Anglic:
33-489: Middle Scots was the Anglic language of Lowland Scotland in the period from 1450 to 1700. By the end of the 15th century, its phonology , orthography , accidence , syntax and vocabulary had diverged markedly from Early Scots , which was virtually indistinguishable from early Northumbrian Middle English . Subsequently, the orthography of Middle Scots differed from that of the emerging Early Modern English standard that
66-674: A Proto-Anglo-Frisian language as disproven, as far as such postulates are falsifiable. Nevertheless, the close ties and strong similarities between the Anglic and the Frisian grouping are part of the scientific consensus . Therefore, the concept of Anglo-Frisian languages can be useful and is today employed without these implications. Geography isolated the settlers of Great Britain from Continental Europe , except from contact with communities capable of open water navigation. This resulted in more Old Norse and Norman language influences during
99-554: A group of closely related dialects that underwent several areal changes in relative unison. The extinction of two little-attested and presumably North Sea Germanic languages, Old Old Anglian and Old Jutish , in their homelands (modern southern Schleswig and Jutland respectively), mat have led to a form of " survivorship bias " in classification. Since Old Anglian and Jutish were, like Old Saxon, direct ancestors of Old English, it might follow that Old Saxon, Old Anglian and/or Jutish were more closely related to English than any of them
132-503: Is an excerpt from Nicol Burne's anti-reformation pamphlet Of the praying in Latine (1581): Thair be tua kynd of prayeris in the kirk, the ane is priuat, quhilk euerie man sayis be him self, the vthir is publik, quhilk the preistis sayis in the name of the hail kirk. As to the priuate prayeris, na Catholik denyis bot it is verie expedient that euerie man pray in his auin toung, to the end he vndirstand that quhilk he sayis, and that thairbie
165-480: Is aneuche that thay assist be deuotione liftand vp thair myndis to God or saying thair auin priuate oraisonis, and that be thair deuotione thay may be maid participant of the kirk. As in the synagogue of the Ieuis, the peopill kneu not quhat all thay cerimonies signifeit, quhilk vas keipit be the preistis and vtheris in offering of thair sacrifices and vther vorshipping of god, and yit thay did assist vnto thame; ye, sum of
198-859: Is considered disproved by some scholars. These are the words for the numbers one to 12 in the Anglo-Frisian languages, with Dutch, West-Flemish and German included for comparison: * Ae [eː] , [jeː] is an adjectival form used before nouns. North Sea Germanic , also known as Ingvaeonic, is a proposed grouping of the West Germanic languages that encompasses Old Frisian , Old English , and Old Saxon . The North Sea Germanic grouping may be regarded as an alternative to Anglo-Frisian, or as ancestral to it. Since Anglo-Frisian features occur in Low German – especially in its older stages such as Old Saxon – some scholars regard
231-401: Is institute for the remembrance of Christis death and passione. Albeit thay vndirstand nocht the Latine toung, yit thay ar not destitut of the vtilitie and fruit thairof. And it is nocht vithout greit caus that as in the inscrptione and titil quhilk pilat fixed vpone the croce of Christ Iesus thir thre toungis var vritt in, Latine, Greik, and Hebreu, sua in the sacrifice and the publik prayeris of
264-682: Is part of its mainland district of Pinneberg ). North Frisian has approximately 8,000 speakers. The East Frisian language is spoken by only about 2,000 people; speakers are located in Saterland in Germany. There are no known East Frisian dialects, but there are three dialects of West Frisian and ten of North Frisian. The following is a summary of the major sound changes affecting vowels in chronological order. For additional detail, see Phonological history of Old English . That these were simultaneous and in that order for all Anglo-Frisian languages
297-686: The Netherlands and Germany . West Frisian , by far the most spoken of the three main branches with 875,840 total speakers, constitutes an official language in the Dutch province of Friesland . North Frisian is spoken on some North Frisian Islands and parts of mainland North Frisia in the northernmost German district of Nordfriesland , and also in Heligoland in the German Bight , both part of Schleswig-Holstein state (Heligoland
330-675: The 17th century when printers began to adopt imported English conventions. Middle Scots used a number of now obsolete letters and letter combinations: The development of Middle Scots vowels: The Scottish Vowel Length Rule is assumed to have come into fruition between the early Middle Scots and late Middle Scots period. Here vowel length is conditioned by phonetic and morphemic environment. The affected vowels tended to be realised fully long in end-stressed syllables before voiced oral continuants except /l/ , in hiatus , before word or morpheme boundaries and before /rd/ and /dʒ/ . The major differences to contemporary southern English were
363-549: The Anglic ( English , Scots , Fingallian †, and Yola †) and Frisian ( North Frisian , East Frisian , and West Frisian ) varieties of the West Germanic languages . The Anglo-Frisian languages are distinct from other West Germanic languages due to several sound changes : besides the Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law , which is present in Low German as well, Anglo-Frisian brightening and palatalization of /k/ are for
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#1732765648753396-497: The North Sea Germanic classification as more meaningful than a sharp division into Anglo-Frisian and Low German. In other words, because Old Saxon came under strong Old High German and Old Low Franconian influence at an early stage, it lost some North Sea Germanic features, that it had previously shared with Old English and Old Frisian. North Sea Germanic is not thought of as a monolithic proto-language , but rather as
429-610: The Scottish linguist who formulated it) describes how vowel length in Scots , Scottish English , and, to some extent, Ulster English and Geordie is conditioned by the phonetic environment of the target vowel . Primarily, the rule is that certain vowels (described below) are phonetically long in the following environments: Exceptions can also exist for particular vowel phonemes, dialects, words, etc., some of which are discussed in greater detail below. The underlying phonemes of
462-695: The Scottish vowel system (that is, in both Scottish Standard English dialects and Scots dialects) are as follows: ★ = Vowels that definitively follow the Scottish Vowel Length Rule. The Scottish Vowel Length Rule affects all vowels except the always-short vowels 15 and 19 ( /ɪ/ and /ʌ/ ) and, in many Modern Scots varieties, the always-long Scots-only vowels 8, 11, and 12 (here transcribed as /eː/ , /iː/ and /ɔː/ ) that do not occur as phonemes separate from /e, i, ɔ/ in Scottish Standard English. The further north
495-511: The ancestor of Low German Old Saxon , were spoken by intercommunicating populations. While this has been cited as a reason for a few traits exclusively shared by Old Saxon and either Old English or Old Frisian, a genetic unity of the Anglo-Frisian languages beyond that of an Ingvaeonic subfamily cannot be considered a majority opinion. In fact, the groupings of Ingvaeonic and West Germanic languages are highly debated, even though they rely on much more innovations and evidence. Some scholars consider
528-408: The auin propir langage; as ye may se be experience, gif ye vald confer the prayeris of your deformit kirkis, togidder vith the innumerabil translationis of the psalmes, quihlk ar chaingit according to euerie langage in the quhilk thay ar turnit. It is not than vithout greit caus, and ane special instinctione of the halie Ghaist, that thir toungis foirspokin hes bene, as thay vil be retenit to the end of
561-491: The development of Late Modern English , whereas the modern Frisian languages developed under contact with the southern Germanic populations, restricted to the continent. The proposed Anglo-Frisian family tree is: Anglic , Insular Germanic , or English languages encompass Old English and all the linguistic varieties descended from it. These include Middle English , Early Modern English , and Late Modern English ; Early Scots , Middle Scots , and Modern Scots ; and
594-646: The division of Scotland into two parts, the Gaelic Highlands and the Anglic Lowlands . The adherence of many Highlanders to the Catholic faith during the Reformation led to the 1609 Statutes of Iona forcing clan chiefs to establish Protestant churches, send their sons to Lowland schools and withdraw their patronage from the hereditary guardians of Gaelic culture – the bards . This
627-510: The extinct Fingallian and Yola dialects in Ireland . English-based creole languages are not generally included, as mainly only their lexicon and not necessarily their grammar, phonology, etc. comes from Early Modern English and Late Modern English . The Frisian languages are a group of languages spoken by about 500,000 Frisian people on the southern fringes of the North Sea in
660-431: The interior prayer of the hairt may be the mair valkinnit, and conseruit the bettir; and gif, onie man pray in ane vther toung, it is also expedient that he vnderstand the mening of the vordis at the lest. For the quhilk caus in the catholik kirk the parentis or godfatheris ar obleist to learne thame quhom thay hald in baptisme the formes of prayeris and beleif, and instruct thame sufficiently thairin, sua that thay vndirstand
693-651: The kirk thay ar cheiflie retenit for the conseruatione of vnitie in the kirk and nationis amang thame selfis; for, gif al thingis var turnit in the propir langage of euerie cuntrey, na man vald studie to the Latine toung, and thairbie al communicatione amangis Christiane pepil vald schortlie be tane auay, and thairbie eftir greit barbaritie inseu. Mairatour sik publique prayeris and seruice ar keipit mair perfytlie in thair auin integritie vithout al corruptione; for gif ane natione vald eik or pair onie thing, that vald be incontinent remarkt and reprouit be vther nationis, quhilk culd not be, gif euerie natione had al thai thingis turnit in
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#1732765648753726-399: The most part unique to the modern Anglo-Frisian languages: The grouping is usually implied as a separate branch in regards to the tree model . According to this reading, English and Frisian would have had a proximal ancestral form in common that no other attested group shares. The early Anglo-Frisian varieties, like Old English and Old Frisian , and the third Ingvaeonic group at the time,
759-480: The national language of the Stewart kingdom. The term Erse ( Irish ) was used instead for Gaelic, while Inglis (which previously referred to their own language) was increasingly used to refer only to the language south of the border. The first known instance of this shift in terminology was by an unknown man in 1494. In 1559, William Nudrye was granted a monopoly by the court to produce school textbooks, with two of
792-610: The north of Ireland, taking what were to become the Ulster Scots dialects with them. Later in the period southern influence on the language increased, owing to the new political and social relations with England prior to and following the accession of James VI to the English throne. By the time of the Union of Parliaments in 1707 southern Modern English was generally adopted as the literary language though Modern Scots remained
825-488: The now well established early merger of /ei/ with /e/ ( dey 'die', ley 'lie'), early 15th century l-vocalisation where /al/ (except intervocalically and before /d/ ), /ol/ and usually /ul/ merged with /au/ , /ou/ and /uː/ , medial and final /v/ was lost ( deil 'devil', ser 'serve'). The Great Vowel Shift occurred partially, /u/ and /øː/ remained unaffected, /ɔː/ became /oː/ , /iː , eː , ɛː/ and /aː/ became /ɛi , iː , eː/ and /ɛː/ . This
858-465: The preistis thame selfis miskneu the significatione of thir cerimoneis Than gif it vas aneuche to the pepill to vndirstand that in sik ane sacrifice consisted the vorshipping of God, suppois thay had not sua cleir ane vndirstanding of euerie thing that vas done thairin, sua in the catholik kirk, quhen the people assistis to the sacrifice of the Mess, thay acknaulege that thairbie God is vorshippit, and that it
891-414: The same: Albeit the principal thing quhilk God requiris is the hairt, that suppois he quha prayis vndirstand nocht perfytlie the vordis quhilk he spekis, yit God quha lukis in the hairt, vill nocht lat his prayer be in vane. As to the publik prayeris of the kirk, it is not necessar that the pepill vndirstand thame, becaus it is nocht the pepill quha prayis, bot the preistis in the name of the hail kirk, and it
924-714: The titles listed as Ane Schort Introduction: Elementary Digestit into Sevin Breve Tables for the Commodius Expeditioun of Thame That are Desirous to Read and Write the Scottis Toung and Ane Intructioun for Bairnis to be Learnit in Scottis and Latin , but there is no evidence that the books were ever printed. From 1610 to the 1690s, during the Plantation of Ulster , some 200,000 Scots settled in
957-659: The varld. And quhen the Ieuis sall imbrace the Euangel than sall the sacrifice and other publik prayeris be in the Hebreu toung, according to that quhilk I said befoir, that on the Croce of Christ thai thrie toungis onlie var vrittin, to signifie that the kirk of Christ suld vse thay thre toungis cheiflie in his vorshipping, as the neu and auld testament ar in thir thre toungis in greitast authoritie amangis al pepill. Anglic language Frisian : The Anglo-Frisian languages are
990-422: The vernacular. On the whole Middle Scots scribes never managed to establish a single standardised spelling for every word, but operated a system of free variation based on a number of spelling variants. Some scribes used their own variants, but this was relatively rare. The least variation occurred in the later 16th century as printers moved towards fixed spellings . Use of Middle Scots spelling variants ended in
1023-479: Was being used in England . Middle Scots was fairly uniform throughout its many texts, albeit with some variation due to the use of Romance forms in translations from Latin or French, turns of phrases and grammar in recensions of southern texts influenced by southern forms, misunderstandings and mistakes made by foreign printers. The now established Stewart identification with the lowland language had finally secured
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1056-738: Was followed in 1616 by an act establishing parish schools in the Highlands with the aim of extirpating the Gaelic language. The Danish dependency of Orkney and Shetland had been held by Scottish magnates from the late 14th century. These had introduced the Lowland tongue which then began to replace Norn . In 1467 the islands became part of Scotland. By the early 16th century the name Scottis (previously used to describe Gaelic in Ireland as well as Scotland) had been adopted for what had become
1089-650: Was to Frisian (or vice versa). North Sea Germanic, as a hypothetical grouping, was first proposed in Nordgermanen und Alemannen (1942) by the German linguist and philologist Friedrich Maurer (1898–1984), as an alternative to the strict tree diagrams that had become popular following the work of the 19th-century linguist August Schleicher and which assumed the existence of an Anglo-Frisian group. Scottish Vowel Length Rule The Scottish vowel length rule (also known as Aitken's law after A. J. Aitken ,
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