116-757: Middle Sister can refer to: The Middle Sister of the Three Sisters , a group of volcanic mountain peaks in Oregon Middle Sister (California) , a peak in the Sweetwater Mountains of California Middle Sister Island , a Canadian island in Lake Erie The Middle Sister , a 1960 novel by Lois Duncan Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with
232-455: A false peak , formed between 28,000 and 24,000 years ago, roughly around the same time as the main cone. Despite its relatively young age, every part of South Sister other than its peak has undergone significant erosion due to Pleistocene and Holocene glaciation. Between 30,000 and 15,000 years ago, South Sister's southern flanks were covered with ice streams , and a small amount of ice extended below 3,600 ft (1,100 m). On
348-598: A "primeval character", meaning that it had not suffered from human habitation or development, the Eastern Wilderness Act of 1975 extended the protection of the NWPS to areas in the eastern states that were not initially considered for inclusion in the Wilderness Act. This act allowed lands that did not meet the constraints of size, roadlessness, or human impact to be designated as wilderness areas under
464-474: A broad andesitic cone, forming a steep summit cone of andesite about 27,000 years ago. South Sister remained dormant for 15,000 years, after which its composition shifted from dacitic to more rhyolitic lava. An eruptive episode about 2,200 years ago, termed the Rock Mesa eruptive cycle, first spread volcanic ash from flank vents from the south and southwest flanks, followed by a thick rhyolite lava flow. Next,
580-606: A controlled manner. The landscapes seen in the US today are very different from the way things looked before colonists came. Fire could be used to maintain food, cords, and baskets. One of the main roles of frequent fires was to prevent the out of control fires which are becoming more and more common. The idea of wilderness having intrinsic value emerged in the Western world in the 19th century. British artists John Constable and J. M. W. Turner turned their attention to capturing
696-462: A large winter snowpack, with low temperatures for much of the year. There are patches of mountain hemlock, subalpine fir, and whitebark pine near the treeline, as well as wet meadows supporting Brewer's sedge , Holm's sedge , black alpine sedge , tufted hairgrass, and alpine aster . Near the peaks of the Three Sisters, there are extensive areas of bare rock. The lower eastern slopes of
812-541: A round trip of 16.4 mi (26.4 km) and an elevation gain of 4,757 ft (1,450 m). South Sister is the easiest of the three to climb, and has a trail all the way to the summit. The standard route up the south ridge runs for 12.6 mi (20.3 km) round trip, rising from 5,446 ft (1,660 m) at the trailhead to 10,363 ft (3,159 m) at its summit. It is a popular climb during August and September, with up to 400 people each day. Wilderness area Wilderness or wildlands (usually in
928-541: A sudden avalanche; this flash flood reached the Cascade Lakes Scenic Byway . Concerned about the hazard of similar flooding events, scientists in the 1980s from the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) identified that Carver Lake on South Sister could flood and breach its natural dam , producing a large mudflow that could endanger wilderness visitors and the town of Sisters. Studies at Collier Lake and Diller Lake suggested that both had breached their dams in
1044-690: A third of the Three Sisters Wilderness, and this area is known as the Alpine Crest Region. Rising from about 5,200 ft (1,600 m) to 10,358 ft (3,157 m) in elevation, the Alpine Crest Region features the wilderness area's most-frequented glaciers, lakes, and meadows. Weather varies greatly in the area due to the rain shadow caused by the Cascade Range. Air from the Pacific Ocean rises over
1160-507: A threat to nearby life, as the proximal danger zone extends 1.2 to 6.2 mi (2 to 10 km) from the volcano's summits. During an eruption, tephra could accumulate to 1 to 2 in (25 to 51 millimetres) in the city of Bend, and mudflows and pyroclastic flows could run down the sides of the mountain, threatening any life in their paths. Eruptions from South Sister could be either explosive or effusive , though an eruption of ash with local volcanic rock accumulation and slow lava flows
1276-480: Is 10,090 ft (3,075 m). Consisting primarily of basaltic andesite , it has a more mafic composition than the other two volcanoes. Its deposits are rich in palagonite and red and black cinders , and they are progressively more iron-rich the younger they are. North Sister's lava flows demonstrate similar compositions throughout the mountain's long eruptive history. The oldest lava flows on North Sister have been dated to roughly 311,000 years ago, though
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#17328010723751392-436: Is a predominantly rhyolitic stratovolcano overlying an older shield structure. Its modern structure is no more than 50,000 years old, and it last erupted about 2,000 years ago. Although its first eruptive events from 50,000 to 30,000 years ago were predominantly rhyolitic, between 38,000 and 32,000 years ago the volcano began to alternate between dacitic /rhyodacitic and rhyolitic eruptions. The volcano built
1508-663: Is an important part of wilderness designation because it created the legal definition of wilderness and established the National Wilderness Preservation System. The Wilderness Act defines wilderness as "an area where the earth and its community of life are untrammelled by man, where man himself is a visitor who does not remain." Wilderness designation helps preserve the natural state of the land and protects flora and fauna by prohibiting development and providing for non-mechanized recreation only. The first administratively protected wilderness area in
1624-543: Is being rapidly degraded by human activity. Even less wilderness remains in the ocean , with only 13.2% free from intense human activity. Some governments establish protection for wilderness areas by law to not only preserve what already exists , but also to promote and advance a natural expression and development. These can be set up in preserves, conservation preserves, national forests, national parks and even in urban areas along rivers, gulches or otherwise undeveloped areas. Often these areas are considered important for
1740-529: Is considered most likely. The Three Sisters area does not have fumarole activity, although there are hot springs west of South Sister. From 1986 to 1987, the USGS surveyed the Three Sisters vicinity with tilt-leveling networks and electro-optical distance meters, but South Sister was not the subject of close geodetic analysis until the early 2000s. In 2001, scientists inferred magmatic activity near South Sister from InSAR satellite data that showed uplift of
1856-556: Is designated as wilderness. As of 2023 there are 806 designated wilderness areas in the United States ranging in size from Florida's Pelican Island at 5 acres (20,000 m ) to Alaska's Wrangell-Saint Elias at 9,078,675 acres (36,740.09 km ). In Western Australia, a wilderness area is an area that has a wilderness quality rating of 12 or greater and meets a minimum size threshold of 80 km in temperate areas or 200 km in arid and tropical areas. A wilderness area
1972-538: Is less viscous ; it produces lava flows and is less prone to explosive eruptions than silicic magma. The region was active in the Pleistocene, with eruptions between about 650,000 and about 250,000 years ago from an explosively active complex known as the Tumalo volcanic center . This area features andesitic and mafic cinder cones such as Lava Butte , as well as rhyolite domes . Cinder cones accumulate from
2088-520: Is now understood that simply drawing lines around a piece of land and declaring it a wilderness does not necessarily make it a wilderness. All landscapes are intricately connected and what happens outside a wilderness certainly affects what happens inside it. For example, air pollution from Los Angeles and the California Central Valley affects Kern Canyon and Sequoia National Park . The national park has miles of "wilderness" but
2204-664: Is the most dangerous climb of the three peaks, and is often informally called the "Beast of the Cascades". One of its peaks, Little Brother, can be safely scrambled . The first recorded ascent of North Sister was made in 1857 by six people, including Oregon politicians George Lemuel Woods and James McBride , according to a story published in Overland Monthly in 1870. Today, the common trail covers 11 mi (18 km) round-trip, gaining 3,165 ft (965 m) in elevation. Middle Sister can also be scrambled, for
2320-456: Is the thickest and largest glacier in the region, descends along the north side of Middle Sister, cutting into the west side of North Sister. Erosion from Pleistocene and Holocene glaciation exposed a plug near the center of Middle Sister. South Sister, also known as "Charity", is the tallest volcano of the trio, standing at 10,363 ft (3,159 m). The eruptive products range from basaltic andesite to rhyolite and rhyodacite . It
2436-492: Is typically at least 5,000 acres (about 8 mi or 20 km ) in size. Human activities in wilderness areas are restricted to scientific study and non-mechanized recreation; horses are permitted but mechanized vehicles and equipment, such as cars and bicycles, are not. The United States was one of the first countries to officially designate land as "wilderness" through the Wilderness Act of 1964. The Wilderness Act
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#17328010723752552-423: Is unusual relative to nearby peaks. The Three Sisters form the leading edge of a rhyolitic crustal-melting anomaly, which might be explained by a combination of mantle flow (movement of Earth's solid silicate mantle layer caused by convection currents) and decompression that has generated similar melting and rhyolitic volcanism nearby for the past 16 million years. The three mountains were also shaped by
2668-533: The Seattle Weekly Gazette reported that one of the Three Sisters emitted some fire and smoke. In the late 19th century, there was extensive wool production in eastern Oregon. Shepherds led their herds of 1,500 to 2,500 sheep to the Three Sisters. They arrived in eastern foothills near Whychus Creek by May or June, and then climbed to higher pastures in August and September. By the 1890s, the area
2784-581: The Cascade Volcanoes . These volcanoes, including the Three Sisters, were fed by magma chambers resulting from the subduction of the Juan de Fuca tectonic plate under the western edge of the North American tectonic plate . Each of the three volcanoes formed at different times from several variable magmatic sources. The amount of rhyolite present in the lavas of the younger two mountains
2900-520: The Columbian black-tailed deer , mule deer , Roosevelt elk , and American black bear . Bobcats , cougars , coyotes , wolverines , martens , badgers , weasels , bald eagles , and several hawk species are many of the predators throughout the Three Sisters area. The Three Sisters area was occupied by Amerindians since the end of the last glaciation, mainly the Northern Paiute to
3016-571: The Flood , with the seas as the remains of that Flood." "If paradise was early man's greatest good, wilderness, as its antipode, was his greatest evil." Wilderness was viewed by colonists as being evil in its resistance to their control. The puritanical view of wilderness meant that in order for colonists to be able to live in North America, they had to destroy the wilderness in order to make way for their ' civilized ' society. Wilderness
3132-518: The Miocene or early Pliocene epochs. Naming this ancient volcano Mount Multnomah , Hodge theorized that it had collapsed to form a caldera just as Mount Mazama collapsed to form Crater Lake . In the 1940s, Howel Williams completed an analysis of the Three Sisters vicinity and concluded that Multnomah had never existed, instead demonstrating that each volcano in the area possessed its own individual eruptive history. Williams' 1944 paper defined
3248-639: The National Parks Act 1980 and the Conservation Act 1987 that fall well within the IUCN definition. Wilderness areas cannot have any human intervention and can only have indigenous species re-introduced into the area if it is compatible with conservation management strategies. In New Zealand wilderness areas are remote blocks of land that have high natural character. The Conservation Act 1987 prevents any access by vehicles and livestock,
3364-525: The Tang Dynasty (618–907). The tradition of representing nature as it is became one of the aims of Chinese painting and was a significant influence in Asian art. Artists in the tradition of Shan shui (lit. mountain-water-picture ), learned to depict mountains and rivers "from the perspective of nature as a whole and on the basis of their understanding of the laws of nature … as if seen through
3480-707: The U.S. state of Oregon . They are part of the Cascade Volcanic Arc , a segment of the Cascade Range in western North America extending from southern British Columbia through Washington and Oregon to Northern California . Each over 10,000 feet (3,000 meters) in elevation, they are the third-, fourth- and fifth-highest peaks in Oregon. Located in the Three Sisters Wilderness at the boundary of Lane and Deschutes counties and
3596-885: The United States Geological Survey improved monitoring in the immediate area. The Three Sisters are at the boundary of Lane and Deschutes counties and the Willamette and Deschutes national forests in the U.S. state of Oregon, about 10 miles (16 kilometers) south of the nearest town of Sisters . The three peaks are the third-, fourth-, and fifth-highest in Oregon, and contain 16 named glaciers. Their ice volume totals 5.6 billion cubic feet (160 million cubic metres). The Sisters were named Faith, Hope and Charity by early settlers, but are now known as North Sister, Middle Sister and South Sister, respectively. The Three Sisters Wilderness covers an area of 281,190 acres (1,137.9 km ), making it
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3712-442: The Willamette and Deschutes national forests, they are about 10 miles (16 kilometers) south of the nearest town, Sisters . Diverse species of flora and fauna inhabit the area, which is subject to frequent snowfall, occasional rain, and extreme temperature variation between seasons. The mountains, particularly South Sister, are popular destinations for climbing and scrambling . Although they are often grouped together as one unit,
3828-583: The conservation movement in the United States , partly through the efforts of writers and activists such as John Burroughs , Aldo Leopold , and John Muir , and politicians such as U.S. President Teddy Roosevelt . The idea of protecting nature for nature's sake began to gain more recognition in the 1930s with American writers like Aldo Leopold , calling for a "land ethic" and urging wilderness protection. It had become increasingly clear that wild spaces were disappearing rapidly and that decisive action
3944-425: The plural ) are Earth's natural environments that have not been significantly modified by human activity , or any nonurbanized land not under extensive agricultural cultivation. The term has traditionally referred to terrestrial environments, though growing attention is being placed on marine wilderness . Recent maps of wilderness suggest it covers roughly one-quarter of Earth's terrestrial surface, but
4060-547: The 1910 Glacier National Park act made void those rights. The act of 'preserving' the land was specifically linked to the exclusion of the Blackfeet people. The continued resistance of the Blackfeet people has provided documentation of the importance of the area to many different tribes. The world's second national park, the Royal National Park , located just 32 km to the south of Sydney , Australia ,
4176-414: The 1975 Eastern Wilderness Areas Act , followed. Nevertheless, initiatives for wilderness conservation continue to increase. There are a growing number of projects to protect tropical rainforests through conservation initiatives. There are also large-scale projects to conserve wilderness regions, such as Canada's Boreal Forest Conservation Framework . The Framework calls for conservation of 50 percent of
4292-701: The 6,000,000 square kilometres of boreal forest in Canada's north. In addition to the World Wildlife Fund, organizations such as the Wildlife Conservation Society , the WILD Foundation , The Nature Conservancy , Conservation International , The Wilderness Society (United States) and many others are active in such conservation efforts. The 21st century has seen another slight shift in wilderness thought and theory. It
4408-651: The Collier Glacier. According to sources, the Prouty Glacier is sometimes considered to be larger than the Collier glacier. When Little Ice Age glaciers retreated during the 20th century, water filled in the spaces left behind, forming moraine-dammed lakes , which are more common in the Three Sisters Wilderness than anywhere else in the contiguous U.S. The local area has a history of flash floods , including an event on October 7, 1966, caused by
4524-494: The Devils Hill eruptive cycle consisted of explosive ash eruptions followed by viscous rhyolitic lava flows. Unlike the previous eruptive period, it was caused by the intrusion of a dike of new silicic magma that erupted from 20 vents on the southeast side and from a smaller line on the north side. These eruptions generated pyroclastic flows and lava domes from vents on the northern, southern, eastern, and southeastern sides of
4640-644: The Forest Service decided to reclassify the area as a wilderness area and removed the old-growth forest of the French Pete Creek basin, despite protests of local environmental activists. The area became part of the National Wilderness Preservation System when the Wilderness Act of 1964 was passed, but the area still excluded the French Pete Creek basin. Responding to environmental mobilization throughout
4756-1422: The Forest Service, and preservationists the Park Service The World Conservation Union (IUCN) classifies wilderness at two levels, 1a ( strict nature reserves ) and 1b (Wilderness areas). There have been recent calls for the World Heritage Convention to better protect wilderness and to include the word wilderness in their selection criteria for Natural Heritage Sites Forty-eight countries have wilderness areas established via legislative designation as IUCN protected area management Category 1b sites that do not overlap with any other IUCN designation. They are: Australia, Austria, Bahamas, Bangladesh, Bermuda, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Botswana, Canada, Cayman Islands, Costa Rica, Croatia, Cuba, Czech Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Denmark, Dominican Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Estonia, Finland, French Guiana, Greenland, Iceland, India, Indonesia, Japan, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Malta, Marshall Islands, Mexico, Mongolia, Nepal, New Zealand, Norway, Northern Mariana Islands, Portugal, Seychelles, Serbia, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sri Lanka, Sweden, Tanzania, United States of America, and Zimbabwe. At publication, there are 2,992 marine and terrestrial wilderness areas registered with
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4872-536: The Grand Canyon, and Yosemite, the 'preservation' of these lands by the US government was what caused the Native Americans who lived in the areas to be systematically removed. Historian Mark David Spence has shown that the case of Glacier National Park and the Blackfeet people who live there is a perfect example of such erasure. The Blackfeet people had specifically designated rights to the area, but
4988-568: The IUCN as solely Category 1b sites. Twenty-two other countries have wilderness areas. These wilderness areas are established via administrative designation or wilderness zones within protected areas. Whereas the above listing contains countries with wilderness exclusively designated as Category 1b sites, some of the below-listed countries contain protected areas with multiple management categories including Category 1b. They are: Argentina, Bhutan, Brazil, Chile, Honduras, Germany, Italy, Kenya, Malaysia, Namibia, Nepal, Pakistan, Panama, Peru, Philippines,
5104-642: The North Sister summit, while the Thayer Glacier is on its eastern slope. The Collier Glacier is nestled between North Sister and Middle Sister and flows to the northwest. The Renfrew and Hayden Glaciers are on the northwestern and northeastern slopes of Middle Sister, respectively, while the Diller Glacier is on its southeastern slope. The Irving , Carver and Skinner Glaciers lie between Middle Sister and South Sister. Finally, around
5220-720: The Russian Federation, South Africa, Switzerland, Uganda, Ukraine, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Venezuela, and Zambia. The German National Strategy on Biological Diversity aims to establish wilderness areas on 2% of its terrestrial territory by 2020 (7,140 km ). However, protected wilderness areas in Germany currently only cover 0.6% of the total terrestrial area. In absence of pristine landscapes, Germany counts national parks (IUCN Category II) as wilderness areas. The government counts
5336-550: The Three Sisters Wilderness, leaving the area closed until May 2013. In August 2017, officials closed 417 sq mi (1,080 km ) in the western half of the Three Sisters Wilderness, including 24 mi (39 km) of the Pacific Crest Trail , to the public because of 11 lightning-caused fires, including the Milli Fire . As a result of the increasing incidence of fires, public officials have factored
5452-880: The Three Sisters below 5,200 ft (1,600 m) lie in the Ponderosa Pine/Bitterbrush Woodland ecoregion . This ecoregion has less precipitation than the western slopes and has soil derived from Mazama Ash (ash erupted from Mount Mazama). Stream flow changes little throughout the year due to the region's volcanic hydrogeology . These slopes support nearly pure stands of ponderosa pine. Understory vegetation includes greenleaf manzanita and snowberry at higher elevations and antelope bitterbrush at lower elevations. Mountain alder , stream dogwood , willows , and sedges grow along streams . Local fauna includes birds such as blue and ruffed grouse , small mammals like pikas , chipmunks , and golden-mantled ground squirrels , and larger species like
5568-635: The Three Sisters reflect their location in central Oregon's Cascade Range. The westside slopes from 3,000 to 6,500 ft (910 to 2,000 m) lie in the Western Cascade Montane Highlands ecoregion , where precipitation is abundant. Forests here consist predominantly of Douglas-fir and western hemlock , with minor components of mountain hemlock , noble fir , subalpine fir , grand fir , Pacific silver fir , red alder , and Pacific yew . Vine maples , rhododendron , Oregon grape , huckleberry , and thimbleberry grow beneath
5684-407: The United States (see below). The first National Park was Yellowstone , which was signed into law by U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant on 1 March 1872. The Act of Dedication declared Yellowstone a land "hereby reserved and withdrawn from settlement, occupancy, or sale under the laws of the United States, and dedicated and set apart as a public park or pleasuring ground for the benefit and enjoyment of
5800-604: The United States was the Gila National Forest. In 1922, Aldo Leopold , then a ranking member of the U.S. Forest Service, proposed a new management strategy for the Gila National Forest. His proposal was adopted in 1924, and 750,000 acres of the Gila National Forest became the Gila Wilderness . The Great Swamp in New Jersey was the first formally designated wilderness refuge in the United States. It
5916-717: The air is filled with pollution from the valley. This gives rise to the paradox of what a wilderness really is; a key issue in 21st century wilderness thought. The creation of national parks , beginning in the 19th century, preserved some especially attractive and notable areas, but the pursuits of commerce , lifestyle , and recreation combined with increases in human population have continued to result in human modification of relatively untouched areas. Such human activity often negatively impacts native flora and fauna. As such, to better protect critical habitats and preserve low-impact recreational opportunities, legal concepts of "wilderness" were established in many countries, beginning with
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#17328010723756032-415: The airfall of many pyroclastic rock fragments of various sizes, while the viscous rhyolite domes extrude onto the surface like toothpaste. The Tumalo volcano spread ignimbrites and plinian deposits in ground eruptions across the area, similar to the eruption of Vesuvius that destroyed Pompeii . These deposits spread from Tumalo to the town of Bend . Basaltic lava flows from North Sister overlay
6148-471: The area of uplift. The hundreds of small earthquakes subsided after several days. According to a 2011 study, this swarm may have initiated a significant decrease in the peak uplift rate. GPS and satellite observations showed that the rate of uplift west of South Sister gradually decreased from 2001 to 2020. A small increase in the uplift rate began in the same area between 2020 and 2021, and small earthquake swarms were recorded in 2021 and 2022. The ecology of
6264-481: The areas and further the traditional livelihood of the Sami people. This means e.g. that reindeer husbandry, hunting and taking wood for use in the household is permitted. As population is very sparse, this is generally no big threat to the nature. Large scale reindeer husbandry has influence on the ecosystem, but no change is introduced by the act on wilderness areas. The World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA) classifies
6380-645: The areas as "VI Protected area with sustainable use of natural resources". Since 1861, the French Waters and Forests Military Agency (Administration des Eaux et Forêts) put a strong protection on what was called the « artistic reserve » in Fontainebleau State Forest. With a total of 1,097 hectares, it is known to be the first World nature reserve. Then in the 1950s, Integral Biological Reserves (Réserves Biologiques Intégrales, RBI) are dedicated to man free ecosystem evolution, on
6496-422: The basic outline of the Three Sisters vicinity, though he lacked access to chemical techniques and radiometric dating . Over the past 70 years, scientists have published several reconnaissance maps and petrographic studies of the Three Sisters, including a detailed geological map published in 2012. Neither North nor Middle Sister is likely to resume volcanic activity. An eruption from South Sister would pose
6612-408: The beauty of the natural world in their paintings. Prior to that, paintings had been primarily of religious scenes or of human beings. William Wordsworth 's poetry described the wonder of the natural world, which had formerly been viewed as a threatening place. Increasingly the valuing of nature became an aspect of Western culture. By the mid-19th century, in Germany, "Scientific Conservation", as it
6728-534: The belief that they could be returned to a "primeval" state through preservation. Approximately 107,500,000 acres (435,000 km ) are designated as wilderness in the United States. This accounts for 4.82% of the country's total land area; however, 54% of that amount is found in Alaska (recreation and development in Alaskan wilderness is often less restrictive), while only 2.58% of the lower continental United States
6844-541: The botanist David Douglas reported snow-covered peaks visible from the Willamette Valley . As the Willamette Valley was gradually colonized in the 1840s, Euro-Americans approached the summits from the west and probably named them individually at that time. Explorers, such as Nathaniel Jarvis Wyeth in 1839 and John Frémont in 1843, used the Three Sisters as a landmark from the east. The area
6960-464: The changing climate of the Pleistocene epoch, during which multiple glacial periods occurred and glaciers eroded the mountains. The Three Sisters form the center of a region of closely grouped volcanic peaks. This is in contrast to the typical 40-to-60 mi (64-to-97 km) spacing between volcanoes elsewhere in the Cascades. Among the most active volcanic areas in the Cascades and one of
7076-639: The commercialization of some of Canada's National Parks with the building of great hotels such as the Banff Springs Hotel and Chateau Lake Louise . Despite their similar name, national parks in England and Wales are quite different from national parks in many other countries. Unlike most other countries, in England and Wales, designation as a national park may include substantial settlements and human land uses which are often integral parts of
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#17328010723757192-471: The construction of tracks and buildings, and all indigenous natural resources are protected. They are generally over 400 km in size. Three Wilderness Areas are currently recognised, all on the West Coast : Adams Wilderness Area, Hooker/Landsborough Wilderness Area and Paparoa Wilderness Area. In the United States, a Wilderness Area is an area of federal land set aside by an act of Congress . It
7308-640: The contrary of Managed Biological reserves (Réserves Biologiques Dirigées, RBD) where a specific management is applied to conserve vulnerable species or threatened habitats. Integral Biological Reserves occurs in French State Forests or City Forests and are therefore managed by the National Forests Office . In such reserves, all harvests coupe are forbidden excepted exotic species elimination or track safety works to avoid fallen tree risk to visitors (already existing tracks in or on
7424-490: The crater rim significantly steeper. The slopes of South Sister contain small glaciers, including the Lost Creek and Prouty glaciers. When the first geological reconnaissance of the Three Sisters region was published in 1925, its author, Edwin T. Hodge, suggested that the Three Sisters and five smaller mountains in the present-day wilderness area were the remains of an enormous collapsed volcano that had been active during
7540-512: The cumulative magma intrusion as 50 to 70 million cubic metres (1.8 × 10 ^ to 2.5 × 10 ^ cu ft) in volume. Beginning in 2001, the Cascades Volcano Observatory conducted field surveys and installed two new monitoring stations near the Three Sisters, including a GPS station and seismometer at The Husband, a peak west of the Three Sisters. In 2004, this seismometer detected an earthquake swarm in
7656-501: The early 1940s and in 1970, respectively. Other moraine-dammed lakes within the wilderness area include Thayer Lake on North Sister's east flank and four members of the Chambers Lakes group between Middle and South Sister. Before settlement of the area at the end of the 19th century, wildfires frequently burned through the local forests, especially the ponderosa pine forests on the eastern slopes. Due to fire suppression over
7772-420: The earth and animals and plants were created by a Christian God for human use, then the cultivation by colonists was their God-given goal. However, the idea that what European colonists saw upon arriving in North America was pristine and devoid of humans is untrue due to the existence of Native Americans. The land was shaped by Native Americans through practices such as fires. Burning happened frequently and in
7888-462: The east and Molala to the west. They harvested berries, made baskets, hunted, and made obsidian arrowheads and spears. Traces of rock art can be seen at Devils Hill, south of South Sister. The first Westerner to discover the Three Sisters was the explorer Peter Skene Ogden of the Hudson's Bay Company in 1825. He describes "a number of high mountains" south of Mount Hood. Ten months later in 1826,
8004-486: The eastern slopes varies from 40 to 80 in (100 to 200 cm) in the east. Temperature extremes reach 80 to 90 degrees Fahrenheit (27 to 32 degrees Celsius) in summers and −20 to −30 °F (−29 to −34 °C) during the winters. The Three Sisters have about 130 snowfields and glaciers ranging in altitude from 6,742 to 10,308 ft (2,055 to 3,142 m) with a cumulative surface area of about 2,500 acres (10 km ). The Linn and Villard Glaciers are north of
8120-659: The edge of the reserve). At the end of 2014, there were 60 Integral Biological Reserves in French State Forests for a total area of 111,082 hectares and 10 in City Forests for a total of 2,835 hectares. In Greece there are some parks called "ethniki drimoi" (εθνικοί δρυμοί, national forests) that are under protection of the Greek government. Such parks include Olympus , Parnassos and Parnitha National Parks. There are seven Wilderness Areas in New Zealand as defined by
8236-564: The eyes of a bird". In the 13th century, Shih Erh Chi recommended avoiding painting "scenes lacking any places made inaccessible by nature". For most of human history , the greater part of Earth's terrain was wilderness, and human attention was concentrated on settled areas. The first known laws to protect parts of nature date back to the Babylonian Empire and Chinese Empire. Ashoka , the Great Mauryan King, defined
8352-643: The first laws in the world to protect flora and fauna in Edicts of Ashoka around the 3rd century B.C. In the Middle Ages , the Kings of England initiated one of the world's first conscious efforts to protect natural areas. They were motivated by a desire to be able to hunt wild animals in private hunting preserves rather than a desire to protect wilderness. Nevertheless, in order to have animals to hunt they would have to protect wildlife from subsistence hunting and
8468-538: The former was Gifford Pinchot , first Chief of the United States Forest Service, and they focused on the proper use of nature, whereas the preservationists sought the protection of nature from use. Put another way, conservation sought to regulate human use while preservation sought to eliminate human impact altogether. The management of US public lands during the years 1960s and 70s reflected these dual visions, with conservationists dominating
8584-486: The glacier from 1910 to 1994. In the 1930s, the Three Sisters were part of a proposed National Monument . To maintain its authority over the region, the Forest Service decided to create a 191,108-acre (773 km ) primitive area in 1937. The following year, at the instigation of Forest Service employee Bob Marshall , it was expanded by 55,620 acres (225 km ) in the French Pete Creek basin. In 1957,
8700-459: The government supports bargains of land that will then be designated as wilderness by 10 Mio. Euro annually. The German minimum size for wilderness candidate sites is normally 10 km . In some cases (i.e. swamps) the minimum size is 5 km . There are twelve wilderness areas in the Sami native region in northern Finnish Lapland . They are intended both to preserve the wilderness character of
8816-518: The ground surface in an area centered approximately 3 mi (4.8 km) west of the mountain. The data showed a maximum of approximately 130 mm (5.1 in) of uplift from 1995 to 2001. The inflation episode was probably caused by the accumulation of magma or hot water and gases about 6 to 7 km (3.7 to 4.3 mi) underground. A 2002 study inferred that the inflation was due to intruding magma, likely of basaltic to rhyolitic composition, into an existing magma reservoir. A 2011 study described
8932-407: The idea that before settlers came, the US was an uninhabited landscape. This erases the reality of Native Americans, and their relationship with the land and the role they had in shaping the landscape. Such erasure suggests there were areas of the US which were historically unoccupied, once again erasing the existence of Native Americans and their relationship to the land. In the case of Yellowstone,
9048-574: The land from villagers gathering firewood. Similar measures were introduced in other European countries. However, in European cultures, throughout the Middle Ages, wilderness generally was not regarded worth protecting but rather judged strongly negative as a dangerous place and as a moral counter-world to the realm of culture and godly life. "While archaic nature religions oriented themselves towards nature, in medieval Christendom this orientation
9164-472: The land was something colonists did not understand and did not try to understand. This mutually beneficial relationship was different from how colonists viewed the land only in relation to how it could benefit themselves by waging a constant battle to beat the land and other living organisms into submission. The belief colonists had of the land being only something to be used was based in Christian ideas. If
9280-458: The landscape, and land within a national park remains largely in private ownership. Each park is operated by its own national park authority . The United States philosophy around wilderness preservation through National Parks has been attempted in other countries. However, people living in those countries have different ideas surrounding wilderness than people in the United States, thus, the US concept of wilderness can be damaging in other areas of
9396-508: The largest conservation organizations in the world. Early conservationists advocated the creation of a legal mechanism by which boundaries could be set on human activities in order to preserve natural and unique lands for the enjoyment and use of future generations. This profound shift in wilderness thought reached a pinnacle in the US with the passage of the Wilderness Act of 1964, which allowed for parts of U.S. National Forests to be designated as "wilderness preserves". Similar acts, such as
9512-561: The latter half of the 19th century. Rivers were rafted and mountains were climbed solely for the sake of recreation, not to determine their geographical context. In 1861, following an intense lobbying by artists of the Barbizon school , the French Waters and Forests Military Agency set an "artistic reserve" in Fontainebleau State Forest . With a total of 1,097 hectares, it is thought to be the first nature reserve in
9628-845: The main crest of the Cascade Range, stretching from the Columbia River almost to the border with California . In 1905, administration of the Reserve was moved from the United States General Land Office to the United States Forest Service . The Reserve was renamed the Cascade National Forest in 1907. In 1908, the forest was split: the eastern half became the Deschutes National Forest, while
9744-457: The most densely populated volcanic centers in the world, the Three Sisters region includes nearby peaks such as Belknap Crater , Mount Washington , Black Butte , and Three Fingered Jack to the north, and Broken Top and Mount Bachelor to the south. Most of the surrounding volcanoes consist of mafic (basaltic) lavas; only South and Middle Sister have an abundance of silicic rocks such as andesite , dacite , and rhyodacite . Mafic magma
9860-505: The mountain is cone-shaped. The eastern side has been heavily eroded by glaciation, while the western face is mostly intact. Of the Three Sisters, Middle Sister has the largest ice cover. The Hayden and Diller glaciers continue to cut into the east face, while the Renfrew Glacier sits on the northwestern slope. The large but retreating Collier Glacier , which contains 700 million cubic feet (20 × 10 ^ m ) of ice and
9976-530: The oldest reliably dated deposits are approximately 119,000 years old. Estimates place the volcano's last eruption at 46,000 years ago, in the Late Pleistocene . North Sister possesses more dikes than any similar Cascade peak, caused by lava intruding into pre-existing rocks. Many of these dikes were pushed aside by the intrusion of a 980 ft (300 m)-wide volcanic plug . The dikes and plug were exposed by centuries of erosion. At one point,
10092-462: The past century, the forests have become overgrown, and at higher elevations, they are further susceptible to summertime fires, which threaten surrounding life and property. In the 21st century, wildfires have been larger and more common in the Deschutes National Forest. In September 2012, a lightning strike caused a fire that burned 41 square miles (110 km ) in the Pole Creek area within
10208-429: The people." When national parks were established in an area, the Native Americans that had been living there were forcibly removed so visitors to the park could see nature without humans present. National parks are seen as areas untouched by humans, when in reality, humans existed in these spaces, until settler colonists came in and forced them off their lands in order to create the national parks. The concept glorifies
10324-503: The planning of the areas. This situation places the ideal of wilderness above the already existing relationships between people and the land they live on. By placing an imperialistic ideal of nature onto a different country, the desire to reestablish wilderness is being put above the lives of those who live by working the land. By the late 19th century, it had become clear that in many countries wild areas had either disappeared or were in danger of disappearing. This realization gave rise to
10440-471: The railroads advertised travel to "the great wild spaces" of North America. When outdoorsman Teddy Roosevelt became president of the United States, he began to enlarge the U.S. National Parks system, and established the National Forest system. By the 1920s, travel across North America by train to experience the "wilderness" (often viewing it only through windows) had become very popular. This led to
10556-563: The role of wildfire into planning, including organizing prescribed fires with scientists to protect habitats at risk while minimizing adverse effects on air quality and environmental health. The Three Sisters join several other volcanoes in the eastern segment of the Cascade Range known as the High Cascades, which trends north–south. The High Cascades are the most recent volcanic arc in the Pacific Northwest, which forms
10672-654: The second-largest wilderness area in Oregon. Designated by the United States Congress in 1964, it borders the Mount Washington Wilderness to the north and shares its southern edge with the Waldo Lake Wilderness . The area includes 260 mi (420 km) of trails and many forests, lakes, waterfalls, and streams, including the source of Whychus Creek . The Three Sisters and nearby Broken Top account for about
10788-650: The state of Oregon, Congress passed the Endangered American Wilderness Act of 1978 , which led to the reinstatement of French Pete Creek and its surroundings in the Three Sisters Wilderness Area. The Oregon Wilderness Act of 1984 further expanded the wilderness with the addition of 38,100 acres (154 km ) around Erma Bell Lakes. The Three Sisters are a popular climbing destination for hikers and mountaineers . Due to extensive erosion and rockfall, North Sister
10904-480: The summit of South Sister, in a clockwise direction, are the Prouty , Lewis , Clark , Lost Creek , and Eugene Glaciers . The Collier Glacier, despite a 4,900 ft (1,500 m) retreat and a 64% loss of its surface area between 1910 and 1994, is generally considered to be the largest glacier of the Three Sisters at 160 acres (0.65 km ). Eliot Glacier on Mount Hood is now two-and-a-half times larger than
11020-458: The survival of certain species , biodiversity , ecological studies, conservation , solitude and recreation . They may also preserve historic genetic traits and provide habitat for wild flora and fauna that may be difficult to recreate in zoos , arboretums or laboratories . From a visual arts perspective, nature and wildness have been important subjects in various epochs of world history. An early tradition of landscape art occurred in
11136-417: The three mountains have their own individual geology and eruptive history. Neither North Sister nor Middle Sister has erupted in the last 14,000 years, and it is considered unlikely that either will ever erupt again. South Sister last erupted about 2,000 years ago and could erupt in the future, threatening life within the region. After satellite imagery detected ground inflation near South Sister in 2001,
11252-524: The title Middle Sister . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Middle_Sister&oldid=1118000805 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Three Sisters (Oregon) The Three Sisters are closely spaced volcanic peaks in
11368-731: The trees. Douglas-fir is dominant below 3,500 ft (1,100 m), while western hemlock dominates above. Timberline at the Three Sisters occurs at 6,500 ft (2,000 m), where the forest canopy opens and the subalpine zone begins. These forests lie in the Cascade Crest montane forest ecoregion . Mountain hemlock trees dominate the forest in this area, while meadows sustain sedges , dwarf willows , tufted hairgrass , lupine , red paintbrush , and Newberry knotweed . Tree line occurs at 7,500 feet (2,300 m). The vegetation in this harsh alpine zone consists of herbaceous and shrubby subalpine meadows. This zone has
11484-521: The volcano stood more than 11,000 ft (3,400 m) high, but erosion reduced this volume by a quarter to a third. The plug is now exposed and forms North Sister's summits at Prouty Peak and the South Horn. Middle Sister, also known as "Hope", is a basaltic stratovolcano that has also erupted more-viscous andesite, dacite, and rhyodacite. The smallest and least studied of the three, Middle Sister began eruptive activity 48,000 years ago, and it
11600-462: The volcano's northern flank, erosion from these glaciers exposed a headwall about 1,200 ft (370 m) high. During the Holocene, smaller glaciers formed, alternating between advance and retreat, depositing moraines and till between 7,000 and 9,000 ft (2,100 and 2,700 m) on the mountain. The Lewis and Clark glaciers have cirques , or glacial valleys, that made the outer walls of
11716-532: The volcano. These relatively recent, postglacial eruptions suggest the presence of a silicic magma reservoir under South Sister, one that could perhaps lead to future eruptions. Unlike its sister peaks, South Sister has an uneroded summit crater about 0.25 mi (0.40 km) in diameter that holds a small crater lake known as Teardrop Pool, the highest lake in Oregon. Its cone consists of basaltic andesite along with red scoria and tephra, with exposed black and red inner walls made of scoria. Hodge Crest,
11832-538: The western half merged in 1934 to form the Willamette National Forest. Most of the Three Sisters glaciers were described for the first time by Ira A. Williams in 1916. Collier Glacier, between North and Middle Sister, was first studied and mapped by Edwin Hodge. Ruth Hopsen Keen took a forty-year photographic record of Collier Glacier, documenting part of the 0.93 mi (1,500 m) retreat of
11948-401: The western slopes, which causes it to cool and dump its moisture as rain (or snow in the winter). Precipitation increases with elevation. Once the moisture is wrung from the air, the air descends on the eastern side of the crest, which causes it to become warmer and drier. On the western slopes, precipitation ranges from 80 to 125 in (200 to 320 centimeters) annually, while precipitation over
12064-535: The whole area of the 16 national parks as wilderness. This means, also the managed parts are included in the "existing" 0,6%. There is no doubt, that Germany will miss its own time-dependent quantitative goals, but there are also some critics, that point a bad designation practice: Findings of disturbance ecology, according to which process-based nature conservation and the 2% target could be further qualified by more targeted area designation, pre-treatment and introduction of megaherbivores , are widely neglected. Since 2019
12180-627: The world. Global conservation became an issue at the time of the dissolution of the British Empire in Africa in the late 1940s. The British established great wildlife preserves there. As before, this interest in conservation had an economic motive: in this case, big game hunting . Nevertheless, this led to growing recognition in the 1950s and the early 1960s of the need to protect large spaces for wildlife conservation worldwide. The World Wildlife Fund (WWF), founded in 1961, grew to be one of
12296-551: The world. India is more densely populated and has been settled for a long time. There are complex relationships between agricultural communities and the wilderness. An example of this is the Project Tiger parks in India. By claiming areas as no longer used by humans, the land moves from the hands of poor people to rich people. Having designated tiger reserves is only possible by displacing poor people, who were not involved in
12412-422: The youngest Tumalo pyroclastic deposits, indicating that North Sister was active more recently than 260,000 years ago. North Sister, also known as "Faith", is the oldest and most highly eroded of the three, with zigzagging rock pinnacles between glaciers. It is a shield volcano that overlays a more ancient shield volcano named Little Brother. North Sister is 5 mi (8 km) wide, and its summit elevation
12528-481: Was called, advocated "the efficient utilization of natural resources through the application of science and technology ". Concepts of forest management based on the German approach were applied in other parts of the world, but with varying degrees of success. Over the course of the 19th century wilderness became viewed not as a place to fear but a place to enjoy and protect; hence came the conservation movement in
12644-484: Was considered to be the root of the colonists' problems, so to make the problems go away, wilderness needed to be destroyed. One of the first steps in doing this, is to get rid of trees in order to clear the land. Military metaphors describing the wilderness as the "enemy" were used, and settler expansion was phrased as "[conquering] the wilderness". In relation to the wilderness, Native Americans were viewed as savages . The relationship between Native Americans and
12760-543: Was declared a wildlife refuge on 3 November 1960. In 1966 it was declared a National Natural Landmark and, in 1968, it was given wilderness status. Properties in the swamp had been acquired by a small group of residents of the area, who donated the assembled properties to the federal government as a park for perpetual protection. Today the refuge amounts to 7,600 acres (31 km ) that are within thirty miles of Manhattan . While wilderness designations were originally granted by an Act of Congress for Federal land that retained
12876-490: Was established in 1879. The U.S. concept of national parks soon caught on in Canada , which created Banff National Park in 1885, at the same time as the transcontinental Canadian Pacific Railway was being built. The creation of this and other parks showed a growing appreciation of wild nature, but also an economic reality. The railways wanted to entice people to travel west. Parks such as Banff and Yellowstone gained favor as
12992-635: Was further explored by John Strong Newberry in 1855 as part of the Pacific Railroad Surveys . In 1862, to connect the Willamette Valley to the ranches of Central Oregon and the gold mines of eastern Oregon and Idaho, Felix and Marion Scott traced a route over Scott Pass. This route was known as the Scott Trail, but was superseded in the early 20th century by the McKenzie Pass Road further north. In February 1866,
13108-556: Was getting overgrazed. Despite regulatory measures, sheep grazing peaked in 1910 before being banned in the 1930s at North and Middle Sister, and in 1940 at South Sister. In 1892, President Grover Cleveland decided to create the Cascades Forest Reserve, based on the authority of the Forest Reserve Act of 1891 . Cascades Reserve was a strip of land from 20 to 60 mi (30 to 100 km) wide around
13224-570: Was needed to save them. Wilderness preservation is central to deep ecology ; a philosophy that believes in an inherent worth of all living beings, regardless of their instrumental utility to human needs. Two different groups had emerged within the US environmental movement by the early 20th century: the conservationists and the preservationists. The initial consensus among conservationists was split into "utilitarian conservationists" later to be referred to as conservationists, and "aesthetic conservationists" or preservationists. The main representative for
13340-486: Was primarily built by eruptions occurring between 25,000 and 18,000 years ago. One of the earliest major eruptive events (about 38,000 years ago) produced the rhyolite of Obsidian Cliffs on the mountain's northwestern flank. Thick and rich in dacite, the flows extended from the northern and southern sides. They stand in contrast to older, andesitic lava remains that reach as far as 4.3 mi (7 km) from its base. With an elevation of 10,052 ft (3,064 m),
13456-472: Was replaced by one towards divine law. The divine was no longer to be found in nature; instead, uncultivated nature became a site of the sinister and the demonic. It was considered corrupted by the Fall ( natura lapsa ), becoming a vale of tears in which humans were doomed to live out their existence. Thus, for example, mountains were interpreted [e.g, by Thomas Burnet ] as ruins of a once flat earth destroyed by
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