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64-651: The Midewiwin (in syllabics : ᒥᑌᐧᐃᐧᐃᓐ , also spelled Midewin and Medewiwin ) or the Grand Medicine Society is a religion of some of the Indigenous peoples of the Maritimes , New England and Great Lakes regions in North America . Its practitioners are called Midew , and the practices of Midewiwin are referred to as Mide . Occasionally, male Midew is called Midewinini , which

128-600: A mide-wiigiwaam that is an oval domed structure, the jiisakiiwigaan is a round high-domed structure of typically 3 feet (0.91 m) in diameter and 6 feet (1.8 m) in height, and large enough to hold two to four people. Called wiigwaasabakoon in the Ojibwe language , birch bark scrolls were used to pass on knowledge between generations. When used specifically for Midewiwin ceremonial use, these wiigwaasabakoon used as teaching scrolls were called Mide-wiigwaas ('Medicine birch [bark scroll]'). Early accounts of

192-425: A Central Chiricahua informant: Both the teepee and the oval-shaped house were used when I was a boy. The oval hut was covered with hide and was the best house. The more well-to-do had this kind. The teepee type was just made of brush. It had a place for a fire in the center. It was just thrown together. Both types were common even before my time ... A house form that departed from the more common dome-shaped variety

256-463: A candidate be considered for advancement to the next degree. (Edited* From Anishinaabe perspective there is no level system that can equate to our ways. This is projection of thinking on Native Way.5 The accounts regarding the extended Fourth Degrees vary from region to region. All Midewiwin groups claim the extended Fourth Degrees are specialized forms of the Fourth Degree. Depending on

320-468: A collection of texts dictated by an Ottawa speaker from Walpole Island First Nation , Ontario. The two dialects are characterized by loss of short vowels because of vowel syncope . Since vowel syncope occurs frequently in the Ottawa and Eastern Ojibwe dialects, additional consonant clusters arise. The letter h is used for the glottal stop [ʔ] , which is represented in the broader Ojibwe version with

384-405: A fire is not needed, even the smoke hole is covered. In warm, dry weather much of the outer roofing is stripped off. It takes approximately three days to erect a sturdy dwelling of this type. These houses are "warm and comfortable even though there is a big snow". The interior is lined with brush and grass beds over which robes are spread.... The woman not only makes the furnishings of the home but

448-514: A frame of arched poles, most often wooden, which are covered with some sort of bark roofing material. Details of construction vary with the culture and local availability of materials. Some of the roofing materials used include grass, brush, bark, rushes, mats, reeds, hides or cloth. Wigwams are most often seasonal structures, although the term is applied to rounded and conical structures that are more permanent. Wigwams usually take longer to put up than tipis . Their frames are usually not portable like

512-436: A thatching of bundles of big bluestem grass or bear grass is tied, shingle style, with yucca strings. A smoke hole opens above a central fireplace allows smoke to escape when the firepit is used. A hide, suspended at the entrance, is fixed on a cross-beam so that it may be swung forward or backward. The doorway may face in any direction. For waterproofing, pieces of hide are thrown over the outer hatching, and in rainy weather, if

576-472: A tipi. A typical wigwam in the Northeast has a curved surface which can hold up against the worst weather. Young green tree saplings of just about any type of wood, 10 to 15 feet (3.0 to 4.6 m) long, were cut down and bent. While the saplings were being bent, a circle was drawn on the ground. The diameter of the circle varied from 10 to 16 feet (3.0 to 4.9 m). The bent saplings were then placed over

640-669: A translation of the New Testament in both the Severn Ojibwe and the Berens River dialects, and a text collection in the Northwestern Ojibwe dialect. The short vowels are: i, o, a The long vowels are: ii, oo, aa, e The consonants are: p, c, h, k, m, n, s, sh, t, y, w The letter ⟨c⟩ is used to represent the postalveolar affricate /tʃ/ ; the digraph ⟨sh⟩

704-489: A variant in which long vowels are represented with a macron (ˉ) over short vowels is also reported for several publications in the early 1970s. Development of the double vowel system is attributed to Charles Fiero. At a conference held to discuss the development of a common Ojibwe orthography, Ojibwe language educators agreed that the double vowel system was a preferred choice but recognized that other systems were also used and preferred in some locations. The double vowel system

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768-405: Is associated with the relative autonomy of the regional dialects of Ojibwe. There is no single dialect that is considered the most prestigious or most prominent, and no standard writing system used to represent all dialects. Ojibwe dialects have been written in numerous ways over a period of several centuries, with the development of different written traditions reflecting a range of influences from

832-572: Is generally used to refer to these kinds of dwellings in the Southwestern United States and Western United States and Northwest Alberta , Canada, while wigwam is usually applied to these structures in the Northeastern United States as well as Ontario and Quebec in central Canada . The names can refer to many distinct types of Indigenous structures regardless of location or cultural group. The wigwam

896-589: Is known in English as the Grand Medicine Lodge and is usually built in an open grove or clearing. A midewigaan is a domed structure with the proportion of one unit in width by four units in length. Though Hoffman records these domed oval structures measuring about 20 feet (6.1 m) in width by 80 feet (24 m) in length, the structures are sized to accommodate the number of invited participants, thus many midewigaan for small mide communities in

960-522: Is not to be confused with the Native Plains tipi , which has a different construction, structure, and use. The domed, round shelter was used by numerous northeastern Indigenous tribes. The curved surfaces make it an ideal shelter for all kinds of conditions. Indigenous peoples in the Great Lakes–St. Lawrence Lowlands resided in either wigwams or longhouses . These structures are made with

1024-506: Is recorded for the Southern Chiricahua as well: When we settled down, we used the wickiup; when we were moving around a great deal, we used this other kind... The English word wigwam derives from Eastern Abenaki wigwôm , from Proto-Algonquian *wi·kiwa·ʔmi . Others have similar names for the structure: wickiup : Nearly identical constructions, called aqal , are used by today's nomadic Somali people as well as

1088-515: Is represented with ⟨n'⟩ , in words such as niiyawe n' enh "my namesake" and aa n' aa n' we " pintail duck ". A minor variant of the double vowel system is used to write the Ottawa and Eastern Ojibwe varieties spoken in Michigan and southwestern Ontario , as exemplified in a prominent dictionary. Other publications making use of the same system include a reference grammar and

1152-489: Is responsible for the construction, maintenance, and repair of the dwelling itself and for the arrangement of everything in it. She provides the grass and brush beds and replaces them when they become too old and dry.... However, formerly "they had no permanent homes, so they didn't bother with cleaning." The dome-shaped dwelling or wickiup, the usual home type for all the Chiricahua bands, has already been described.... Said

1216-862: Is sometimes translated into English as " medicine man ". Due to the body-part medial de' meaning 'heart' in the Anishinaabe language, Midewiwin is sometimes translated as 'The Way of the Heart'. Minnesota archaeologist Fred K. Blessing shares a definition he received from Thomas Shingobe, a Mida (a Midewiwin person) of the Mille Lacs Indian Reservation in 1969, who told him that "the only thing that would be acceptable in any way as an interpretation of 'Mide' would be 'Spiritual Mystery'." Fluent speakers of Anishinaabemowin often caution that many words and concepts have no direct translation in English. According to historian Michael Angel,

1280-475: Is still alive. Walter James Hoffman recorded that according to the Mille Lacs Indians chief Bayezhig ('Lone One'), Midewiwin has its origin as: This event is called Gwiiwizens wedizhichigewinid —Deeds of a Little-boy. Mide societies keep wiigwaasabak (birch bark scrolls) that preserve their teachings. They have degrees of initiations and hold ceremonies. They are often associated with

1344-504: Is used by some Ojibwe speakers in northern Ontario and Manitoba. Development of the original form of Canadian Aboriginal syllabics is credited to missionary James Evans around 1840. The Great Lakes Algonquian syllabics are based on French orthography with letters organized into syllables. It was primarily used by speakers of Fox , Potawatomi , and Winnebago , but there is indirect evidence of use by speakers of Chippewa ("Southwestern Ojibwe"). Anishinaabewibii'iganan can refer to

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1408-557: Is used for several publications in the Ottawa and Eastern Ojibwe dialects (see below Ottawa-Eastern Ojibwe double vowel system ). One of the goals underlying the double vowel orthography is promoting standardization of Ojibwe writing so that language learners are able to read and write in a consistent way. By comparison, folk phonetic spelling approaches to writing Ottawa based on less systematic adaptations of written English or French are more variable and idiosyncratic and do not always make consistent use of alphabetic letters. Letters of

1472-591: Is used to represent the postalveolar fricative /ʃ/ . The lenis consonants are: p, c, k, s, sh, t Consonant clusters of h followed by a lenis consonant correspond to fortis consonants in other dialects: hp, hc, hk, hs, hsh, ht Wigwam A wigwam , wickiup , wetu ( Wampanoag ), or wiigiwaam ( Ojibwe , in syllabics : ᐧᐄᑭᐧᐋᒻ ) is a semi-permanent domed dwelling formerly used by certain Native American tribes and First Nations people and still used for ceremonial events. The term wickiup

1536-528: Is widely favored among language teachers in the United States and Canada and is taught in a program for Ojibwe language teachers. The double vowel orthography is used to write several dialects of Ojibwe spoken in the circum- Great Lakes area. Significant publications in Chippewa (Southwestern Ojibwe) include a widely used dictionary and a collection of texts. The same system with minor differences

1600-747: Is written with a single ⟨e⟩ . The short vowels are: ⟨i, o, a⟩ . The long vowels are: ⟨ii, oo, aa, e⟩ . The short vowel represented as orthographic ⟨a⟩ has values centering on [ə ~ ʌ] ; short ⟨i⟩ has values centering on [ɪ] ; and short ⟨o⟩ has values centring on [o ~ ʊ] . The long vowel ⟨aa⟩ has values centering on [aː] ; long ⟨ii⟩ has values centering on [iː] ; and long ⟨oo⟩ has values centering on [oː ~ uː] . The long vowel ⟨e⟩ has values centering on [eː ~ ɛː] . The long nasal vowels are phonetically [ĩː] , [ẽː] , [ãː] , and [õː] . They most commonly occur in

1664-677: The Afar people on the Horn of Africa . Pieces of old clothing or plastic sheet, woven mats (traditionally made of grass), or whatever material is available will be used to cover the aqal ' s roof. Similar domed tents are also used by the Bushmen and Nama people and other indigenous peoples in Southern Africa. The traditional semi-permanent dwelling of the Sámi people of Northern Europe

1728-464: The English alphabet substitute for specialized phonetic symbols , in conjunction with orthographic conventions unique to Ojibwe. The system embodies two principles: (1) alphabetic letters from the English alphabet are used to write Ojibwe but with Ojibwe sound values; (2) the system is phonemic in nature in that each letter or letter combination indicates its basic sound value and does not reflect all

1792-513: The Mide from 19th-century books describe a group of elders that protected the birch bark scrolls in hidden locations. They recopied the scrolls if any were badly damaged, and they preserved them underground. These scrolls were described as very sacred and the interpretations of the scrolls were not easily given away. The historical areas of the Ojibwe were recorded, and stretched from the east coast all

1856-704: The Midewin is a "flexible, tenacious tradition that provided an institutional setting for the teaching of the world view (religious beliefs) of the Ojibwa people". Commonly among the Anishinaabeg , Midewin is ascribed to Wenaboozho (Onaniboozh) as its founder. However, among the Abenakis , Midewiwin is ascribed to Mateguas , who bestowed the Midewiwin upon his death to comfort his grieving brother Gluskab , who

1920-470: The fricatives / ʃ / and / ʒ / are written ⟨sh⟩ and ⟨zh⟩ . The semivowels / j / and / w / are written ⟨y⟩ and ⟨w⟩ . The lenis obstruents are written using voiced characters: ⟨b, d, g, j, z, zh⟩ . The fortis consonants use voiceless characters: ⟨p, t, k, ch, s, sh⟩ . The remaining consonants are written ⟨m, n, w, y, h⟩ , in addition to

1984-511: The glottal stop /ʔ/ , which is written ⟨'⟩ . Although the double vowel system treats the digraphs ⟨ch, sh, zh⟩ each as single sounds, they are alphabetized as two distinct letters. The long vowel written with double symbols are treated as units and alphabetized after the corresponding short vowel. The resulting alphabetical order is: a aa b (ch) d e g h ' i ii j k m n o oo p s t w y z The consonant clusters that occur in many Ojibwe dialects are represented with

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2048-402: The midewigamig becomes a formal and permanent ceremonial building that retains the dimensions of the smaller mide-wiigiwaam ; a midewigamig might not necessarily be a domed structure, but typically may have vaulted ceilings. Design of the jiisakiiwigaan ('juggler's lodge' or 'Shaking Tent' or traditionally 'shaking wigwam') is similar in construction as that of the mide-wiigiwaam . Unlike

2112-435: The ogonek diacritic in some publications, while in others they are represented by underlining the vowel. The Double Vowel system used today employing ⟨-ny-⟩ / ⟨-nh⟩ for long nasal vowels is sometimes called "Fiero-Nichols Double Vowel system" since John Nichols popularized this convention. The affricates / tʃ / and / dʒ / are written ⟨ch⟩ and ⟨j⟩ , and

2176-526: The British, the treaty-signing chiefs would often mark an "X" for their signature and then use the Wiigwaasabak character representing their doodem . Today, Ojibwe artists commonly incorporate motifs found in the Wiigwaasabak to instill "Native Pride." The term itself: "Anishinaabewibii'iganan", simply means Ojibwe / Anishinaabe or " Indian " writings and can encompass a far larger meaning than only

2240-627: The Cree-Saulteaux Roman system, the most notable difference being the substitution of conventional letters of the alphabet for symbols taken from the International Phonetic Alphabet , which results in the use of ⟨sh⟩ instead of ⟨š⟩ and the use of double vowels to represent long vowels. This system is used in several pedagogical grammars for the Severn Ojibwe dialect,

2304-716: The Seven Fires Society, and other Indigenous groups or organizations. The Miigis shell, or cowry shell, is used in some ceremonies, along with bundles, sacred items, etc. There are many oral teachings, symbols, stories, history, and wisdom passed along and preserved from one generation to the next by these groups. Whiteshell Provincial Park (Manitoba) is named after the whiteshell (cowry) used in Midewiwin ceremonies. This park contains some petroforms that are over 1000 years old, or possibly older, and therefore may predate some aboriginal groups that came later to

2368-622: The Sámi lavvu , other forms of chum are more permanent in nature. The more permanent forms of chum are very similar in construction to the timber or peat moss covered goahti dwellings of the Sámi, or the wigwams of the Native American cultures of the Eastern Woodlands and northern parts of North America. In Britain, similar structures known as bender tents , are built quickly and cheaply by New Age travellers , using poles from

2432-689: The alphabetical order is: a b c d e g (g̣) h (ḥ) i j k (ḳ) m n o p s t w y z The Cree-Saulteaux Roman system, also known as the Cree Standard Roman Orthography (Cree SRO), is based on the Canadian Aboriginal syllabics and is found in northern Ontario, southern Manitoba and southern Saskatchewan. Compared to the Fiero or Rhodes double vowel systems, long vowels, including ⟨e⟩ , are shown with either macron or circumflex diacritic marks, depending on

2496-464: The apostrophe. In Ottawa, the apostrophe is reserved for a separate function, as noted below. In a few primarily expressive words, orthographic h has the phonetic value [h]: aa haaw "OK". The apostrophe ’   is used to distinguish primary (underlying) consonant clusters from secondary clusters that arise when the rule of syncope deletes a vowel between two consonants. For example, orthographic ng must be distinguished from n'g . The former has

2560-537: The area. The Midew society is commemorated in the name of the Midewin National Tallgrass Prairie (Illinois). The Mide practitioners are initiated and ranked by degrees. Much like the apprentice system, masonic degrees, or an academic degree program, a practitioner cannot advance to the next higher degree until completing the required studies, experiences and ceremonies required of that degree. Only after successful completion may

2624-511: The body of Ojibwe writings found as petroglyphs , on story-hides, and on Midewiwin wiigwaasabakoon , similar to the Mi'kmaw Suckerfish script . Not much is known to academia regarding these "hieroglyphics" or glyphs , though there are said to be several Ojibwe elders who still know the meanings of many of the symbols. As their content is considered sacred, however, very little information about them has been revealed. In treaty negotiations with

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2688-407: The community's standards. Though syncope is not a common feature with Saulteaux, the occasional vowel loss is indicated with a ⟨'⟩ Nasaled vowels are generally not marked. The resulting alphabetical order is: Although speakers of the dialects of Ojibwe spoken in northern Ontario most commonly write using the syllabary, an alphabetic system is also employed. This system is similar to

2752-589: The development of picture 'writing.' Some of them were painted on bark. One large birch bark roll was 'known to have been used in the Midewiwin at Mille Lacs for five generations and perhaps many generations before', and two others, found in a seemingly deliberate hiding place in the Head-of-the-Lakes region of Ontario, were carbon-dated to about 1560 CE +/-70. The author of the original report on these hidden scrolls advised: "Indians of this region occasionally deposited such artifacts in out-of-the-way places in

2816-419: The drawn circle, using the tallest saplings in the middle and the shorter ones on the outside. The saplings formed arches all in one direction on the circle. The next set of saplings were used to wrap around the wigwam to give the shelter support. When the two sets of saplings were finally tied together, the sides and roof were placed on it. The sides of the wigwam were usually bark stripped from trees. The male of

2880-468: The early 21st century are as small as 6 feet (1.8 m) in width and 24 feet (7.3 m) in length and larger in those communities with more mide participants. The walls of the smaller mide-wiigiwaam consist of poles and saplings from 8 to 10 feet (2.4 to 3.0 m) high, firmly planted in the ground, wattled with short branches and twigs with leaves. In communities with significantly large mide participants (usually of 100 people or more participants),

2944-411: The family was responsible for the framing of the wigwam. Mary Rowlandson uses the term wigwam in reference to the dwelling places of Indigenous people that she stayed with while in their captivity during King Philip's War in 1675. The term wigwam has remained in common English usage as a synonym for any "Indian house"; however, this usage is dispreferred, as there are important differences between

3008-451: The final syllable of nouns with diminutive suffixes or words with a diminutive connotation. Orthographically they are represented differently in word-final position as opposed to word-internally. In the final syllable of a word the long vowel is followed by word-final ⟨nh⟩ to indicate that it is nasal; the use of ⟨h⟩ is an orthographic convention and does not correspond to an independent sound. The examples in

3072-407: The floor at ground level. It is eight feet [2.4 m] high at the center and approximately seven feet [2.1 m] in diameter. To build it, long fresh poles of oak or willow are driven into the ground or placed in holes made with a digging stick. These poles, which form the framework, are arranged at one-foot [0.30 m] intervals and are bound together at the top with yucca-leaf strands. Over them

3136-409: The following sequences of characters: mb, nd, ng, nj, nz, ns, nzh, sk, shp, sht, shk The consonant cluster ⟨nw⟩ represents syllable onset [ n ] followed by a syllable medial [ w ], while the rare consonant cluster ⟨n'w⟩ represents a nasaled vowel followed by ⟨w⟩ ; in some varieties of Southwestern Ojibwe, the rare nasaled vowel followed by a glottal stop

3200-431: The historical pictographic script. Indeed, Anishinaabewibii'iganan may describe the pictographic script better since its connections with non-Anishinaabe or -Ojibwe nations extend deeply. The different systems used to write Ojibwe are typically distinguished by their representation of key features of the Ojibwe inventory of sounds. Differences include: the representation of vowel length, the representation of nasal vowels,

3264-460: The nasal consonants ⟨m⟩ or ⟨n⟩ are frequently nasalized, particularly when followed by ⟨s, sh, z, or zh⟩ . In such cases the nasalization is sometimes overtly indicated by optionally writing ⟨n⟩ immediately after the vowel: moo n z or mooz "moose." In the original Double Vowel system, nasal long vowels now represented with ⟨-ny-⟩ / ⟨-nh⟩ were written with

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3328-570: The orthographic practices of other languages. Writing systems associated with particular dialects have been developed by adapting the Latin script , usually the English or French orthographies . A widely used Roman character-based writing system is the double vowel system, attributed to Charles Fiero. The double vowel system is quickly gaining popularity among language teachers in the United States and Canada because of its ease of use. A syllabic writing system not related to English or French writing

3392-420: The phonetic detail that occurs. Accurate pronunciation thus cannot be learned without consulting a fluent speaker. The long vowels /iː, oː, aː/ are paired with the short vowels /i, o, a/ , and are written with double symbols ⟨ii, oo, aa⟩ that correspond to the single symbols used for the short vowels ⟨i, o, a⟩ . The long vowel /eː/ does not have a corresponding short vowel, and

3456-422: The phonetic value [ŋ] (arising from place of articulation assimilation of /n/ to the following velar consonant /ɡ/ , which is then deleted in word-final position as in mnising [mnɪsɪŋ] "at the island"), and the latter has the phonetic value [ŋɡ] as in san'goo [saŋɡoː] "black squirrel". Labialized stop consonants [ɡʷ] and [kʷ] , consisting of a consonant with noticeable lip rounding , occur in

3520-740: The region, these extended Fourth Degree Midew can be called "Fifth Degree" up to "Ninth Degree." In parallel, if the Fourth Degree Midew is to a doctorate degree , the Extended Fourth Degree Midew is to a post- doctorate degree . The Jiisakiwinini is widely referred to by Elders as the "highest" degree of all the medicine practitioners in the Mide , as it is spiritual medicine as opposed to physical/plant based medicine. The midewigaan (' mide lodge'), also known as mide-wiigiwaam (' mide wigwam ') when small or midewigamig (' mide structure') when large,

3584-505: The representation of fortis and lenis consonants; and the representation of consonants which require an International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) symbol that differs significantly from the conventional alphabetic symbol. The double vowel orthography is an adaptation of the linguistically oriented system found in publications such as Leonard Bloomfield 's Eastern Ojibwa. Its name arises from the use of doubled vowel symbols to represent long vowels that are paired with corresponding short vowels;

3648-453: The speech of some speakers. Labialization is not normally indicated in writing, but a subscript dot is used in a dictionary of Ottawa and Eastern Ojibwe to mark labialization: g̣taaji "he is afraid" and aaḳzi "he is sick". The Ottawa-Eastern Ojibwe variant of the Double vowel system treats the digraphs sh , zh , ch as two separate letters for purposes of alphabetization. Consequently,

3712-593: The table below are from the Ottawa dialect. Word-internally long nasal vowels are represented by orthographic ⟨ny⟩ , as in Southwestern Ojibwe mindimooyenyag ' old women ' . The nasalized allophones of the vowels, which occur predictably preceding the nasal + fricative clusters ns, nz , and nzh are not indicated in writing, in words such as gaawiin ingikend an ziin "I don't know it", jiimaan en s "small boat", and oshk an zhiin "someone's fingernail(s)". Long vowels after

3776-441: The temporary shelters were utilized for sleeping or as refuge in cases of inclement weather. When a dwelling reached the end of its practical life it was simply burned, and a replacement erected in its place in about a day's time. Below is a description of Chiricahua wickiups recorded by anthropologist Morris Opler: The home in which the family lives is made by the men and is ordinarily a circular, dome-shaped brush dwelling, with

3840-399: The way to the prairies by way of lake and river routes. Some of the first maps of rivers and lakes were made by the Ojibwe and written on birch bark. "The Teachings of the Midewiwin were scratched on birch bark scrolls and were shown to the young men upon entrance into the society. Although these were crude pictographs representing the ceremonies, they show us that the Ojibwa were advanced in

3904-669: The wigwam and other shelters. During the American revolution the term wigwam was used by British soldiers to describe a wide variety of makeshift structures. Wickiups were used by different indigenous peoples of the Great Basin , Southwest, and Pacific Coast. They were single room, dome-shaped dwellings, with a great deal of variation in size, shape, and materials. The Acjachemen , an indigenous people of California , built cone-shaped huts made of willow branches covered with brush or mats made of tule leaves. Known as kiichas ,

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3968-418: The woods, either by burying them or by secreting them in caves. The period or periods at which this was done is far from clear. But in any event, archaeologists should be aware of the custom and not overlook the possibility of their discovery." Teaching stones , known in Ojibwe as either Gikinoo'amaagewaabik or Gikinoo'amaage-asin , can be either petroglyphs or petroform . The Seven Fires prophecy

4032-486: Was originally taught among the practitioners of Midewiwin . Each fire represents a prophetical age, marking phases or epochs of Turtle Island . It represents key spiritual teachings for North America and suggests that the different colors and traditions of humans can come together on the basis of respect. The Algonquins are the keepers of the seven fires prophecy wampum . Ojibwe syllabics The absence of linguistic or political unity among Ojibwe-speaking groups

4096-863: Was the goahti (also known as a gamme or kota ). In terms of construction, purpose and longevity, it represents a close equivalent to a North American native wigwam . Most goahti dwellings consisted of portable wooden poles, covered on the outside with either timber or peat moss, in lieu of walls. This differentiated them from the other type of Sámi dwelling, the more temporary and tent-like lavvu , covered with skins or fabrics and somewhat similar to tipis. Some goahti houses were occasionally covered with skins or fabric as well, but were generally larger than lavvu , and goahti were always used as more permanent housing. Many native peoples of Northern Asia also built or build traditional semi-permanent dwellings known as chum . Though some of these Siberian native dwellings are more tent-like, reminiscent of Plains Indians' tipis or of

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