang Island in

10750-442: The king cobra's venom, they only induce species-sensitive haemorrhagic and lethal activities on rabbits and hares, but with minimal effects on mice. Clinical pathophysiology of the king cobra's SVMPs has yet to be well studied, although its substantial quantity suggests involvement in tissue damage and necrosis as a result of inflammatory and proteolytic activities, which are instrumental for foraging and digestive purposes. Ohanin,

10875-528: The local tissue sometimes becoming tender and severely swollen within five minutes. This area may also bleed and blister, and may lead to tissue necrosis . Other common initial symptoms of pit viper and viper bites include lethargy, bleeding, weakness, nausea, and vomiting. Symptoms may become more life-threatening over time, developing into hypotension , tachypnea , severe tachycardia, severe internal bleeding, altered sensorium , kidney failure , and respiratory failure . Bites by some snakes, such as

11000-512: The low abundance of the toxins. SVMPs are the second most protein family isolated from the king cobra's venom, accounting from 11.9% to 24.4% of total venom proteins. The abundance is much higher than that of most cobras which is usually less than 1%. This protein family includes principal toxins responsible for vasculature damage and interference with haemostasis , contributing to bleeding and coagulopathy caused by envenomation of vipers . While there are such haemorrhagins isolated from

11125-564: The lymphatic system may also allow the venom to be carried systemically. Snake venom may cause muscle damage or myotoxicity via the enzyme phospholipase A2 which disrupts the plasma membrane of muscle cells. This damage to muscle cells may cause rhabdomyolysis , respiratory muscle compromise, or both. Other enzymes such as bradykinin potentiating peptides, natriuretic peptides, vascular endothelial growth factors , proteases can also cause hypotension or low blood pressure. Toxins in snake venom can also cause kidney damage (nephrotoxicity) via

11250-444: The mass of the prey animal. Larger venom volumes allow snakes to effectively euthanize larger prey while remaining economical during strikes against smaller prey. This is an important skill as venom is a metabolically expensive resource. Venom metering is the ability of a snake to have neurological control over the amount of venom released into a target during a strike based on situational cues. This ability would prove useful as venom

11375-466: The metal chelator dimercaprol has recently been shown to potently antagonize the activity of Zn -dependent snake venom metalloproteinases in vitro . New monoclonal antibodies , polymer gels and a small molecule inhibitor called Varespladib are in development. A core outcome set (minimal list of consensus outcomes that should be used in future intervention research) for snakebite in South Asia

11500-492: The name in 1830 with a sufficient diagnosis, and also proposed a new genus for it, Hoplocephalus . In 1837, Hermann Schlegel used the name Naja bungaroides for his description of the Australian broad-headed snake , which was later reclassified into Wagler's Hoplocephalus , and used the species name Naja bungarus for the king cobra. Since then, the species name Naja / Hoplocephalus bungaroides , originally coined for

11625-402: The needle-sharp recurved teeth embedded in the person. While not as life-threatening as a bite from a venomous species, the bite can be at least temporarily debilitating and could lead to dangerous infections if improperly dealt with. While most snakes must open their mouths before biting, African and Middle Eastern snakes belonging to the family Atractaspididae are able to fold their fangs to

11750-473: The order of tens of millions of years, during the Late Cretaceous . Snake venom is produced in modified parotid glands normally responsible for secreting saliva. It is stored in structures called alveoli behind the animal's eyes, and ejected voluntarily through its hollow tubular fangs . Venom in many snakes, such as pit vipers, affects virtually every organ system in the human body and can be

11875-441: The presence of escaped or released non-native species. Snakebite first aid recommendations vary, in part because different snakes have different types of venom. Some have little local effect, but life-threatening systemic effects, in which case containing the venom in the region of the bite by pressure immobilization is desirable. Other venoms instigate localized tissue damage around the bitten area, and immobilization may increase

12000-409: The pressure throughout the venom delivery system. The pressurized venom travels through the primary venom duct to the secondary venom duct that leads down through the fang sheath and fang. The venom is then expelled through the exit orifice of the fang. The total volume and flow rate of venom administered into a target varies widely, sometimes as much as an order of magnitude. One of the largest factors

12125-526: The result of dry bites . In extreme cases, in remote areas, all of these misguided attempts at treatment have resulted in injuries far worse than an otherwise mild to moderate snakebite. In worst-case scenarios, thoroughly constricting tourniquets have been applied to bitten limbs, completely shutting off blood flow to the area. By the time the person finally reached appropriate medical facilities their limbs had to be amputated . Several new drugs and treatments are under development for snakebite. For instance,

12250-460: The result of imprecise timing on the snake's part, as venom may be prematurely released before the fangs have penetrated the person. Even without venom, some snakes, particularly large constrictors such as those belonging to the Boidae and Pythonidae families, can deliver damaging bites; large specimens often cause severe lacerations , or the snake itself pulls away, causing the flesh to be torn by

12375-577: The same inflammatory cytokines. The toxins cause direct damage to the glomeruli in the kidneys as well as causing protein deposits in Bowman's capsule . Or the kidneys may be indirectly damaged by envenomation due to shock, clearance of toxic substances such as immune complexes, blood degradation products or products of muscle breakdown (rhabdomyolysis). In venom-induced consumption coagulopathy , toxins in snake venom promote hemorrhage via activation, consumption and subsequent depletion of clotting factors in

12500-530: The severity of the damage in this area, but also reduce the total area affected; whether this trade-off is desirable remains a point of controversy. Because snakes vary from one country to another, first aid methods also vary. Many organizations, including the American Medical Association and American Red Cross , recommend washing the bite with soap and water. Australian recommendations for snake bite treatment recommend against cleaning

12625-473: The side of their head without opening their mouth and jab a person. It has been suggested that snakes evolved the mechanisms necessary for venom formation and delivery sometime during the Miocene epoch. During the mid- Tertiary , most snakes were large ambush predators belonging to the superfamily Henophidia , which use constriction to kill their prey. As open grasslands replaced forested areas in parts of

12750-453: The snake's need to quickly subdue a threat. While employing similar venom expulsion mechanics, predatory strikes are quite different from defensive strikes. Snakes usually release the prey shortly after the envenomation allowing the prey to run away and die. Releasing prey prevents retaliatory damage to the snake. The venom scent allows the snake to relocate the prey once it is deceased. The amount of venom injected has been shown to increase with

12875-440: The snake's saliva. The fangs sometimes harbor pathogenic microbial organisms, including Clostridium tetani , and may require an updated tetanus immunization. Most snakebites, from either a venomous or a non-venomous snake, will have some type of local effect. Minor pain and redness occur in over 90 percent of cases, although this varies depending on the site. Bites by vipers and some cobras may be extremely painful, with

13000-424: The target asymptomatic. However, there is debate among many academics about venom metering in snakes. The alternative to venom metering is the pressure balance hypothesis. King Cobra Genus-level: The king cobra ( Ophiophagus hannah ) is a species complex of snakes endemic to Asia . With an average of 3.18 to 4 m (10.4 to 13.1 ft) and a record length of 5.85 m (19.2 ft), it

13125-567: The threat of snakes considerably. It is beneficial to know the species of snake that are common in local areas, or while travelling or hiking. Africa , Australia , the Neotropics , and South Asia in particular are populated by many dangerous species of snake. Being aware of—and ultimately avoiding—areas known to be heavily populated by dangerous snakes is strongly recommended. When in the wilderness, treading heavily creates ground vibrations and noise, which will often cause snakes to flee from

13250-500: The type of snake that caused a bite is often not possible. The World Health Organization says snakebites are a "neglected public health issue in many tropical and subtropical countries", and in 2017, the WHO categorized snakebite envenomation as a Neglected Tropical Disease (Category A). The WHO also estimates that between 4.5 and 5.4 million people are bitten each year, and of those figures 40–50% develop some kind of clinical illness as

13375-405: The type of snake, the size, physical condition, and temperature of the snake, the age and physical condition of the person, the area and tissue bitten (e.g., foot, torso, vein or muscle), the amount of venom injected, the time it takes for the person to find treatment, and finally the quality of that treatment. An overview of systematic reviews on different aspects of snakebite management found that

13500-412: The type of snake. Washing the wound with soap and water and holding the limb still is recommended. Trying to suck out the venom, cutting the wound with a knife, or using a tourniquet is not recommended. Antivenom is effective at preventing death from bites; however, antivenoms frequently have side effects . The type of antivenom needed depends on the type of snake involved. When the type of snake

13625-405: The venom eventually did affect him, and he was taken to a hospital where it took him several days to recover. A krait anti-venom was shipped from India, but when it arrived after a 48-hour flight, he refused to accept it. He received his first cobra bite less than a year after he started his immunization program. During the 1950s, he was bitten by cobras about twenty times. His first king cobra bite

13750-416: The venom injected, a bite from a dead snake can often contain large amounts of venom. It may be difficult to determine if a bite by any species of snake is life-threatening. A bite by a North American copperhead on the ankle is usually a moderate injury to a healthy adult, but a bite to a child's abdomen or face by the same snake may be fatal. The outcome of all snakebites depends on a multitude of factors:

13875-534: The venom is targeting the victim's central nervous system , resulting in blurred vision, vertigo , drowsiness , and eventual paralysis . If not treated promptly, it may progress to cardiovascular collapse and, subsequently, coma . Death soon follows due to respiratory failure , among other simultaneous and varied system and organ failures. Polyvalent antivenom of equine origin is produced by Haffkine Institute and King Institute of Preventive Medicine and Research in India. A polyvalent antivenom produced by

14000-401: The venom of King , Indian and Cape cobras by injecting himself with gradually increasing quantities of venom he had extracted from his snakes, a practice called mithridatism . In 1954 Haast was bitten by a common, or blue, krait . At first he believed his immunization to cobra venom would protect him from the krait venom, and continued with his regular activities for several hours. However,

14125-582: The venom of numerous snake species. Pharmaceutical companies which produce antivenom target their products against the species native to a particular area. The availability of antivenom is a major concern in some areas, including most of Africa, due to economic reasons (antivenom crisis). In Sub-Saharan Africa, the efficacy of antivenom is often poorly characterised and some of the few available products have even been found to lack effectiveness. Although some people may develop serious adverse reactions to antivenom, such as anaphylaxis , in emergency situations this

14250-445: The world, but is not always possible. Ideally the dead snake would be brought in with the person, but in areas where snake bite is more common, local knowledge may be sufficient to recognize the snake. However, in regions where polyvalent antivenoms are available, such as North America, identification of snake is not a high priority item. Attempting to catch or kill the offending snake also puts one at risk for re-envenomation or creating

14375-543: The world, some snake families evolved to become smaller and thus more agile. However, subduing and killing prey became more difficult for the smaller snakes, leading to the evolution of snake venom. The most likely hypothesis holds that venom glands evolved from specialized salivary glands. The venom itself evolved through the process of natural selection; it retained and emphasized the qualities that made it useful in killing or subduing prey. Today we can find various snake species in stages of this hypothesized development. There are

14500-568: The world. They occur most commonly in Africa , Asia , and Latin America , with rural areas more greatly affected. Deaths are relatively rare in Australia , Europe and North America . For example, in the United States, about seven to eight thousand people per year are bitten by venomous snakes (about one in 40 thousand people) and about five people die (about one death per 65 million people). The most common first symptom of all snakebites

14625-527: The wound. Traces of venom left on the skin/bandages from the strike can be used in combination with a snake bite identification kit to identify the species of snake. This speeds determination of which antivenom to administer in the emergency room. As of 2008, clinical evidence for pressure immobilization via the use of an elastic bandage is limited. It is recommended for snakebites that have occurred in Australia (due to elapids which are neurotoxic). It

14750-523: Was a goal to be attained or admired. Haast was born in Paterson, New Jersey , in 1910. He became interested in snakes while at a Boy Scout summer camp when he was 11 years old. He was bitten for the first time at summer camp a year later, when he tried to capture a small timber rattlesnake . He applied the standard snake-bite treatment of the time (making crossed cuts over the fang marks and applying potassium permanganate ) and then walked four miles to

14875-428: Was a king cobra caught offshore near Chennai that was floating in a basket. This provenance is disputed, as wild king cobras have never occurred near Chennai, and an analysis of this specimen has found it to be more similar to the northern king cobra. Hamadryas elaps proposed by Albert Günther in 1858 were king cobra specimens from the Philippines and Borneo . Günther considered both N. bungarus and N. vittata

15000-446: Was allowed to keep them at home. He soon learned how to handle the snakes and found one timber rattler so easy to handle that he posed for a photograph with the snake lying across his lap. He started extracting venom from his snakes when he was 15 years old, and dropped out of school when he was 16 years old. When he was 19 he joined a man who had a roadside snake exhibit, and went with him to Florida. While there, he ended up rooming with

15125-509: Was in 1962. Haast was also bitten by a green mamba . Many times Haast donated his blood to be used in treating snake-bite victims when a suitable anti-venom was not available. More than twenty of those individuals recovered. In 1949, he began supplying venom to a medical researcher at the University of Miami for experiments in the treatment of polio. The experiments gave encouraging results, but were still in preliminary clinical trials when

15250-402: Was killed. The incident left Bill Haast badly shaken. Haast shot the crocodile, which weighed 1,800 pounds (820 kg), nine times with a Luger pistol, yet it was still an hour before it died. Before this, the crocodile had lived for 20 years in the pit without incident. Haast's mental trauma over the boy's death eventually led to the closure of the Serpentarium on South Dixie Highway . Although

15375-447: Was observed swallowing a clouded monitor . When food is scarce, it also feeds on other small vertebrates, such as birds, and lizards. In some cases, the cobra constricts its prey using its muscular body, though this is uncommon. After a large meal, it may go for many months without another one because of its slow metabolic rate . The king cobra is not considered aggressive. It usually avoids humans and slinks off when disturbed, but

15500-471: Was obtained through milking. In Southeast Asia, the king cobra is threatened foremost by habitat destruction owing to deforestation and expansion of agricultural land. It is also threatened by wildlife smuggling , as well as by poaching , then sold as bushmeat or turned into snake leather, and for use in traditional Chinese medicine . The king cobra is listed in CITES Appendix II . It

15625-459: Was overlooked for nearly two centuries and only discovered in 2024. Due to the long presence of the names Ophiophagus hannah and Hoplocephalus bungaroides in the literature, which would be upended if these two species were reclassified based on this issue, it was decided to maintain the longstanding scientific names for both taxa and designate a new, accurate type specimen for the broad-headed snake. A genetic analysis using cytochrome b , and

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