Michael Pacher ( c. 1435 – 1498) was a painter and sculptor from Tyrol active during the second half of the fifteenth century. He was one of the earliest artists to introduce the principles of Renaissance painting into Germany. Pacher was a comprehensive artist with a broad range of sculpting, painting, and architecture skills producing works of complex wood and stone. He painted structures for altarpieces on a scale unparalleled in North European art.
138-649: Pacher's masterpiece, the St. Wolfgang Altarpiece (1471–1481), is considered one of the most remarkable carved and painted altar shrines in all of European art. It contains scenes from the life of Jesus and the Virgin Mary . Pacher's other great work, the Altarpiece of the Church Fathers , created in 1483 for Neustift Monastery, combined painting and sculpture to produce a unique art form. Pacher's influence
276-434: A Communion Table adorned with a linen cloth, as well as an open Bible and a pair of candlesticks; it is not referred to as an altar because they do not see Holy Communion as sacrificial in any way. Such a table may be temporary: Moved into place only when there is a Communion Service. Some nondenominational churches have no altar or communion table, even if they retain the practice of the " altar call " that originated in
414-538: A baldachin . In Ethiopian Orthodox Church tradition an icon is placed upon but towards the rear of the altar. It is away from the wall as in the Coptic tradition. In the West Syriac Tradition, churches have altars in the eastern part of the sanctuary. Altars of East Syriac Rite are similar in appearance to Armenian altars only they are not placed on a stage. Altars are often heavily decorated in
552-587: A crucifix or some other image of Christ. When a stone altar was placed in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, Cambridge after rebuilding works in 1841, a case was brought in the Court of Arches which resulted in an order to remove it and replace it with a wooden communion table. In Anglican practice, conformity to a given standard depends on the ecclesiastical province and/or the liturgical sensibilities of
690-604: A crucifix , when required, can be either on the altar or near it, and it is desirable that the crucifix remain even outside of liturgical celebrations. A wide variety of altars exist in various Protestant denominations. Some Churches, such as the Lutheran , have altars very similar to Anglican or Catholic ones keeping with their more sacramental understanding of the Lord's Supper . Calvinist churches from Reformed, Baptist, Congregational, and Non-denominational backgrounds instead have
828-528: A liturgical color that may change with the ecclesiastical season . This outer covering usually comes all the way to the floor and represents the glory of God's Throne . In many churches it is the custom for a dust cover to be placed on the Holy Table between services. This is often a simple red cloth, though it may be made of richer stuff. Sometimes it covers only the Gospel Book or the front half of
966-670: A sinner's prayer , which, in evangelical understanding, if truly heart-felt indicates that they are now "saved". They may also be offered religious literature, counselling or other assistance. Many times it is said that those who come forth are going to " be saved ". This is a ritual in which the supplicant makes a prayer of penitence (asking for his sins to be forgiven) and faith (called in evangelical Christianity "accepting Jesus Christ as their personal Lord and Saviour"). Altars in Lutheran churches are often similar to those in Roman Catholic and Anglican churches. Lutherans believe that
1104-504: A Roman aristocrat and a governor, it is clear that Ambrose retained the attitudes and practices of Roman governance even after becoming a bishop. His acts and writings show he was quite clear about the limits of imperial power over the church's internal affairs including doctrine, moral teaching, and governance. He wrote to Valentinian: "In matters of faith bishops are the judges of Christian emperors, not emperors of bishops." ( Epistle 21.4). He also famously said to an Arian bishop chosen by
1242-465: A bit from place to place at this time, and as the bishop, Ambrose could have required that everyone adapt to his way of doing things. It was his place to keep the churches as united as possible in both ritual and belief. Instead, he respected local customs, adapting himself to whatever practices prevailed, instructing his mother to do the same. As bishop, Ambrose undertook many different labours in an effort to unite people and "provide some stability during
1380-547: A brief extract from one of the three emperors ruling in 339, Constantine II , Constantius II , or Constans , in the Codex Theodosianus , book XI.5). What does seem certain is that Ambrose was born in Trier and his father was either the praetorian prefect or part of his administration. A legend about Ambrose as an infant recounts that a swarm of bees settled on his face while he lay in his cradle, leaving behind
1518-530: A child scooping up the water with a spoon. When Augustine asked the child what he was doing, the child replied by saying that his own activity was as pointless as Augustine's attempts to understand the concept of the Holy Trinity with his rational mind. To Augustine's right is Pope Gregory I, depicted with Emperor Trajan , for whom Gregory I is known to have prayed to restore dead Trajan's soul and baptized his soul in order to deliver him from purgatory . On
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#17327725366301656-597: A church may be referred to as either the Holy Table (Greek Ἁγία Τράπεζα ) or the Throne ( chu Prestól ). For both Eastern Orthodox and Byzantine Eastern Catholics, the Holy Table (altar) is normally free-standing, although in very small sanctuaries it might be placed flush against the back wall for reasons of space. They are typically about one meter high, and although they may be made of stone they are generally built out of wood. The exact dimensions may vary, but it
1794-578: A drop of honey. His father is said to have considered this a sign of his future eloquence and honeyed tongue. Bees and beehives often appear in the saint's symbology . Ambrose's mother was a woman of intellect and piety. It was probable that she was a member of the Roman family Aurelii Symmachi , which would make Ambrose a cousin of the orator Quintus Aurelius Symmachus . The family had produced one martyr (the virgin Soteris ) in its history. Ambrose
1932-543: A given parish. In the Parson's Handbook , an influential manual for priests popular in the early-to-mid-twentieth century, Percy Dearmer recommends that "All altars should be 3 ft. 3 in. high, and at least deep enough to take a corporal [the square of linen placed underneath the Communion vessels] 20 in. square, with an inch or two to spare." He also recommends that the altar stand upon three steps for each of
2070-516: A high altar in the main body of the church, with one or more adjoining chapels, each with its own altar, at which the Eucharist may be celebrated on weekdays. Architecturally, there are two types of altars: Those that are attached to the eastern wall of the chancel, and those that are free-standing and can be walked around, for instance when incensing the altar. In the earliest days of the Church,
2208-399: A large number of books and letters of theology and spiritual commentary dedicated to the emperor. The sheer volume of these writings and the effusive praise they contain has led many historians to conclude that Gratian was dominated by Ambrose, and it was that dominance that produced Gratian's anti-pagan actions. McLynn asserts that effusive praises were common in everyone's correspondence with
2346-461: A martyr and create a scandal embarrassing the emperor. Ambrose, referring to a prior incident where Magnus Maximus issued an edict censuring Christians in Rome for burning down a Jewish synagogue, warned Theodosius that the people, in turn, exclaimed "the emperor has become a Jew", implying that Theodosius would receive the same lack of support from the people. Theodosius rescinded the order concerning
2484-472: A pagan senator sentenced to die. After years of acquaintance, this indicates that Ambrose could not take for granted that Gratian would see him, so instead, Ambrose had to resort to such manoeuvrings to make his appeal. Gratian was personally devout long before meeting Ambrose. Modern scholarship indicates Gratian's religious policies do not evidence capitulation to Ambrose more than they evidence Gratian's own views. Gratian's devotion did lead Ambrose to write
2622-408: A period of religious, political, military, and social upheavals and transformations". Brown says Ambrose "had the makings of a faction fighter". While he got along well with most people, Ambrose was not averse to conflict and even opposed emperors with a fearlessness born of self-confidence and a clear conscience and not from any belief he would not suffer for his decisions. Having begun his life as
2760-498: A personal friendship, putting Ambrose in the dominant role of spiritual guide, but modern scholars now find this view hard to support from the sources. The ancient Christian historian Sozomen ( c. 400 – c. 450 ) is the only ancient source that shows Ambrose and Gratian together in any personal interaction. In that interaction, Sozomen relates that, in the last year of Gratian's reign, Ambrose intruded on Gratian's private hunting party in order to appeal on behalf of
2898-589: A platform where the altar stands below, and painted scenes on panel wings. Pacher spent much of his time during the 1470s in Neustift by Brixen , where his work mainly consisted of painting frescoes. In 1484 he was commissioned by the Franciscan Order in Salzburg , to create an altarpiece, portions of which are still extant. Many of Pacher's works have been destroyed or badly damaged, some of them during
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#17327725366303036-476: A priest could take one with him and place it on an ordinary table for saying Mass. They were also inserted into the centre of structural altars especially those made of wood. In that case, it was the altar stone that was considered liturgically to be the altar. The Pontificale Romanum contained a rite for blessing at the same time several of these altar stones. In the East the antimension served and continues to serve
3174-486: A private bedroom, closet, or other space usually occupied by one person. They are used for practices of piety intended for one person (often referred to as a "private devotion"). They are also found in a minority of Protestant worship places; in Reformed and Anabaptist churches, a table, often called a "Communion table", serves an analogous function. The area around the altar is seen as endowed with greater holiness, and
3312-489: A representation of actual history. The view of a pious Theodosius submitting meekly to the authority of the church, represented by Ambrose, is part of the myth that evolved within a generation of their deaths. In April 393 Arbogast ( magister militum of the West) and his puppet Emperor Eugenius marched into Italy to consolidate their position against Theodosius I and his son, Honorius , now appointed Augustus to govern
3450-407: A rule be separate from the wall so as to make it easy to walk around it and to celebrate Mass at it facing the people. It should be positioned so as to be the natural centre of attention of the whole congregation. The altar should be covered by at least one white cloth, and nothing else should be placed upon the altar table other than what is required for the liturgical celebration. Candlesticks and
3588-468: A sense of the sanctity of the altar and its surrounding area persists. In most cases, moreover, the practice of allowing only those items that have been blessed to be placed on the altar is maintained (that is, the linen cloth, candles, missal , and the Eucharistic vessels). In Greek the word βωμός ( bômós ) can mean an altar of any religion or, in a broader sense, the area surrounding it; that
3726-421: A solid front, which may or may not be ornamented. In many Anglican parishes, the use of frontals has persisted. When altars are placed away from the wall of the chancel allowing a westward orientation, only two candles are placed on either end of it, since six would obscure the liturgical action, undermining the intent of a westward orientation (i.e., that it be visible to the congregation). In such an arrangement,
3864-405: A substantial collection of writings, of which the best known include the ethical commentary De officiis ministrorum (377–391), and the exegetical Exameron [ it ] (386–390). His preaching, his actions and his literary works, in addition to his innovative musical hymnography, made him one of the most influential ecclesiastical figures of the 4th century. Ambrose was serving as
4002-588: A tabernacle may stand to one side of or behind the altar, or an aumbry may be used. Sensibilities concerning the sanctity of the altar are widespread in Anglicanism. In some parishes, the notion that the surface of the altar should only be touched by those in holy orders is maintained. In others, there is considerably less strictness about the communion table. Nonetheless, the continued popularity of communion rails in Anglican church construction suggests that
4140-525: A theological and a practical level, and Ambrose exercised crucial influence at a crucial time. Ambrose had good relations and varying levels of influence with the Roman emperors Gratian , Valentinian II and Theodosius I , but exactly how much influence, what kind of influence, and in what ways, when, has been debated in the scholarship of the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. It has long been convention to see Gratian and Ambrose as having
4278-403: A visit to Milan. The bishop made a good impression on Gratian and his court, which was pervasively Christian and aristocratic – much like Ambrose himself. The emperor returned to Milan in 380 to find that Ambrose had complied with his request for a statement of his faith – in two volumes – known as De Fide : a statement of orthodoxy and of Ambrose' political theology, as well as a polemic against
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4416-605: A wall or touching it, altars were often surmounted by a reredos or altarpiece . If free-standing, they could be placed, as also in Eastern Christianity, within a ciborium (sometimes called a baldachin ). The rules regarding the present-day form of the Roman Rite liturgy declare a free-standing main altar to be "desirable wherever possible". Similarly, in the Anglican Communion, the rubrics of
4554-690: Is remembered in the calendar of the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church on 7 December, and is also honoured in the Church of England and in the Episcopal Church on 7 December. In 1960, Neil B. McLynn wrote a complex study of Ambrose that focused on his politics and was intended to "demonstrate that Ambrose viewed community as a means to acquire personal political power". Subsequent studies of how Ambrose handled his episcopal responsibilities, his Nicene theology and his dealings with
4692-420: Is a polyptych, or Wandelaltar, where a painting is divided into four or more segments or panels. There are two pairs of movable wings, and three different displays for use on different occasions: an everyday display, a Sunday display, and a display for special holy days. Commissioned for Abbot Benedict Eck of Mondsee in 1471 and completed in 1481, the giant polyptych has two sets of wings that can be closed across
4830-411: Is considered to be the " baptismal garment " of the altar. The linen covering symbolizes the winding sheet in which the body of Christ was wrapped when he was laid in the tomb . Since the altar is never seen uncovered thereafter, the table tends to be constructed more with sturdiness than aesthetics in mind. Above this first cover is a second ornamented altar cloth ( Indítia ), often in a brocade of
4968-575: Is difficult "not to posit a deep spirituality in a man" who wrote on the mystical meanings of the Song of Songs and wrote many extraordinary hymns. Despite an abiding spirituality, Ambrose had a generally straightforward manner, and a practical rather than a speculative tendency in his thinking. De Officiis is a utilitarian guide for his clergy in their daily ministry in the Milanese church rather than "an intellectual tour de force ". Christian faith in
5106-403: Is generally square in plan and in reasonable proportion to the size of the sanctuary. It has five legs: one at each corner plus a central pillar for supporting the relics which are placed in it at its consecration . A plain linen covering (Greek: Katasarkion , Slavonic: Strachítsa ) is bound to the Holy Table with cords; this cover is never removed after the altar is consecrated, and
5244-563: Is no use of the specific word altar ; the item in question is called the Lord's Table or Holy Table . This remains the official terminology, though common usage may call the communion table an altar. At the time of the Reformation, altars were fixed against the east end of the church, and the priests would celebrate the Mass standing at the front of the altar. Beginning with the rubrics of
5382-528: Is offered as the "table of the Lord" ( trapeza Kyriou ) mentioned by Saint Paul . The rules indicated here are those of the Latin Church . The Latin Church distinguishes between fixed altars (those attached to the floor) and movable altars (those that can be displaced), and states: "It is desirable that in every church there be a fixed altar, since this more clearly and permanently signifies Christ Jesus,
5520-609: Is overshadowed by an elaborate wooden structure that is placed on top, enclosing the Crucifixion. In the centerpiece, Christ is sitting on a throne sincerely blessing Mary, whom he has crowned as the Queen of Heaven. In keeping with the traditions of German Gothic art , angels are fluttering around while John the Evangelist looks on. The inner faces of the second panels, on both sides of the carved body, are painted with scenes from
5658-407: Is to say, the entire sanctuary . In an Eastern Orthodox or a Byzantine Rite Eastern Catholic church this sanctuary includes both the area behind the iconostasis , and the soleas (the elevated projection in front of the iconostasis), and the ambo . It is also called the βῆμα ( bema ). When one enters the sanctuary, one is said to be going into the βωμός or βῆμα . The altar itself in such
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5796-477: Is usually physically distinguished from the rest of the church, whether by a permanent structure such as an iconostasis , a rood screen , altar rails , a curtain that can be closed at more solemn moments of the liturgy (as in the Armenian Apostolic Church and Armenian Catholic Church ), or simply by the general architectural layout. The altar is often on a higher elevation than the rest of
5934-462: The strachitsa ). The Divine Liturgy must be served on an antimension even if the altar has been consecrated and contains relics. When not in use, the antimension is left in place in the center of the Holy Table and is not removed except for necessity. The Holy Table may only be touched by ordained members of the higher clergy and nothing which is not itself consecrated or an object of veneration should be placed on it. Objects may also be placed on
6072-531: The Alps in the County of Tyrol . Little is known of his training. His earliest recorded work is an altarpiece that was dated 1465 and signed, but which is now lost. Pacher visited Padua in northern Italy, where he became heavily influenced by the modern fresco work of Andrea Mantegna . Mantegna was considered the renowned master of perspective, whose stunning, low-set standpoint spatial compositions were important to
6210-624: The Book of Common Prayer assumed an altar fixed against the wall, until Prayer Book revision in the twentieth century removed language which assumed any particular form of altar. As well as altars in the structural sense, it became customary in the West to have what in Latin were referred to as altaria portatilia (portable altars), more commonly referred to in English as altar stones . When travelling,
6348-537: The Edict of Thessalonica , a decree addressed to the city of Constantinople , determining that only Christians who did not support Arian views were catholic and could have their places of worship officially recognized as "churches". The Edict opposed Arianism , and attempted to establish unity in Christianity and to suppress heresy. German ancient historian Karl Leo Noethlichs [ de ] writes that
6486-500: The Methodist Church . Some Methodist and other evangelical churches practice what is referred to as an altar call , whereby those who wish to make a new spiritual commitment to Jesus Christ are invited to come forward publicly. It is so named because the supplicants, at the end of the sermon , kneel at the altar rails , which are located around the altar within chancel . Those that come forward will often recite
6624-578: The Roman , Greek , and Norse religions. The modern English word altar was derived from Middle English altar , from Old English alter , taken from Latin altare ("altar"), probably related to adolere ("burn"); thus "burning place", influenced by altus ("high"). It displaced the native Old English word wēofod . Altars in the Hebrew Bible were typically made of earth or unwrought stone. Altars were generally erected in conspicuous places. The first altar recorded in
6762-579: The Roman governor of Aemilia - Liguria in Milan when he was unexpectedly made Bishop of Milan in 374 by popular acclamation. As bishop, he took a firm position against Arianism and attempted to mediate the conflict between the emperors Theodosius I and Magnus Maximus . Tradition credits Ambrose with developing an antiphonal chant, known as Ambrosian chant , and for composing the " Te Deum " hymn, though modern scholars now reject both of these attributions. Ambrose's authorship on at least four hymns, including
6900-530: The Second Prayer Book of Edward VI published in 1552, and through the 1662 Book of Common Prayer (which prevailed for almost 300 years and is still in occasional use), the priest is directed to stand "at the north syde of the Table". This was variously interpreted over the years to mean the north side of the front of a fixed communion table, the north end of a fixed table (i.e., facing south),
7038-535: The Western and Eastern empires. Although the western Emperor Gratian ( r. 367–383 ) supported orthodoxy, his younger half brother Valentinian II , who became his colleague in the empire in 375, adhered to the Arian creed. Ambrose sought to refute Arian propositions theologically, but Ambrose did not sway the young prince's position. In the East, Emperor Theodosius I ( r. 379–395 ) likewise professed
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#17327725366307176-481: The life of the Virgin . Some scholars believe that Pacher was not the only artist who has contributed to this very large altarpiece. His brother Friedrich Pacher may have painted the outer pieces of work depicting scenes from the life of Saint Wolfgang that are visible only when the altarpiece is closed shut. Nevertheless, the inner paintings all seem to have been completed by Michael Pacher himself. The Altarpiece of
7314-535: The tabernacle , candles, ceremonial fans , a cross, and the Gospel Book . The altar is often located upon a kind of stage above a row of icons. Altars in the Alexandrian ( Coptic Orthodox Church ) tradition must have a square face upon which to offer the sacrifice. As the standard Coptic liturgy requires the priest to encircle the altar, it is never attached to any wall. Most Coptic altars are located under
7452-608: The Arian heresy – intended for public discussion. The emperor had not asked to be instructed by Ambrose, and in De Fide Ambrose states this clearly. Nor was he asked to refute the Arians. He was asked to justify his own position, but in the end, he did all three. It seems that by 382 Ambrose had replaced Ausonius to become a major influence in Gratian's court. Ambrose had not yet become the "conscience" of kings he would in
7590-453: The Arians challenged the succession . Ambrose went to the church where the election was to take place to prevent an uproar which seemed probable in this crisis. His address was interrupted by a call, "Ambrose, bishop!", which was taken up by the whole assembly. Ambrose, though known to be Nicene Christian in belief, was considered acceptable to Arians due to the charity he had shown concerning their beliefs. At first, he energetically refused
7728-493: The Arians in his episcopate, his pastoral care, his commitment to community, and his personal asceticism, have mitigated this view. All of Ambrose's writings are works of advocacy for Nicene Christianity, and even his political views and actions were closely related to his religion. He was rarely, if ever, concerned about simply recording what had happened; he did not write to reveal his inner thoughts and struggles; he wrote to advocate for his God. Boniface Ramsey writes that it
7866-589: The Balkans when his uncle and the "cream of the eastern army" were destroyed at Adrianople. Gratian withdrew to Sirmium and set up his court there. Several rival groups, including the Arians, sought to secure benefits from the government at Sirmium. In an Arian attempt to undermine Ambrose, whom Gratian had not yet met, Gratian was "warned" that Ambrose's faith was suspect. Gratian took steps to investigate by writing to Ambrose and asking him to explain his faith. Ambrose and Gratian first met, after this, in 379 during
8004-420: The Church continued to presume that the officiating bishop could circle the altar during the consecration of the church and its altar. Despite this, with the increase in the size and importance of the reredos , most altars were built against the wall or barely separated from it. In almost all cases, the eastward orientation for prayer was maintained, whether the altar was at the west end of the church, as in all
8142-432: The Church in 1298. He is considered a saint by the Catholic Church , Eastern Orthodox Church , Anglican Communion , and various Lutheran denominations, and venerated as the patron saint of Milan and beekeepers . Legends about Ambrose had spread through the empire long before his biography was written, making it difficult for modern historians to understand his true character and fairly place his behaviour within
8280-512: The Church Fathers , created in 1483 for Neustift Monastery, is probably Pacher's second most famous work. The significance in this work by Pacher lies in that the boundary between painting and sculpture was no longer clear. The Altarpiece of the Church Fathers is divided into four sections, with each section depicting one of the four Great Doctors of the Western Church: Ambrose , Augustine , Jerome , and Pope Gregory I . On
8418-550: The Divine Liturgy and perform the ablutions . The Syriac Maronite Church, along with the other Syriac Churches, has freestanding altars in most cases so the priests and deacons can circumambulate the altar during processions and incensations. Traditionally the Maronite liturgy was offered with the priest and people oriented to the East but because of modern latinizations it is common to find Maronite liturgies offered with
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#17327725366308556-606: The Edict of Thessalonica was neither anti-pagan nor antisemitic ; it did not declare Christianity to be the official religion of the empire; and it gave no advantage to Christians over other faiths. Liebeschuetz and Hill indicate that it was not until after 388, during Theodosius' stay in Milan following the defeat of Maximus in 388, that Theodosius and Ambrose first met. After the Massacre of Thessalonica in 390, Theodosius made an act of public penance at Ambrose's behest. Ambrose
8694-536: The Eucharist appears to have been celebrated on portable altars set up for the purpose. Some historians hold that, during the persecutions, the Eucharist was celebrated among the tombs in the Catacombs of Rome , using the sarcophagi of martyrs as altars on which to celebrate. Other historians dispute this, but it is thought to be the origin of the tradition of placing relics beneath the altar. When Christianity
8832-401: The Eucharist, celebrating it rarely. Both Catholics and Protestants celebrate the Eucharist at such altars outside of churches and chapels, as outdoors or in an auditorium. The Eastern Catholic Churches each follow their own traditions, which in general correspond to those of similar Eastern Orthodox or Oriental Orthodox Churches. All Christian Churches see the altar on which the Eucharist
8970-543: The Frankish general Arbogast to keep an eye on the young emperor. By May of the following year, Arbogast's ward was dead amidst rumours of both treachery and suicide... While Ambrose was writing De Fide , Theodosius published his own statement of faith in 381 in an edict establishing Nicene Catholic Christianity as the only legitimate version of the Christian faith. There is unanimity amongst scholars that this represents
9108-457: The Gospel is kept the antimension , a silken cloth imprinted with an icon of Christ being prepared for burial , which has a relic sewn into it and bears the signature of the bishop . Another, simpler cloth, the ilitón , is wrapped around the antimension to protect it, and symbolizes the "napkin" that was tied around the face of Jesus when he was laid in the tomb (forming a companion to
9246-738: The Hebrew Bible is that erected by Noah . Altars were erected by Abraham , by Isaac , by Jacob , and by Moses . After the theophany on Mount Sinai , in the Tabernacle —and afterwards in the Temple —only two altars were used: The Altar of Burnt Offering, and the Altar of Incense, both near where the Ark of the Covenant was located. The remains of three rock-hewn altars were discovered in
9384-403: The Holy Table before they are taken to the center of the church to be venerated by the faithful. In place of the outer covering, some altars have a permanent solid cover which may be highly ornamented, richly carved, or even plated in precious metals. A smaller brocade cover is used on top of this if it is desired that the altar decoration reflect the liturgical season. The Holy Table is used as
9522-720: The Holy Table, because it represents the Tomb of Christ, and the Gospel lessons for Sunday Matins are always one of the Resurrection appearances of Jesus . On the northern side of the sanctuary stands another, smaller altar, known as the Table of Oblation ( Prothesis or Zhértvennik ) at which the Liturgy of Preparation takes place. On it the bread and wine are prepared before the Divine Liturgy . The Prothesis symbolizes
9660-414: The Holy Table, but it may be large enough to cover the entire Holy Table and everything on it, including candlesticks and the seven-branch candelabra. Atop the altar is the tabernacle ( Kovtchég ), a miniature shrine sometimes built in the form of a church, inside of which is a small ark containing the reserved sacrament for use in communing the sick. Also kept on the altar is the Gospel Book . Under
9798-484: The Indian tradition. In Malayalam Altar is called Madbah Ambrose Ambrose of Milan ( Latin : Aurelius Ambrosius ; c. 339 – 4 April 397), venerated as Saint Ambrose , was a theologian and statesman who served as Bishop of Milan from 374 to 397. He expressed himself prominently as a public figure, fiercely promoting Roman Christianity against Arianism and paganism . He left
9936-583: The Land of Israel: one below Tel Zorah , another at the foot of Sebastia (ancient Samaria), and a third near Shiloh . The word altar , in Greek θυσιαστήριον ( see : θυσία ), appears twenty-four times in the New Testament . In Catholic and Orthodox Christian theology, the Eucharist is a re-presentation, in the literal sense of the one sacrifice of Christ on the cross being made "present again". Hence,
10074-605: The Living Stone. In other places set aside for sacred celebrations, the altar may be movable." A fixed altar should in general be topped by a slab of natural stone, thus conforming to tradition and to the significance attributed to the altar, but in many places dignified, well-crafted solid wood is permitted; the supports or base of a fixed altar may be of any dignified solid material. A movable altar may be of any noble solid material suitable for liturgical use. The liturgical norms state: This last norm explicitly excludes
10212-507: The Nicene creed; but there were many adherents of Arianism throughout his dominions, especially among the higher clergy. In this state of religious ferment, two leaders of the Arians, bishops Palladius of Ratiaria and Secundianus of Singidunum , confident of numbers, prevailed upon Gratian to call a general council from all parts of the empire. This request appeared so equitable that Gratian complied without hesitation. However, Ambrose feared
10350-550: The Son , indicating that the Son was a lesser being who was not eternal and of a different "essence" from God the Father. This Christology , though contrary to tradition, quickly spread through Egypt, Libya and other Roman provinces. Bishops engaged in the dispute, and the people divided into parties, sometimes demonstrating in the streets in support of one side or the other. Arianism appealed to many high-level leaders and clergy in both
10488-470: The State's influence." Ambrose was also well aware of the limits of his power. At the height of his career as a venerable, respected and well-loved bishop in 396, imperial agents marched into his church, pushing past him and his clergy who had crowded the altar to protect a political suspect from arrest, and dragged the man from the church in front of Ambrose who could do nothing to stop them. "When it came to
10626-411: The Table of Oblation. The Epitaphios and Cross are also placed on the Table of Oblation before the priest and deacon solemnly transfer them to the Holy Table. In addition to the higher clergy, subdeacons are permitted to touch the Table of Oblation, but no one of lesser rank may do so. The Table of Oblation is the place where the deacon will consume the remaining Gifts ( Body and Blood of Christ ) after
10764-473: The West, the Roman Missal recommends that in new churches there should be only one altar, "which in the gathering of the faithful will signify the one Christ and the one Eucharist of the Church." This does not exclude altars in distinct side chapels, however, but only separate altars in the main body of the church. But most Western churches of an earlier period, whether Roman Catholic or Anglican, may have
10902-556: The altar as part of the process for setting them aside for sacred use. For example, icons are usually blessed by laying them on the Holy Table for a period of time or for a certain number of Divine Liturgies before sprinkling them with holy water , and placing them where they will be venerated . The Epitaphios on Good Friday , and the Cross on the Feasts of the Cross , are also placed on
11040-664: The altar at the east end. Then the ministers and congregation all faced east during the whole celebration; and in Western Europe altars began, in the Middle Ages, to be permanently placed against the east wall of the chancel. Most rubrics , even in books of the seventeenth century and later, such as the Pontificale Romanum , continued to envisage the altar as free-standing. The rite of the Dedication of
11178-427: The altar represents Christ and should only be used to consecrate and distribute the Eucharist. Lutheran altars are commonly made out of granite, but other materials are also used. A crucifix is to be put above the altar. Sometimes relics are also placed around the altar. Altars in the Anglican Communion vary widely. In the Book of Common Prayer , the basis of doctrine and practice for the Church of England , there
11316-462: The bishop, as a divine representative, as guardian of his god's property. Subsequently, while Ambrose was performing the Liturgy of the Hours in the basilica, the prefect of the city came to persuade him to give it up to the Arians. Ambrose again refused. Certain deans (officers of the court) were sent to take possession of the basilica by hanging upon it imperial escutcheons. Instead, soldiers from
11454-423: The bishop. That was not enough for Ambrose, however, and when Theodosius next visited Milan Ambrose confronted him directly in an effort to get him to drop the entire case. McLynn argues that Ambrose failed to win the emperor's sympathy and was mostly excluded from his counsels thereafter. The Callinicum affair was not an isolated incident. Generally speaking, however, while McLynn says it makes Ambrose look like
11592-585: The building in imitation of the sanctuary of the Jerusalem Temple. Although in the days of the Jerusalem Temple the High Priest indeed faced east when sacrificing on Yom Kippur , the sanctuary within which he stood was located at the western end of the Temple. The Christian replication of the layout and the orientation of the Jerusalem Temple helped to dramatize the eschatological meaning attached to
11730-627: The cave of Bethlehem and also the Anointing Stone at which the Body of Christ was prepared after the Deposition from the Cross . The Table of Oblation is also blessed, sprinkled with holy water and vested at the consecration of a church, but there are no relics placed in it. Nothing other than the sacred vessels, veils , etc. which are used in the Liturgy of Preparation may be placed on
11868-539: The central functions of the Roman state, even the vivid Ambrose was a lightweight". Ambrose is recorded on occasions as taking a hostile attitude towards Jews, for example in 388, when the Emperor Theodosius I was informed that a crowd of Christians had retaliated against the local Jewish community by destroying the synagogue at Callinicum on the Euphrates . The synagogue most probably existed within
12006-414: The church of Christ. I will not call upon the people to succour me; I will die at the foot of the altar rather than desert it. The tumult of the people I will not encourage: but God alone can appease it." By Thursday, the emperor gave in, bitterly responding: "Soon, if Ambrose gives the orders, you will be sending me to him in chains." In 386, Justina and Valentinian II received the Arian bishop Auxentius
12144-456: The church. Churches generally have a single altar, although in the Western branches of Christianity, as a result of the former abandonment of concelebration of Mass , so that priests always celebrated Mass individually, larger churches have had one or more side chapels, each with its own altar. The main altar was also referred to as the " high altar ". Since the revival of concelebration in
12282-518: The city (the Basilica of the Apostles), the other in the suburbs (St Victor's). Ambrose refused to surrender the churches. He answered by saying that "What belongs to God, is outside the emperor's power." In this, Ambrose called on an ancient Roman principle: a temple set apart to a god became the property of that god. Ambrose now applied this ancient legal principle to the Christian churches, seeing
12420-478: The consequences and prevailed upon the emperor to have the matter determined by a council of the Western bishops. Accordingly, a synod composed of thirty-two bishops was held at Aquileia in the year 381. Ambrose was elected president and Palladius, being called upon to defend his opinions, declined. A vote was then taken and Palladius and his associate Secundianus were deposed from their episcopal offices. Ambrose struggled with Arianism for over half of his term in
12558-411: The context of antiquity. Most agree he was the personification of his era. This would make Ambrose a genuinely spiritual man who spoke up and defended his faith against opponents, an aristocrat who retained many of the attitudes and practices of a Roman governor , and also an ascetic who served the poor. Ambrose was born into a Roman Christian family in the year 339. Ambrose himself wrote that he
12696-513: The crown. He adds that Gratian's actions were determined by the constraints of the system as much as "by his own initiatives or Ambrose's influence". McLynn asserts that the largest influence on Gratian's policy was the profound change in political circumstances produced by the Battle of Adrianople in 378. Gratian had become involved in fighting the Goths the previous year and had been on his way to
12834-613: The development of Pacher's own style. Pacher's Italian influences set him apart from most German artists of the time. By 1467, Pacher was a distinguished artist and sculptor in Bruneck , twenty-five miles east of Brixen in the Puster Valley , where he had a workshop for making altarpieces; the house still exists. His skill in wood carving and painting provided him with employment for German style altars. They usually consisted of carved figural centerpieces, carved Gothic summits on top,
12972-494: The earliest churches in Rome, in which case the priest celebrating Mass faced the congregation and the church entrance, or whether it was at the east end of the church, in which case the priest faced the eastern apse and had his back to the congregation. This diversity was recognized in the rubrics of the Roman Missal from the 1604 typical edition of Pope Clement VIII to the 1962 edition of Pope John XXIII : " Si altare sit ad orientem, versus populum ... " When placed close to
13110-416: The emperor's own beliefs. The aftermath of the death (378) of Valens (Emperor in the East from 364 to 378) had left many questions for the church unresolved, and Theodosius' edict can be seen as an effort to begin addressing those questions. Theodosius' natural generosity was tempered by his pressing need to establish himself and to publicly assert his personal piety. On 28 February 380, Theodosius issued
13248-571: The emperor, "The emperor is in the church, not over the church." ( Sermon Against Auxentius , 36). Ambrose's acts and writings "created a sort of model which was to remain valid in the Latin West for the relations of the Church and the Christian State. Both powers stood in a basically positive relationship to each other, but the innermost sphere of the Church's life--faith, the moral order, ecclesiastical discipline--remained withdrawn from
13386-400: The episcopate. Ecclesiastical unity was important to the church, but it was no less important to the state, and as a Roman, Ambrose felt strongly about that. Conflict over heresies loomed large in an age of religious ferment comparable to the Reformation of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Orthodox Christianity was determining how to define itself as it faced multiple challenges on both
13524-445: The family moved to Rome. There Ambrose studied literature , law , and rhetoric . He then followed in his father's footsteps and entered public service. Praetorian Prefect Sextus Claudius Petronius Probus first gave him a place as a judicial councillor, and then in about 372 made him governor of the province of Liguria and Emilia , with headquarters in Milan. In 374 the bishop of Milan, Auxentius , an Arian, died, and
13662-420: The fortified town to serve the soldiers stationed there, and Theodosius ordered that the offenders be punished and that the synagogue be rebuilt at the expense of the bishop. Ambrose wrote to the emperor arguing against this, basing his argument on two assertions: first, if the bishop obeyed the order, it would be a betrayal of his faith, and second, if the bishop instead refused to obey the order, he would become
13800-912: The four Church Fathers are depicted with a dove, symbolizing the presence of the Holy Spirit in order to represent their holiness. Michael Pacher died in 1498, possibly in Salzburg, Austria. The following works are attributable to Michael Pacher. Altar An altar is a table or platform for the presentation of religious offerings , for sacrifices , or for other ritualistic purposes. Altars are found at shrines , temples , churches , and other places of worship. They are used particularly in paganism , Christianity , Buddhism , Hinduism , Judaism , modern paganism , and in certain Islamic communities around Caucasia and Asia Minor . Many historical-medieval faiths also made use of them, including
13938-509: The hostilities in the late 17th century, others in 1709. His most important surviving works are the St. Wolfgang Altarpiece and the Altarpiece of the Church Fathers . Arguably his most well-known work, the St. Wolfgang Altarpiece , remains in its original location and setting in St. Wolfgang im Salzkammergut on the Abersee (the western end of lake Wolfgangsee) in Austria. The altarpiece
14076-596: The inner corpus with the sculptured Coronation presenting a majestic array of huge Gothic figures dominated by the beautifully kneeling Madonna. The carved and painted gold centerpiece is visible when the inner panels are open, and shows the Coronation of the Virgin . The outer two pairs of painted wings represent four scenes of Saint Wolfgang. Wolfgang was appointed as bishop Benedictine of Ratisbon, where he established himself radiantly for his revolutionary passions and also for his skills as statesman. The entire altarpiece
14214-578: The lasting enmity of Valentinian II's mother, the Empress Justina , in the winter of 379 by helping to appoint a Nicene bishop in Sirmium. Not long after this, Valentinian II, his mother, and the court left Sirmium; Sirmium had come under Theodosius' control, so they went to Milan which was ruled by Gratian. In 383 Gratian was assassinated at Lyon , in Gaul (France) by Magnus Maximus . Valentinian
14352-437: The late-twentieth century. McLynn argues that Theodosius's anti-pagan legislation was too limited in scope for it to be of interest to the bishop. The fabled encounter at the door of the cathedral in Milan, with Ambrose as the mitred prelate braced, blocking Theodosius from entering, which has sometimes been seen as evidence of Ambrose' dominance over Theodosius, has been debunked by modern historians as "a pious fiction". There
14490-476: The later 380s, but he did speak out against reinstating the Altar of Victory . In 382, Gratian was the first to divert public financial subsidies that had previously supported Rome's cults. Before that year, contributions in support of the ancient customs had continued unchallenged by the state. The childless Gratian had treated his younger brother Valentinian II like a son. Ambrose, on the other hand, had incurred
14628-491: The north side of a free-standing table (presumably facing those intending to receive the Elements who would be sitting in the quire stalls opposite), or at the north end of a free-standing table lengthwise in the chancel, facing a congregation seated in the nave . Often, where a celebrant chose to situate himself was meant to convey his churchmanship (that is, more Reformed or more Catholic). The use of candles or tabernacles
14766-468: The office of bishop, for which he felt he was in no way prepared: Ambrose was a relatively new Christian who was not yet baptized nor formally trained in theology . Ambrose fled to a colleague's home, seeking to hide. Upon receiving a letter from the Emperor Gratian praising the appropriateness of Rome appointing individuals worthy of holy positions, Ambrose's host gave him up. Within a week, he
14904-440: The old altar is so positioned that it makes the people's participation difficult but cannot be moved without damage to artistic value, another fixed altar, skillfully made and properly dedicated, should be erected and the sacred rites celebrated on it alone. In order that the attention of the faithful not be distracted from the new altar the old altar should not be decorated in any special way." The altar, fixed or movable, should as
15042-530: The place of offering in the celebration of the Eucharist , where bread and wine are offered to God the Father and the Holy Spirit is invoked to make his Son Jesus Christ present in the Gifts. It is also the place where the presiding clergy stand at any service, even where no Eucharist is being celebrated and no offering is made other than prayer . When the priest reads the Gospel during Matins (or All-Night Vigil ) on Sunday, he reads it standing in front of
15180-627: The plate of the church melted for the relief of the poor. After defeating the usurper Maximus at Aquileia in 388 Theodosius handed the western realm back to the young Valentinian II, the seventeen-year-old son of the forceful and hardy Pannonian general Valentinian I and his wife, the Arian Justina. Furthermore, the Eastern emperor remained in Italy for a considerable period to supervise affairs, returning to Constantinople in 391 and leaving behind
15318-509: The power to do so, and probably did not solely because of Ambrose's popularity with the people and what they might do. When Magnus Maximus usurped power in Gaul (383) and was considering a descent upon Italy, Valentinian sent Ambrose to dissuade him, and the embassy was successful (384). A second, later embassy was unsuccessful. Magnus Maximus entered Italy (386–387) and Milan was taken. Justina and her son fled, but Ambrose remained and had
15456-445: The practice customary in recent centuries of inserting relics into a specially created cavity within the table of an altar or altar stone . Placing of relics even in the base of a movable altar is also excluded. "In building new churches, it is preferable for a single altar to be erected, one that in the gathering of the faithful will signify the one Christ and the one Eucharist of the Church. In already existing churches, however, when
15594-527: The priest facing against the people from the opposite side of the altar, in imitation of modern practices in the Latin Church. In the Armenian Rite the altar is placed against the eastern wall of the church, often in an apse . The shape of the altar is usually rectangular, similar to Latin altars, but is unusual in that it will normally have several steps on top of the table, on which are placed
15732-431: The ranks the emperor had placed around the basilica began pouring into the church, assuring Ambrose of their fidelity. The escutcheons outside the church were removed, and legend says the children tore them to shreds. Ambrose refused to surrender the basilica, and sent sharp answers back to his emperor: "If you demand my person, I am ready to submit: carry me to prison or to death, I will not resist; but I will never betray
15870-511: The sacrificial death of Jesus the High Priest in the Epistle to the Hebrews." The ministers ( bishop , priests , deacons , subdeacons , acolytes ), celebrated the Eucharist facing east, towards the entrance. Some hold that for the central part of the celebration the congregation faced the same way. After the sixth century the contrary orientation prevailed, with the entrance to the west and
16008-470: The same purpose. The term movable altar or portable altar is now used of a full-scale structural altar, with or without an inserted altar stone, that can be moved. Movable altars include the free-standing wooden tables without altar stone, placed in the choir away from the east wall, favoured by churches in the Reformed tradition . Altars that not only can be moved but are repeatedly moved are found in low church traditions that do not focus worship on
16146-687: The table upon which the Eucharist is consecrated is called an altar. The altar plays a central role in the celebration of the Eucharist , which takes place at the altar on which the bread and the wine for consecration are placed. Altars occupy a prominent place in most Christian churches, both Eastern and Western branches. Commonly among these churches, altars are placed for permanent use within designated places of communal worship (often called "sanctuaries" ). Less often, though nonetheless notable, altars are set in spaces occupied less regularly, such as outdoors in nature, in cemeteries, in mausoleums/crypts, and family dwellings. Personal altars are those placed in
16284-510: The third century developed the monastic lifestyle which subsequently spread into the rest of Roman society in a general practice of virginity, voluntary poverty and self-denial for religious reasons. This lifestyle was embraced by many new converts, including Ambrose, even though they did not become actual monks. The bishops of this era had heavy administrative responsibilities, and Ambrose was also sometimes occupied with imperial affairs, but he still fulfilled his primary responsibility to care for
16422-485: The three sacred ministers, and that it be decorated with a silk frontal in the seasonal colour . In some cases, other manuals suggest that a stone be set in the top of wooden altars, in the belief that the custom be maintained of consecrating the bread and wine on a stone surface. In many other Anglican parishes, the custom is considerably less rigorous, especially in those parishes which use free-standing altars. Typically, these altars are made of wood, and may or may not have
16560-549: The two are less about personal friendship than they are about negotiations between two formidable leaders of the powerful institutions they represent: the Roman State and the Italian Church. Cameron says there is no evidence that Ambrose was a significant influence on the emperor. For centuries after his death, Theodosius was regarded as a champion of Christian orthodoxy who decisively stamped out paganism. This view
16698-504: The undisputed possession of the Roman Empire , Theodosius died at Milan in 395, and Ambrose gave the eulogy. Two years later (4 April 397) Ambrose also died. He was succeeded as bishop of Milan by Simplician . Ambrose's body may still be viewed in the church of Saint Ambrogio in Milan, where it has been continuously venerated – along with the bodies identified in his time as being those of Saints Gervase and Protase . Ambrose
16836-455: The very left is the altarpiece of Saint Jerome, who is depicted in his cardinal's attire. Jerome, who is well known for a story in which he drew a thorn from a lion's paw, is indeed accompanied by the lion in Pacher's work. To his right is the panel of Augustine, portrayed with the child from a legend about Augustine. According to this legend, Augustine was walking along a beach one day when he saw
16974-453: The very right is the archbishop Ambrose, shown with a baby in a cradle, which probably symbolizes a legend regarding his life: when Ambrose was in his cradle as a baby, a swarm of bees covered his face and left a drop of honey. Ambrose’s father took it as a sign of Ambrose’s future ability as an eloquent speaker (sweet-tongue). Another interpretation of the child in a cradle is that it was a child who requested that Ambrose be bishop of Milan. Each
17112-446: The well-being of his flock. He preached and celebrated the Eucharist multiple times a week, sometimes daily, and dealt directly with the needs of the poor, as well as widows and orphans, "virgins" (nuns), and his own clergy. He replied to letters personally, practised hospitality, and made himself available to the people. Ambrose had the ability to maintain good relationships with all kinds of people. Local church practices varied quite
17250-615: The well-known " Veni redemptor gentium ", is secure; they form the core of the Ambrosian hymns , which includes others that are sometimes attributed to him. He also had a notable influence on Augustine of Hippo (354–430), whom he helped convert to Christianity. Western Christianity identified Ambrose, along with Augustine , Jerome and pope Gregory the Great , as one of the four Great Latin Church Fathers , declared Doctors of
17388-496: The western portion of the empire. Arbogast and Eugenius courted Ambrose's support by very obliging letters; but before they arrived at Milan, he had retired to Bologna, where he assisted at the translation of the relics of Saints Vitalis and Agricola . From there he went to Florence, where he remained until Eugenius withdrew from Milan to meet Theodosius in the Battle of the Frigidus in early September 394. Soon after acquiring
17526-446: The younger , and Ambrose was again ordered to hand over a church in Milan for Arian usage. Ambrose and his congregation barricaded themselves inside the church, and again the imperial order was rescinded. There was an attempted kidnapping, and another attempt to arrest him and to force him to leave the city. Several accusations were made, but unlike in the case of John Chrysostom , no formal charges were brought. The emperor certainly had
17664-749: Was 53 years old in his letter number 49, which has been dated to 392. He began life in Augusta Treverorum (modern Trier ) the capital of the Roman province of Gallia Belgica in what was then northeastern Gaul and is now in the Rhineland-Palatinate in Germany. Scholars disagree on who exactly his father was. His father is sometimes identified with Aurelius Ambrosius, a praetorian prefect of Gaul ; but some scholars identify his father as an official named Uranius who received an imperial constitution dated 3 February 339 (addressed in
17802-809: Was away from court during the events at Thessalonica, but after being informed of them, he wrote Theodosius a letter. In that still-existing letter, Ambrose presses for a semi-public demonstration of penitence from the emperor, telling him that, as his bishop, he will not give Theodosius communion until it is done. Wolf Liebeschuetz says "Theodosius duly complied and came to church without his imperial robes, until Christmas, when Ambrose openly admitted him to communion". Formerly, some scholars credited Ambrose with having an undue influence over Emperor Theodosius I, from this period forward, prompting him toward major anti-pagan legislation beginning in February of 391. However, this interpretation has been heavily disputed since
17940-492: Was banned by canon law , with the only appointed adornment being a white linen cloth. Beginning with the Oxford Movement in the 19th century, the appearance of Anglican altars took a dramatic turn in many churches. Candles and, in some cases, tabernacles were re‑introduced. In some churches two candles, on each end of the altar, were used; in other cases six—three on either side of a tabernacle, typically surmounted by
18078-408: Was baptized, ordained and duly consecrated as the new bishop of Milan . This was the first time in the West that a member of the upper class of high officials had accepted the office of bishop. As bishop, he immediately adopted an ascetic lifestyle, apportioned his money to the poor, donating all of his land, making only provision for his sister Marcellina . This raised his standing even further; it
18216-414: Was his popularity with the people that gave him considerable political leverage throughout his career. Upon the unexpected appointment of Ambrose to the episcopate, his brother Satyrus resigned a prefecture in order to move to Milan, where he took over managing the diocese's temporal affairs. Arius (died 336) was a Christian priest who around the year 300 asserted that God the Father must have created
18354-410: Was legalized under Constantine the Great and Licinius , formal church buildings were built in great numbers, normally with free-standing altars in the middle of the sanctuary, which in all the earliest churches built in Rome was at the west end of the church. "When Christians in fourth-century Rome could first freely begin to build churches, they customarily located the sanctuary towards the west end of
18492-416: Was no encounter at the church door. The story is a product of the imagination of Theodoret , a historian of the fifth century who wrote of the events of 390 "using his own ideology to fill the gaps in the historical record". The twenty-first-century view is that Ambrose was "not a power behind the throne". The two men did not meet each other frequently, and documents that reveal the relationship between
18630-405: Was primarily North Italian, and his work shares characteristics with that of painters such as Andrea Mantegna . German influences, however, are also evident in his work, especially in his wood sculpture. Pacher's fusion of Italian Renaissance and Northern Gothic realism helped him to produce a uniquely personal style of painting. Pacher was born around 1435 near Brixen on the southern slopes of
18768-504: Was recorded by Theodoret, who is recognized as an unreliable historian, in the century following their deaths. Theodosius's predecessors Constantine ( r. 306–337 ), Constantius ( r. 337–361 ), and Valens had all been semi-Arians . Therefore, it fell to the orthodox Theodosius to receive from Christian literary tradition most of the credit for the final triumph of Christianity. Modern scholars see this as an interpretation of history by orthodox Christian writers more than as
18906-450: Was the youngest of three children. His siblings were Satyrus , the subject of Ambrose's De excessu fratris Satyri , and Marcellina , who made a profession of virginity sometime between 352 and 355; Pope Liberius himself conferred the veil upon her. Both Ambrose's siblings also became venerated as saints. Sometime early in the life of Ambrose, his father died. At an unknown later date, his mother fled Trier with her three children, and
19044-471: Was twelve years old, and the assassination left his mother, Justina, in a position of something akin to a regent. In 385 (or 386) the emperor Valentinian II and his mother Justina, along with a considerable number of clergy , the laity , and the military, professed Arianism. Conflict between Ambrose and Justina soon followed. The Arians demanded that Valentinian allocate to them two churches in Milan : one in
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