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70-592: The Pueblo people of the Rio Grande valley had developed initial irrigation systems in the Rio Grande valley by the 10th century AD. These systems used a main acequia (shared irrigation ditch) into which water was diverted from the river, with secondary ditches leading off the main channel named for specific families. Maintenance of the main acequia would be a community responsibility. The Spanish arrived in New Mexico in 1598, and used Indian labor to extend

140-479: A division of Pueblo peoples into two groups based on culture. The Hopi , Zuni , Keres and Jemez each have matrilineal kinship systems: children are considered born into their mother's clan and must marry a spouse outside it, an exogamous practice. They maintain multiple kivas for sacred ceremonies. Their creation story tells that humans emerged from the underground. They emphasize four or six cardinal directions as part of their sacred cosmology, beginning in

210-456: A form of prayer, and strict rules of conduct apply to those who wish to attend one (e.g. no clapping or walking across the dance area or between the dancers, singers, or drummers). Since time immemorial, Pueblo communities have celebrated seasonal cycles through prayer, song, and dance. These dances connect us to our ancestors, community, and traditions while honoring gifts from our Creator. They ensure that life continues and that connections to

280-659: A major archaeological dig in the 1990s in the Tucson Basin , along the Santa Cruz River , identified a culture and people that were ancestors of the Hohokam who might have occupied southern Arizona as early as 2000 BCE. This prehistoric group from the Early Agricultural Period grew corn, lived year-round in sedentary villages, and developed sophisticated irrigation canals from the beginning of

350-420: A unique name in each of the different languages spoken in the area. The names used by each Pueblo to refer to their village ( endonyms ) usually differ from those given to them by outsiders (their exonyms ), including by speakers of other Puebloan languages. Centuries of trade and intermarriages between the groups are reflected in the names given to the same Pueblo in each of the languages. The table below contains

420-629: A vast outlying region hundreds of miles away linked by transportation roadways. By about 700 to 900 CE, the Puebloans began to move away from ancient pit houses dug in cliffs and to construct connected rectangular rooms arranged in apartment-like structures made of adobe and adapted to sites. By 1050, they had developed planned villages composed of large terraced buildings, each with many rooms. These apartment-house villages were often constructed on defensive sites: on ledges of massive rock, on flat summits, or on steep-sided mesas, locations that would afford

490-541: Is evidence that maize was initially cultivated in the Southwest during a climatic period when precipitation was relatively high. The various Pueblo communities have different traditions regarding the making and decoration of pottery artifacts. Present-day archaeologists date the use of pottery by Puebloans dating back the early centuries of the Common Era. In Native communities of the Southwest's belief system,

560-519: Is known for the stone and earth dwellings its people built along cliff walls, particularly during the Pueblo II and Pueblo III eras, from about 900 to 1350 CE in total. The best-preserved examples of the stone dwellings are now protected within United States' national parks , such as Navajo National Monument , Chaco Culture National Historical Park , Mesa Verde National Park , Canyons of

630-549: Is laborious and time-consuming, every-day style of dress for working around the villages has been sparer. The men often wore breechcloths. Corn is the most readily recognizable staple food for Pueblo peoples. Although it is possible that different groups may have grown local plants such as gourds and chenopods at very early dates, the first evidence of maize cultivation in the Southwest dates from about 2100 BCE. Small, fairly undomesticated maize cobs have been found at five different sites in New Mexico and Arizona. Maize reached

700-475: Is now largely avoided. Anasazi is a Navajo word that means Ancient Ones or Ancient Enemy , hence Pueblo peoples' rejection of it (see exonym ). Pueblo is a Spanish term for "village". When Spanish conquest of the Americas began in the 16th-century with the founding of Nuevo México , they came across complex, multistory villages built of adobe , stone and other local materials. New Mexico contains

770-595: The Chaco Canyon and Mesa Verde regions of the Four Corners area. Archeological evidence suggests that people partaking in the Mogollon culture /moʊɡəˈjoʊn/ were initially foragers who augmented their subsistence through the development of farming. Around the first millennium CE farming became the main means to obtain food. Water control features are common among Mimbres branch sites which date from

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840-658: The Coronado Expedition in 1540–41, which temporarily halted Spanish advances in present-day New Mexico. The 17th century's revolt was a direct consequence of growing discontent among the Northern Pueblos against the abuses by the Spaniards, which finally brewed into a large organized uprising against European colonizers. The events that led to the Pueblo Revolt go back at least a decade before

910-468: The Isleta Pueblo and consultants have been developing a plan to reduce the risk of fire, prioritize fire fighting to focus on areas dominated by native vegetation, replant cottonwood and willows along the banks, restore riparian grasslands and search for ways to better manage the dam. During and after World War II , the city of Albuquerque has grown steadily. With growing urbanization, the role of

980-664: The Rio Grande watershed. 24% of the 3,755,307,600 cubic feet (106,338,470 m) annual supply is allocated to the MRGCD, while 56% is allocated to the city of Albuquerque. River volumes peak between March and June due to the spring runoff, but demand for irrigation peaks between July and October. Both the Isleta diversion dam just south of Albuquerque and the San Acacia diversion dam further south are able to route all water out of

1050-908: The Rio Grande Nature Center , and the Rio Grande Valley State Park . The Conservancy collaborated in the Albuquerque Overbank Project, which started in 1998, with organizations such as the Department of Biology of the University of New Mexico , the Bureau of Reclamation, the City of Albuquerque Open Space Division and others. This project cleared an attached bar of a dense 1.4 hectares (3.5 acres) stand of Russian olive, lowered part of

1120-510: The archetypal deities appear as visionary beings who bring blessings and receive love. A vast collection of religious stories explore the relationships among people and nature, including plants and animals. Spider Grandmother and kachina spirits figure prominently in some myths. Puebloan peoples in the 16th century believed in Katsina spirits. Katsinas are supernatural beings who are representatives of Pueblo ancestors. They live for half

1190-520: The 10th through 12th centuries CE. The nature and density of Mogollon residential villages changed through time; the earliest Mogollon villages were small hamlets composed of several pithouses , houses excavated into the ground surface with a stick and thatch roofs supported by a network of posts and beams, and faced on the exterior with earth. Village sizes increased over time so that by the 11th century CE villages composed of ground level dwellings of rock and earth walls and wooden beam-supported roofs were

1260-496: The 13th century, Puebloans used turkey feather blankets for warmth. Most of the Pueblos hold annual sacred ceremonies, some of which are now open to the public. Religious ceremonies usually feature traditional dances that are held outdoors in the large common areas and courtyards, which are accompanied by singing and drumming. Unlike kiva ceremonies, traditional dances may be open to non-Puebloans. Traditional dances are considered

1330-456: The 21st century, some 75,000 Pueblo people live predominantly in New Mexico and Arizona, but also in Texas and elsewhere. Despite various similarities in cultural and religious practices, scholars have proposed divisions of contemporary Pueblos into smaller groups based on linguistic and individual manifestations of the broader Puebloan culture. The clearest division between Puebloans relates to

1400-648: The Ancients National Monument , Aztec Ruins National Monument , Bandelier National Monument , Hovenweep National Monument , and Canyon de Chelly National Monument . These villages were accessible only by rope or through rock climbing. However, the first Ancestral Puebloan homes and villages were based on the pit-house, a common feature in the Basketmaker periods. Villages consisted of apartment-like complexes and structures made from stone, adobe mud, and other local materials, or were carved into

1470-603: The Apache, Governor Treviño was forced to release the prisoners. Among those released was an Ohkay Owingeh Tewa man named Popé . After being released, Popé took up residence in Taos Pueblo far from the capital of Santa Fe and spent the next five years seeking support for a revolt among the 46 Pueblo villages. He was able to gain the support of the Northern Tiwa , Tewa , Towa , Tano , and Keres -speaking Pueblos of

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1540-623: The Bureau of Reclamation took responsibility for El Vado dam and for maintaining the Rio Grande river channel from Velarde to the narrows of Elephant Butte Reservoir. The Corps of Engineers maintains Cochiti Dam. The Conservancy remains responsible for the three diversion dams and all the irrigation facilities. As of 2012 the Conservancy was responsible for an area of 278,000 acres (113,000 ha), of which 128,787 acres (52,118 ha) could be irrigated and 70,000 acres (28,000 ha) were in fact being irrigated by 11,000 farmers. The Conservancy

1610-644: The Cochiti, Angostura, Isleta, and San Acacia diversion dams to channel water into irrigation canals for each section of the river. 180 miles (290 km) of new main canal were built and 294 miles (473 km) of lateral ditches in addition to 214 miles (344 km) of existing laterals. 341 miles (549 km) of drainage canal were built to lower the water table. 118,000 acres (48,000 ha) were developed, of which 20,700 acres (8,400 ha) were Indian lands. 59,159 acres (23,941 ha) were being irrigated. The initial construction project had been rushed. Few of

1680-637: The Conservancy has gradually shifted from supporting agriculture to preserving the riverside ecology and helping to recharge the Albuquerque aquifer. In the Albuquerque metropolitan area, three quarters of the 316 miles (509 km) of channels are used for recreational purposes, and in the Conservancy as a whole one third of the waterways have recreational use. Ditches are used as horse, bike and running trails, wildlife habitat and fishing holes. The Conservancy owns and manages 30,000 acres (12,000 ha) of bosque including Tingley Park , San Gabriel Park ,

1750-738: The Corps of Engineers. The suit claimed violation of the Endangered Species Act and the National Environmental Policy Act . The Conservancy became involved in 2002. Eventually Rio Grande Silvery Minnow v. Bureau of Reclamation was dismissed in 2010. However, the Department of Reclamation is working on various improvements to management of the river to assist in improving the water supply and habitats of both species. Irrigated agriculture does not contribute noticeable amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus to

1820-680: The El Vado Dam and the diversion dams. The Cochiti Diversion Dam was inundated by the newly built Cochiti Storage Dam , completed in 1975. The project also undertook extensive work on the river channel, straightening and strengthened the banks and clearing the floodway. In 1971 a dam was completed on the Rio Chama to hold water brought from the San Juan River through a tunnel. With the Middle Rio Grande Project

1890-609: The Middle Rio Grande Conservancy District was made in 1923, but failed due to legal problems. The backers persisted, and the district was successfully established as of 16 August 1925. The goals of the Conservancy were to protect the villages in the valley from floods, drain the swamps and provide water for irrigating the farms. In most areas the plan was to reduce the water table to 4 to 6 feet (1.2 to 1.8 m). Irrigation water would be provided for 128,787 acres (52,118 ha) of arable land. 18% of

1960-645: The Pueblo Revolt, was unveiled in the Capitol Rotunda in Washington, D.C. The statue was the second commissioned by the state of New Mexico for the National Statuary Hall Collection ; it was the 100th and last to be added to the collection. It was created by Cliff Fragua , a Puebloan from Jemez Pueblo, New Mexico . It is the only statue in the collection to be created by a Native American. In 1844 Josiah Gregg described

2030-523: The Puebloans protection from raiding parties originating from the north, such as the Comanche and Navajo . The largest of these villages, Pueblo Bonito in Chaco Canyon , New Mexico, contained around 700 rooms in five stories; it may have housed as many as 1000 persons. Pueblo buildings are constructed as complex apartments with numerous rooms, often built in strategic defensive positions. The most highly developed were large villages or pueblos situated at

2100-410: The Pueblos sent a knotted rope carried by a runner to the next Pueblo; the number of knots signified the number of days to wait before beginning the uprising. Finally, on 21 August, 2,500 Puebloan warriors took the colony's capital Santa Fe from Spanish control, killing many colonizers, the remainder of whom were successfully expelled. On 22 September 2005, the statue of Po'pay ( Popé ), the leader of

2170-618: The Rio Grande Valley. The Pecos Pueblo, 50 miles east of the Rio Grande pledged its participation in the revolt as did the Zuni and Hopi , 120 and 200 miles respectively west of the Rio Grande. At the time, the Spanish population was of about 2,400 colonists, including mixed-blood mestizos , and Indian servants and retainers, who were scattered thinly throughout the region. Starting early on 10 August 1680, Popé and leaders of each of

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2240-462: The bar to promote flooding, and built channel on the bar to encourage growth of cottonwood and willows. The changing ecology of the site is being carefully monitored, and initial results have been very encouraging, apparently restoring native plants and making the water flow more variable in response to discharges. A 2003 report noted that there had been silting upstream of the Acacia diversion dam but

2310-776: The common era to about the middle of the 15th century. Within a larger context, the Hohokam culture area inhabited a central trade position between the Patayan situated along with the Lower Colorado River and in southern California; the Trincheras of Sonora , Mexico; the Mogollon culture in eastern Arizona, southwest New Mexico, and northwest Chihuahua , Mexico; and the Ancestral Puebloans in northern Arizona, northern New Mexico, southwest Colorado, and southern Utah . The Ancestral Puebloan culture

2380-572: The dam altogether. Again, it suggested emplacement of Gradient Restoration Facilities to control erosion as sediment above and below the dam returned to normal levels. Citations Sources Pueblo people The Puebloans , or Pueblo peoples , are Native Americans in the Southwestern United States who share common agricultural, material, and religious practices. Among the currently inhabited Pueblos , Taos , San Ildefonso , Acoma , Zuni , and Hopi are some of

2450-421: The ditches were cemented, and maintenance was neglected. Salt grass, weeds and bush began to encroach. Sediment continued to build up in the main river bed, making it possible that the river would continue to rise and would render the work that had been done pointless, with waterlogging returning. Another problem was that the Conservancy was charging assessments based on the benefits delivered. These were highest for

2520-629: The emergence of people from underwater. They use five directions, beginning in the west. Their ritual numbers are based on multiples of three. Puebloan societies contain elements of three major cultures that dominated the Southwest United States region before European contact: the Mogollon culture , whose adherents occupied an area near Gila Wilderness ; the Hohokam culture ; and the Ancestral Pueblo culture who occupied

2590-668: The entire Rio Grande Pueblo area. The Spaniards had learned from the Pueblo Revolt and were gentler in their demands in the next century and a half. However, the Pueblos had learned as well and maintained their ceremonial life out of the view of the Spaniards, while adopting a veneer of Roman Catholicism. The public observances may also include a Roman Catholic Mass and processions on the Pueblo's feast day. Some Pueblos also hold sacred ceremonies around Christmas and at other Christian holidays. Although most present-day pueblos are known by their Spanish or anglicized Spanish name, each Pueblo has

2660-523: The formal uprising began. In the 1670s, severe drought swept the region, which caused both a famine among the Pueblo and increased the frequency of raids by the Apache . Neither Spanish nor Pueblo soldiers were able to prevent the attacks by the Apache raiding parties. The unrest among the Pueblos came to a head in 1675, when Governor Juan Francisco Treviño ordered the arrest of forty-seven Pueblo medicine men and accused them of practicing sorcery . Four of

2730-481: The historic Pueblo people in The journal of a Santa Fé trader as follows: When these regions were first discovered it appears that the inhabitants lived in comfortable houses and cultivated the soil, as they have continued to do up to the present time. Indeed, they are now considered the best horticulturists in the country, furnishing most of the fruits and a large portion of the vegetable supplies that are to be found in

2800-457: The land was Indian land, which caused some concern over whether Indian rights were being sufficiently protected, but the plan was finally approved by the president on 13 March 1928. By 1935 the Conservancy had built almost 200 miles (320 km) of levees along the river banks, and a system of jetties and checks to protect against floods. The Conservancy had built the El Vado storage dam, and

2870-530: The languages they speak. Pueblo peoples speak languages from four distinct language families , which means these languages are completely different in vocabulary , grammar , and most other linguistic aspects. As a result, each Pueblo language is not easily understood by speakers of the other languages, with English now working as the lingua franca of the region. Anthropologists have studied Pueblo peoples extensively and published various classifications of their subdivisions. In 1950, Fred Russell Eggan contrasted

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2940-650: The largest number of federally recognized Pueblo communities, though some Pueblo communities also live in Arizona and Texas and along the Rio Grande and Colorado rivers and their tributaries . Pueblo nations have maintained much of their traditional cultures, which center around agricultural practices, a tight-knit community revolving around family clans, and respect for tradition. Puebloans have been remarkably adept at preserving their culture and core religious beliefs, including developing syncretic Pueblo Christianity. Exact numbers of Pueblo peoples are unknown but, in

3010-486: The markets. They were until very lately the only people in New Mexico who cultivated the grape. They also maintain at the present time considerable herds of cattle, horses, etc. They are, in short, a remarkably sober and industrious race, conspicuous for morality and honesty, and very little given to quarreling or dissipation ... The Puebloans are traditional weavers of cloth and have used textiles, natural fibers , and animal hide in their cloth-making. Since woven clothing

3080-410: The medicine men were sentenced to death by hanging; three of those sentences were carried out, while the fourth prisoner committed suicide. The remaining men were publicly whipped and sentenced to prison. When the news of the killings and public humiliation reached Pueblo leaders, they moved in force to Santa Fe , where the prisoners were held. Because a large number of Spanish soldiers were away fighting

3150-421: The most common fish in the river. The diversion dams have cut its habitat into four separate segments. It is now classified as endangered and its population continues to decline. In 1999 a suit was brought by a group of environmentalist organizations on behalf of the silvery minnow and the threatened Southwestern willow flycatcher , whose riparian habitat was also threatened, against the Bureau of Reclamation and

3220-508: The most commonly known. Pueblo people speak languages from four different language families , and each Pueblo is further divided culturally by kinship systems and agricultural practices, although all cultivate varieties of corn (maize). Pueblo peoples have lived in the American Southwest for millennia and descend from the ancestral Puebloans . The term Anasazi is sometimes used to refer to ancestral Pueblo people, but it

3290-500: The names of the New Mexican pueblos and Hopi using the official or practical orthographies of the languages. Despite not being a Puebloan language, Navajo names are also included due to prolonged contact between them and the several Pueblos. With the exception of Zuni, all Puebloan languages, as well as Navajo, are tonal . However, the tone is not usually shown in the spelling of these languages save for Navajo, Towa, and Tewa. In

3360-421: The norm. Cliff-dwellings became common during the 13th and 14th centuries. Hohokam is a term borrowed from the O'odham language , used to define an archaeological culture that relied on irrigation canals to water their crops since as early as the 9th century CE. Their irrigation system techniques allowed for its adherents to expand into the largest population in the Southwest by 1300. Archaeologists working at

3430-489: The north. Four and seven are numbers considered significant in their rituals and symbolism. In contrast, the Tanoan -speaking Puebloans (other than Jemez) have a patrilineal kinship system, with children considered born into their father's clan. They practice endogamy , or marriage within the clan. They have two kivas or two groups of kivas in their pueblos. Their belief system is based in dualism . Their creation story recounts

3500-498: The past and future are reinforced. Traditionally, all outside visitors to a public dance would be offered a meal afterward in a Pueblo home. Because of the numerous outside tourists who have attended these dances in the pueblos since the late 20th century, such meals are now open to outsiders by personal invitation only. Private sacred ceremonies are conducted inside the kivas and only tribal members may participate according to specific rules pertaining to each Pueblo's religion. One of

3570-415: The people's existing traditional ceremonies. About the imposition of Christianity, Alfonso Ortiz , an Ohkay Owingeh anthropologist and Pueblo specialist states: The Spanish government demanded labor and tribute from the Pueblos and vigorously attempted to suppress native religion. (...) In that year [1692] Diego de Vargas re-entered Pueblo territory, though it was not until 1696 that he gained control over

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3640-519: The peoples of the Eastern and Western Pueblos, based largely on their subsistence farming techniques. The Western or Desert Pueblos of the Zuni and Hopi specialize in dry farming , compared to the irrigation farmers of the Eastern or River Pueblos. Both groups cultivate mostly corn (maize), but squash and beans have also been staple Pueblo foods all around the region. In 1954, Paul Kirchhoff published

3710-461: The present-day Southwest via an unknown route from Mesoamerica (i.e., present-day Mexico) and was rapidly adopted by peoples in the region. One theory states that maize cultivation was carried northward from central Mexico by migrating farmers, most likely speakers of a Uto-Aztecan language. Another theory, more accepted among scholars, is that between 4300 BCE and 2100 BCE maize was diffused northward from group to group rather than by migrants. There

3780-584: The primary goals of Spanish colonists in the 17th century was to convert the Natives in New Spain to Christianity. Franciscan priests had prepared for a long process of conversion, building churches and missions all around Pueblo country. Some of the Pueblos' feast days are a product of that process. Feast days are held on the day sacred to its Roman Catholic patron saint , assigned by Spanish missionaries so that each Pueblo's feast day would coincide with one of

3850-519: The problem was caused by increased use of the river for irrigation in the San Luis Valley upstream in Colorado . Development and deforestation there caused silt to be washed into the river. Where the river widens and slows in the middle Rio Grande valley around Albuquerque the silt was deposited, raising the riverbed and the water table and causing waterlogging in the farmlands that border

3920-452: The reclaimed fields, whose owners were least able to pay and often were forced to sell. The Conservancy ran into financial difficulties in the 1940s. It was unable to raise enough money for maintenance, let alone capital projects, and much of the land that could be irrigated was not because the farmers could not afford the water assessment fees. The earth levees were not able to contain a major flood in 1941, which inundated communities throughout

3990-504: The river during low-flow conditions. During the irrigation period, the river downstream from the Isleta Diversion Dam may largely dry up unless irrigation water is returned to the river or a summer storm provides a brief influx of water. The river may not start running steadily until the end of October, when irrigation stops. This has caused problems for fish such as the Rio Grande silvery minnow . This fish used to be one of

4060-776: The river valley, including some of downtown Albuquerque. The Conservancy turned to the United States Bureau of Reclamation for help in reviewing and rehabilitating the work. Planning was approved in 1948, and the Middle Rio Grande Project was approved in May 1950. During the 1950s a series of projects was undertaken by the Bureau of Reclamation and the Corps of Engineers under the Rio Grande Comprehensive Plan. They rehabilitated

4130-428: The river. By the time the Middle Rio Grande Conservancy District was founded in 1923, more than 60,000 acres (24,000 ha) of farmland had become swamps or alkaline and salt grass fields. Floods were another hazard, often destroying whole villages. The acequia running through the city of Albuquerque, parallel to the river, had become an unsanitary drainage ditch, serving as a common sewer. A first attempt to create

4200-601: The river. The Albuquerque waste-water treatment plant contributes more, but not a great deal. However, in the 1990s high concentrations of un-ionized ammonia were found, caused by impaired water use in the section of the Rio Grande between the Jemez River and the Isleta Dam. The ammonia is toxic to some species of fish and invertebrates. Improved drainage has dried out the wetlands, harming native plants and wildlife. The frequency of wildfires has increased. In response,

4270-452: The sides of canyon walls. Design details from Ancestral Puebloan villages contain elements from cultures as far away as present-day Mexico. In their day, these ancient towns and cities were usually multistoried and multi-purposed buildings surrounding open plazas and viewsheds . They were occupied by hundreds to thousands of Ancestral Pueblo peoples. These population complexes hosted cultural and civic events and infrastructure that supported

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4340-403: The system of irrigation ditches. In 1848 Mexico ceded the territory to the United States. Railways arrived in 1880, bringing new settlers. The Federal government encouraged irrigation, which probably peaked in the early 1890s. After this there was a steady decline in irrigation due to "droughts, sedimentation , aggradation of the main channel, salinization , seepage and waterlogging". Part of

4410-586: The table above, a low tone is left unmarked in the orthography. Vowel nasalisation is shown by an ogonek diacritic below the vowel; ejective consonants are transcribed with an apostrophe following the consonant. Vowel length is shown either by doubling of the character or, in Zuni, by adding a colon. Pre-contact population size of the Puebloans was possibly as high as up to 313,000 people spread across at least 110 towns (pueblos), according to authors and sources such as Antonio de Espejo , Alonso de Benavides , Relacion del Suceso and Agustín de Vetancurt . By

4480-475: The town by sprinkling a handful of meal as he uttered a blessing. After the 1692 re-conquest, the Spanish were prevented from entering one town when they were met by a handful of men who uttered imprecations and cast a single pinch of a sacred substance. The Pueblo peoples used ritual 'prayer sticks', which were colorfully decorated with beads, fur, and feathers. These prayer sticks (or 'talking sticks') were similar to those used by other Native American nations. By

4550-556: The very top of the mesas , the rocky tablelands typical to the Southwest. Before 1598, Spanish exploration of the present-day Pueblo areas was limited to several transitory groups. A group of colonizers led by Juan de Oñate arrived at the end of the 16th century as part of an apostolic mission to convert the Natives. Despite initial peaceful contact, Spain's attempts to dispose of the Pueblo religion and replace it with Catholicism became increasingly more aggressive, and were met with great resistance by Puebloans, whose governmental structure

4620-526: The width of the downstream channels in Socorro county had decreased sharply since the diversion dam was built. The river has cut a deeper channel in its bed and now runs faster. This made it harder for fish to travel upstream. The report suggested that if eight Gradient Restoration Facilities were installed in the downstream reach, that should be enough to slow the water, allowing sediment to settle and making fish passage easier. A 2005 report considered removing

4690-606: The year 1907 the Puebloan population had been decimated to just over 11,300 individuals, according to James Mooney . However, from the 20th century up to the present day, their population has been rebounding. As of 2020, they numbered 78,884 in the USA, 52,369 of whom lived in New Mexico. Cochiti Dam Too Many Requests If you report this error to the Wikimedia System Administrators, please include

4760-420: The year in the underworld with the gods and spend the rest of the year with their descendants on earth. Katsinas have the power to take the form of clouds and bring rain for agricultural fields. They heal disease and also cause disease. Pueblo prayer included substances as well as words; one common prayer material was ground-up maize – white cornmeal . A man might bless his son, or some land, or

4830-443: Was based around the figure of the cacique , a theocratic leader for both material and spiritual matters. Over the years, Spaniards' methods grew harsher, leading to a series of revolts by the Puebloans. The Pueblo Revolt that started in 1680 was the first led by a Native American group to successfully expel colonists from North America for a considerable number of years. It followed the successful Tiguex War led by Tiwas against

4900-532: Was maintaining four diversion dams and reservoirs, 834 miles (1,342 km) of canals and ditches and 404 miles (650 km) of riverside drains. The Conservancy is a major recipient of water from the San Juan–Chama Project , a series of tunnels and diversions that take water from the drainage basin of the San Juan River – a tributary of the Colorado River – to supplement water resources in

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