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51-605: There are however differing chronologies of the period proposed by some contemporary scholars, with some suggesting that the Middle Babylonian period only proceeded the collapse of the Kassite period of c.  1150 BC . While other scholars take the whole period of c.  1595  – c.  626 BC as constituting the Middle Babylonian period. Prior to 1595 BC, during the Old Babylonian period ,

102-498: A common occurrence for the kingdoms in Syria and Mesopotamia, so the majority of the documents from that era were in regard to military affairs. The documents included letters written by the messengers of the kings, discussing conflicts, divine oaths, agreements, and treaties between the powers. There is also little that is known about the kings who succeeded Hammurabi. The kings from Samsuiluna to Samsuditana have very few records of

153-413: A distant harem as a minor concubine, and to acknowledge the offer of one of Kadašman-Enlil’s daughters, to become, as yet another wife. He suggests Kadašman-Enlil dispatch a kamiru , tentatively translated as eunuch , to identify his sister, rather than the pair of envoys actually sent, on whom Amenhotep casts aspersions, describing one as a donkey-herder. The text is not entirely legible at this point, and

204-649: A new capital are not known to contemporary historians. However, it is suggested that the city's location, where the Euphrates and Tigris rivers run closest indicates it was either to protect the lucrative trade routes in the region or to safeguard the kingdom against its imperialistic neighbours. Foreign relations between the Kassites and their regional neighbours are recorded in the Amarna letters , which are cuneiform tablets that were used for correspondence between

255-743: A story about a twin eclipse — which is crucial for a correct Babylonian chronology. The pair of lunar and solar eclipses occurred in the month of Shimanu ( Sivan ). The lunar eclipse took place on February 9, 1659 BC. It started at 4:43 a.m. and ended at 6:47 a.m. The latter was invisible, which satisfies the record, and which also tells that the moon was still in eclipse. The solar eclipse occurred on February 23, 1659 BC. It started at 10:26 a.m., has its maximum at 11:45 a.m., and ended at 1:04 p.m. The Venus tablets of Ammisaduqa (i.e., several ancient versions on clay tablets) are also well-known, and several books had been published about them. Several dates have been offered for their events, but

306-520: Is also at times referred to as "Hammurapi" in ancient texts, including multiple primary-source Babylonian letters. This is a common phenomenon in Amorite names. (Another Amorite of the era, "Dipilirabi", is also known as "Dipilirapi".). The Code of Hammurabi — one of the oldest written laws in history, and one of the most famous ancient texts from the Near East, and among the best known artifacts of

357-401: Is dated “15th year (of) Kadašman-Enlil, month of Tašrītu, 18th day”, and is ascribed to him, rather than his descendant name-sake, because of the more archaic use of the masculine personal determinative before the royal name (the single vertical cuneiform stroke), and the likelihood that the later king reigned for no more than nine years. Another one refers to the 1st year of Burra-Buriaš and

408-422: Is little information available about the reigns of Sabium , Apil-Sin and Sin-muballit, other than that they continued ruling the conquered territory, as well as strengthening the walls and began building canals. However, Sin-muballit is known for his successful defeats of Rim-Sin I, which protected Babylon from further invasion. Sin-muballit would then pass on the role of king to his son, Hammurabi . Hammurabi

459-529: Is not much known about the reigns of the kings from Sumuabum through Sin-muballit — other than the fact they were Amorites rather than Akkadians . What is known, however, is that they did not add much to the size of the territory. When the Amorite king Hammurabi came into power, his military victories were successful in gaining more land for the Empire. However, Babylon was just one of the several important powers among Isin and Larsa . The accomplishments of

510-432: The Amarna letters corpus. The letters designated EA (for El Amarna) 1 through 5 include three letters authored by Kadašman-Enlil and two by Amenhotep III, who is addressed as and calls himself Nibmuareya , or variants thereof (from Neb-Maat-Ra). In the first letter from Amenhotep III, EA 1 , he writes to assure Kadašman-Enlil that his sister, the daughter of Kurigalzu I , has not in fact died, nor had she been banished to

561-580: The Chogha Gavaneh tablets from modern-day Iran, which date back to 1800 BC, indicates close contacts between Babylon and the town at the site of present-day Chogha Gavaneh, which is located in the intermontane valley of modern Islamabad in Iran's central Zagros and Dyala region. A text about the fall of Babylon by the Hittites under Mursilis I (at the end of Samsuditana 's reign over Babylon) tells

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612-677: The Kassites , who were a relatively unknown group of people in Babylonia, emerged as the preeminent authority. The precise events that led to the Kassites coming to power are uncertain, with contemporary scholars labelling this period as a dark-age given the lack of primary evidence. However, it is known that following the Hittite's withdrawal from southern Mesopotamia the First Sealand dynasty under Gulkishar briefly captured and occupied

663-458: The isinnu festival. Disarmingly, however, he invites his “brother” (Pharaoh Amenhotep III) to his own inauguration. ‘Now I am going to have a grand opening for the palace. Come yourself to eat and drink with me. I shall not do as you did!” In another of his letters, EA 4 , Kadašman-Enlil complains to Amenhotep III about not being given one of his daughters as a wife, quoting Amenhotep’s earlier response that “since earliest times no daughter of

714-589: The Assyrians and Elamites .   During the reign of the Assyrian king Tukulti-Ninurta I (1233–1197 BC), Babylonia was invaded and the Kassite king Kashtiliashu IV (1232–1225 BC) was overthrown. Tukulti-Ninurta subjugated the region through a puppet-regime and removed the statue of Babylon's patron god Marduk and took it to Assyria. The neighbouring Elamites, led by the king Kidin-Hudrudiš (also known as Kidin-Hutran), later on invaded Babylonia and sacked

765-486: The Elamites. The Elamites chose not to subjugate Babylonian and instead the non-Kassite, Second Dynasty of Isin took power in the region. There are various alternative chronologies proposed by contemporary historians as to the exact dating of the Middle Babylonian period. This is in part because of the Assyrian control of Babylonia being unstable, and the continued similarities in material culture. Some historians designate

816-813: The Elder Siamun Psusennes II Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Tefnakht Bakenranef ( Sargonid dynasty ) Tiglath-Pileser Shalmaneser Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon Sennacherib Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II Kadashman-Enlil I Kadašman-Enlil I , typically rendered ka-dáš-man- EN.LÍL in contemporary inscriptions (with

867-402: The Kassite kings would adopt the title of 'King of Babylonia', and were referred by their regional neighbours as 'Kings of the land Karduniash', the later being the non-Kassite term for Babylonia. The unification of Babylonia as a single centralised political entity enabled the Kassites to establish a sustained period of stability and economic prosperity for southern Mesopotamia. In particular,

918-433: The Kassites utilised the period of economic prosperity to undertake construction and reconstruction projects all over Babylonia. Notably, during the reign of King Kurigalzu I , the Kassites relocated the administrative capital of the kingdom to Dur-Kurigalzu ("Fortress of Kurigalzu"). Whilst the previous capital Babylon became the ceremonial and religious capital. The precise motives behind the Kassite's decision to construct

969-432: The Kassites.   The eventual collapse of the Kassite dynasty, and end of the Middle Babylonian period, came in two successive invasions by the Assyrians and Elamites. In 1158 BC the Assyrians invaded Babylonia, which was subsequently followed in the same year by an Elamite invasion. The last king of the Kassite dynasty was Enlil-nadin-ahi , who reigned for a period of three years prior to being overthrown and captured by

1020-512: The Middle Babylonian period as having proceeded the collapse of the Kassite period (c. 1150 BC) and having ended in 626 BC, with the subsequent emergence of the Neo-Babylonian Empire . While other historians use 'Middle Babylonian' and 'post-Kassite' as names for distinct periods, with the Middle Babylonian period containing the Kassite dynasty (c. 1595–1155 BC), and sometimes the later Second Dynasty of Isin (c. 1153–1022 BC), with

1071-585: The Neo-Assyrian Empire (600 BC) is damaged. Therefore, the precise chronology and names for some of the rulers is uncertain or unknown to contemporary historians. Old Babylonian Empire The Old Babylonian Empire , or First Babylonian Empire , is dated to c.  1894–1595 BC , and comes after the end of Sumerian power with the destruction of the Third Dynasty of Ur , and the subsequent Isin-Larsa period . The chronology of

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1122-492: The ancient world — is from the first Babylonian dynasty. The code is written in cuneiform on a 2.25 meter (7 foot 4½ inch) diorite stele. At the top, it portrays the Babylonian king receiving his kingship from the sun god Shamash ; on the bottom is the collection of written laws. The text itself explains how Hammurabi came to power and created a set of laws to ensure justice throughout his territory — emphasizing that these are

1173-425: The archaic masculine determinative preceding his name), was a Kassite King of Babylon from ca. 1374 BC to 1360 BC, perhaps the 18th of the dynasty. He is known to have been a contemporary of Amenhotep III of Egypt , with whom he corresponded ( Amarna letters ). This places Kadašman-Enlil securely to the first half of the 14th century BC by most standard chronologies. Five cuneiform tablets are preserved in

1224-448: The center of his Empire. Babylon would then come to dominate Mesopotamia for over a thousand years. Zimri-Lim, king of the nearby polity of Mari , plays a significant role for modern historians. He contributed immense amounts of historical writing that describe the history and diplomacy of the first Babylonian dynasty during Hammurabi's reign. The archives of Hammurabi at the site of Babylon cannot be recovered, since its remains are under

1275-399: The cities of Nippur , Isin , Marad and Der, which resulted in discontentment toward the Assyrian regime. Eventually, revolts in Babylonia and Assyria brought Tukulti-Ninurta's occupation of Babylonia to an end. Following the end of the Assyrian subjugation and puppet-regime, Adad-suma-usur , a descendant of the previous Kassite ruler Kashtiliashu IV regained power in southern Babylonian for

1326-481: The city of Babylon and the northern regions of Babylonia. The Kassites ended the Sealand's occupation of the captured territories and during the reign of King Ulamburiash I , they consolidated their authority in c. 1475 BC by subjugating the First Sealand dynasty, who now only occupied the southern coastal and swampland regions of Mesopotamia. By conquering the Sealand's territories, the Kassites were able to reestablish

1377-480: The city of Babylon is subject to debate among contemporary historians. It is suggested that the successors of Hammurabi were either allied with Aleppo, or the sudden Hittite expansion indicates that their motives were "land, manpower, control of [trade] routes and access to valuable ore-deposits". Following the Hittites withdrawal from Babylon, the region was plunged into further political turmoil. During this period,

1428-528: The dates of many older sourcebooks seem to be outdated and incorrect. There are further difficulties: the 21-year span of the detailed observations of the planet Venus may or may not coincide with the reign of this king, because his name is not mentioned, only the Year of the Golden Throne. A few sources, some printed almost a century ago, claim that the original text mentions an occultation of Venus by

1479-583: The deal is sealed. Difficulties are encountered distinguishing between inscriptions belonging to Kadašman-Enlil I and his descendant Kadašman-Enlil II, who ruled around one hundred years later. Historians disagree on whether building inscriptions at Isin , for the Egalmaḫ of Gula , or in Larsa , on bricks bearing a sixteen-line inscription of the restoration of the Ebabbar temple for Šamaš , should be assigned to

1530-501: The destruction of Babylon . The Kassite Period then followed the First Babylonian Dynasty, ruling from 1570 to 1154 BC. By the time of Babylon's fall the Kassites had already been part of the region for a century and a half, acting sometimes with Babylon's interests and sometimes against. The sun played a role in the royal power of old Babylonia. Shamash was the god of the sun, of justice, and of divination, as

1581-585: The divine roles that were given to him. Before presenting the laws written in the Code, Hammurabi states, "When the god Marduk commanded me to provide just ways for the people of the land (in order to attain) appropriate behavior, I established truth and justice as the declaration of the land, I enhanced the well-being of the people." It then goes on to detail the laws of just punishment for crimes and provide rules for his people to abide by. King Hammurabi ruled Babylon from 1792 to 1750 BC. When he first came to power,

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1632-528: The earlier King. The inscriptions from Nippur which include stamped bricks from the east stairway of the ziggurat and elsewhere describing work on the Ekur, the “House of the Mountain” of Enlil , four inscribed slab fragments of red-veined alabaster, a five-line agate cameo votive fragment, an engraved stone door socket, and so on, could be assigned in part to either King. An economic tablet from Nippur

1683-542: The empire only consisted of a few towns in the area near Babylon: Dilbat , Sippar , Kish , and Borsippa . By 1762 BC, Hammurabi managed to succeed in capturing the formidable power of Eshnunna , inheriting its well-established trade routes and the economic stability that came along with them. It was not long before Hammurabi's armies took Assyria and parts of the Zagros Mountains . Eventually in 1761 BC, Babylon gained control over Mari , making up virtually all

1734-501: The first dynasty of Babylonia is debated; there is a Babylonian King List A and also a Babylonian King List B, with generally longer regnal lengths. In this chronology, the regnal years of List A are used due to their wide usage. The origins of the First Babylonian dynasty are hard to pinpoint because Babylon itself yields few archaeological materials intact due to a high water table . The evidence that survived throughout

1785-537: The first known king of the Dynasty, Sumuabum , include his efforts in expanding Babylonian territory by conquering Dilbat and Kish . His successor, Sumualailum, was able to complete the wall around Babylon that Sumuabum had begun constructing. Sumualailum was also able to defeat rebellions in Kish and became successful in the destruction of Kazallu, and even had brief control over Nippur (though it did not last). There

1836-425: The king of Egypt has ever been given in marriage [to anyone]”. He urges that if he could not receive a princess, then a beautiful woman should be sent, but immediately follows up by proposing to exchange one of his own daughters for gold, needed to fund a building project he had in mind. In EA 5 , Amenhotep writes to detail the long list of gifts that will be provided in exchange for Kadašman-Enlil’s daughter, and

1887-586: The kings of Egypt and the Kassite kings, in particular the reigns of Kadashman-Enlil I (1375–1360 BC) and Burnaburiash II (1359–1333 BC). The tablets outlined politically advantageous marriages and the "exchange of substantial bridal gifts and dowries". Moreover, the letters outlined trade between the regional powers. For example, the Kassites frequently traded with Egypt and were known for their " horses , chariots and lapis lazuli and precious stones, bronze , silver , and oil ". The Amarna letters also outline an ancient Near Eastern political partnership between

1938-469: The local water table, and have practically turned to mud. But Zimri-Lim's palace at Mari held an archive that included letters and other texts that provide insight into the alliance between the king and Hammurabi, as well as other leaders in the Syro-Mesopotamian region. These documents survived because Hammurabi had burned the palace down — which buried the material, thus preserving it. War was

1989-2483: The moon. However, this may be a misinterpretation. Modern calculations support the year of 1659 BC for the fall of Babylon, based on the statistical probability of the planet's observations. The presently-accepted middle chronology is too low from the astronomical point of view. r.  c. 1830 – c. 1817 BC ( SC ) (14 years) r.  c. 1817 – c. 1781 BC (SC) (36 years) r.  c. 1781 – c. 1767 BC (SC) (14 years) r.  c. 1767 – c. 1749 BC (SC) (17 years) r.  c. 1748 – c. 1729 BC (SC) (19 years) r.  c. 1648 – c. 1620 BC (SC) (28 years) r.  c. 1620 – c. 1583 BC (SC) (37 years) r.  c. 1582 – c. 1562 BC (SC) (21 years) r.  c. 1562 – c. 1531 BC (SC) (31 years) ( Shamshi-Adad dynasty 1808–1736 BCE) (Amorites) Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi (Non-dynastic usurpers 1735–1701 BCE) Puzur-Sin Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi ( Adaside dynasty 1700–722 BCE) Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II Second Intermediate Period Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon

2040-558: The occurrences during their reigns. However, we do know that Samsuiluna was successful in beating Rim-Sîn II , but nevertheless lost major parts of Babylon's conquered land — only having real authority over the core of the Babylonian territory left from Hammurabi's reign. The kings who succeeded Samsuiluna would face similar turmoil. The first Babylonian dynasty eventually came to an end as the Empire lost territory and money, and faced great degradation. The attacks from Hittites who were trying to expand outside of Anatolia eventually led to

2091-482: The power distribution within the partnership was not equal among all of its members. For example, princesses from Egypt marrying Asiatic kings constituted an ideological issue for the Egyptians and was a rarity. Whilst conversely, Asiatic princesses were commonly wedded to Egyptian royalty and nobility however, they were not considered as the primary partner and were instead part of the man's harem . Relations between

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2142-576: The preeminent powers of the fourteenth century BC called the "Great Powers Club". This political partnership included states such as Egypt, Hatti, Mittani and Assyria . The exact purpose for the establishment of the Great Powers Club is unclear, however its function can be broadly understood as a regional partnership between neighbouring powers who had established norms for communication and desired to "regulate peace and war, trade and marriages, boarder disputes and exchange of messages". However,

2193-557: The previously disrupted lucrative trade routes in the area. After the subjugation of the Sealand dynasty, the Kassites had successfully unified the whole of southern Babylonia into a centralised political entity and established the Kingdom of Babylonia (known in international correspondence as māt Karduniaš ). Prior to this point in Near Eastern history, southern Babylonia had not been controlled by one ruling entity. From then onward,

2244-470: The proceeding dynasties being grouped under the 'post-Kassite' period. Other interpretations by contemporary historians designate the entire period between the end of the Old Babylonian period in c. 1595 BC and the rise of Neo-Babylonian Empire c. 626 BC as constituting the 'Middle Babylonian' period. The King List A tablet that contains the names of the rulers from the First Dynasty (c. 1894 BC) to

2295-585: The region of southern Mesopotamia after having defeated the powerful neighbouring kingdom of Aleppo . The Hittites proceeded to sack the city of Babylon which ended the Hammurabi dynasty and Old Babylonian period. However, the Hittites chose not to subjugate Babylon or the surrounding regions and instead withdrew from the conquered city up the Euphrates River to their homeland " Hatti-land ". The Hittite's decision to invade southern Mesopotamia and sack

2346-478: The region of southern Mesopotamia was in a period of gradual decline and political uncertainty after the successors of Hammurabi were unable to maintain their kingdom. The successors had lost control of the lucrative trade routes between the northern and southern regions of Babylonia to the First Sealand dynasty which had detrimental economic ramifications. In c. 1595 BC, the Hittite king Mursili I invaded

2397-538: The regional partners began to gradually decline in the twelfth century BC during the reigns of the Egyptian pharaohs Amenophis III (1391–1353 BC) and Akhenaton (1353–1336 BC). In this period, the pharaohs became less concerned with the affairs of their Asiatic neighbours which led to the breakdown of the partnerships. The fall of the Kassite dynasty and end of Middle Babylonian period came in c. 1155 BC after continuous raids and invasions by their regional neighbours,

2448-428: The territory of Mesopotamia that had been under the Third Dynasty of Ur . During Hammurabi's thirtieth year as king, he conquered Larsa from Rim-Sin I , thus, gaining control over the lucrative urban centers of Nippur , Ur , Uruk , and Isin . Hammurabi was one of the most notable kings of the first Babylonian dynasty because of his success in gaining control over Southern Mesopotamia and establishing Babylon as

2499-421: The unfortunate envoy may actually be referred to as a caravan leader, and his companion a merchant, thus – these “nobodies” are merely common 'tradesmen' unfamiliar with the members of the royal household and thus unable to recognize Kadašman-Enlil’s sister. In EA 2 he declares “my daughters are available (for marriage).” In EA 3 , Kadašman-Enlil feigns offence about being overlooked for an invite to

2550-445: The years includes written records such as royal and votive inscriptions, literary texts, and lists of year-names. The minimal amount of evidence in economic and legal documents makes it difficult to illustrate the economic and social history of the First Babylonian Dynasty, but with historical events portrayed in literature and the existence of year-name lists, it is possible to establish a chronology. With little evidence on hand, there

2601-414: Was mentioned in the Code of Hammurabi. The text states, "May the god Shamash, the great judge of heaven and Earth, who provides just ways for all living creatures, the lord, my trust, overturn his kingship." Shamash was considered to have an influence on Hammurabi, and represented the concept that he will execute the laws of justice on land just as Shamash does in his role as a god. A recent translation of

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