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56-512: According to historian Richard Pankhurst it was during the reign of Emperor Zara Yaqob (r. 1433–1468) when the title Bahr Negash ("Ruler of the sea") appeared for the first time. However, it also appears in an obscure land grant of the Zagwe King Tatadim , who ruled during the 11th century. He considered the unnamed Bahr Negash as one of his seyyuman or "appointed ones". Zara Yaqob's chronicle explains how he, after arriving to

112-488: A chivalrous age". Cristóvão (or Christopher) da Gama was the son of navigator Vasco da Gama and the younger brother of Estêvão da Gama . He first went to India in 1532 with his brother, returned to Portugal in 1535, and then joined Garcia de Noronha in sailing to Diu 6 April 1538. Many times in these travels he demonstrated a quick mind that saved his companions. In recognition of his usefulness, in 1541, his brother Estêvão , then Viceroy of India, gave him command of

168-641: A daughter, Helen Pankhurst , and a son, Alula Pankhurst , with whom he collaborated on at least one book. Pankhurst died on 16 February 2017 in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia at the age of 89. Workneh Gebeyehu , the Ethiopian Foreign Minister described him as "one of Ethiopia's greatest friends". He was buried on 21 February at Holy Trinity Cathedral in Addis Ababa. Crist%C3%B3v%C3%A3o da Gama Cristóvão da Gama ( c. 1516 – 29 August 1542), anglicised as Christopher da Gama ,

224-513: A detachment of 40 men to make contact, obtain supplies, and exchange news. This group failed to reach the ship before it sailed, and the only outcome was that these soldiers and their captain were absent for the next battle, which was against Ahmad Gragn himself. As Queen Seble Wongel had feared, the events at Bacente alerted Ahmad that a hostile army had entered the area, and he marched north to confront it, meeting Gama at Jarte (which Pedro Paez identifies with Sahart, although Whiteway locates it in

280-638: A hill in Wofla as the rainy season started. At some point late in the rains, Gama was approached by a Jew (possibly one of the Beta Israel ), who told him of a mountain stronghold that Ahmad Gragn's followers controlled weakly (identified by Whiteway as Amba Sel ). It was also at this time that Gama was accurately informed about the Emperor Gelawdewos's true strength: the Ethiopian monarch

336-523: A large fort, but due to the local population's access to firearms, they were forced to retreat back to the coast. Around this time the Bahr Negus Yeshaq, a supporter of Gelawdewos, became very powerful due to the import of firearms through the coast. Although a ruler of a self-governing province , Yeshaq would heavily involve himself in internal Ethiopian affairs. After the death of Gelawdewos he revolted and attempted to place one of his nephews on

392-403: A letter of Manuel de Almeida states otherwise.) Certain that the surviving Portuguese were scattered, without their firearms, and alone in a foreign land, Ahmad Gragn concluded that this threat was ended, dismissed all but 200 of the foreign musketeers, and proceeded to his camp at Derasge on the shores of Lake Tana . However, over 120 men had joined Queen Seble Wongel, who had taken refuge at

448-560: A mountain that Ahmed had not been able to reduce by siege. (R.S. Whiteway identifies this mountain with Debre Damo . ) With 100 men, he marched to the mountain, and invited Queen Seble Wongel to join him; she did so, bringing her entourage of 30 men and 50 women, all of whom were received with careful ceremony. Once the rains ended, the Portuguese continued south. After months of being slowed by their equipment, Da Gama decided to leave half of it in an arsenal on Debre Damo. His army passed

504-493: A reputation for giving "health to the sick". Lobo elaborates upon this story, claiming that upon hearing of this miracle the Imam had a dead dog tossed into the spring and the spring covered with a cairn of stones; Lobo confirms this detail in describing the account of a party sent to retrieve Gama's remains and send them to his nephew, Vasco da Gama Conde da Vidigueira. (Lobo gives the impression that he accompanied this expedition, but

560-731: A research fellow with the School of Oriental and African Studies and the London School of Economics , before working as librarian at the Royal Asiatic Society . He returned to Ethiopia in 1986, where he resumed research with the Institute. He published numerous books and articles on a wide variety of topics related to Ethiopian history . Pankhurst led the campaign for the return of the Obelisk of Axum to Ethiopia. It

616-731: A ship in the fleet Estêvão led into the Red Sea against the Ottoman naval base at Suez . He was defeated along with his brother in the ensuing battle against the Ottomans . After this crushing defeat at the hands of the Ottomans , he returned with his brother back to Massawa on May 22, 1541, to rejoin the ships they had left there. While at Massawa, his brother Estêvão da Gama attempted to salvage something from this expedition by dispatching an expeditionary force under Cristóvão to assist

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672-411: Is not peopled by Abyssinians – they are Adals , Bejaa , and Tigres . Abyssinia will defend his territories but will not fight for foreign lands, which Eritrea is to my knowledge." Richard Pankhurst (historian) Richard Keir Pethick Pankhurst OBE (3 December 1927 – 16 February 2017) was a British scholar , founding member of the Institute of Ethiopian Studies, and former professor at

728-573: The Battle of Dogali . In December 1889, Yohannes IV called Alula and his troops up to support him in his fight against the Mahdists , which allowed the Italians to march down from Massawa and seize all of Mereb Melash. Following the death of Yohannes at the Battle of Gallabat , Tigray was completely exhausted from decades of uninterrupted wars. It could no longer challenge the Italians to the north or

784-530: The Egyptian–Ethiopian War . In December 1875, a local ruler of the province, Woldemichael Solomon , submitted to the Egyptians at Massawa . This allowed the Egyptians to occupy the entire province with minimal resistance and build a large fort at Gura . However, Ras Alula would defeat the Egyptians at the Battle of Gura , forcing them to withdraw from the province. Following this victory, Ras Alula

840-542: The Ethiopian highlands was later written by Miguel de Castanhoso, who accompanied Gama and was an eye-witness to almost everything he recorded. The men were landed at Massawa and Arqiqo , the next port south of Massawa, and began their trek inland to Debarwa , the capital of the Bahr negus , or Ethiopian viceroy for the northern provinces. The Portuguese reached Debarwa after a march of 11 days on 20 July, to learn that

896-545: The London School of Economics , from which he received a doctorate in economic history, on which Harold Laski acted as an advisor. His mother, Sylvia Pankhurst, had been an active supporter of Ethiopian culture and independence since the Italian invasion in 1935, and Richard grew up knowing many Ethiopian refugees. Sylvia was a friend of Haile Selassie and published Ethiopia, a Cultural History in 1955. In 1956, she and Richard moved to Ethiopia. He began working at

952-713: The Ottoman Naib of Massawa seized the property of the Emperor's Armenian trade agent, Khoja Murad, and attempted to levy a tax on Iyasu's goods that had landed at Massawa. Iyasu was "greatly angered" and responded with a blockade of that island city until the Naib relented. In November of 1769, Mereb Mellash was visited by the Scottish traveller James Bruce , who became acquainted with the Bahr Negash while staying in

1008-804: The University College of Addis Ababa , and in 1962 was the founding director of the Institute of Ethiopian Studies . He also edited the Journal of Ethiopian Studies and the Ethiopia Observer . Pankhurst left the Institute and his professorship at what had become the University of Addis Ababa in 1976 after the death of Haile Selassie and the start of the Ethiopian Civil War . He returned to England, where he became

1064-454: The rainy season (which Castanhoso, as well as the natives, referred to as "winter") made further travel impossible. Cristóvão would not allow his men to pass the months in idleness, employing them in constructing sledges for the bombards and in raiding nearby villages that had accepted Ahmed Gragn 's rule. He also learned from the Bahr negus that Queen Seble Wongel was camped nearby on top of

1120-497: The Abyssinians lost the maritime district of Arkeeko, and the port of Masuah, the office of Baharnagash was one of the most important in the kingdom. It is now nearly a nominal one, under the governor of Tigre." He also reports that the district of Mereb Melash had only been recently incorporated into the province of Tigray by Ras Mikael Sehul with the use of "violence and oppression." The title and position of "Bahr Negash"

1176-575: The Amharas to the south. Menelik II was later recognized as the new emperor, thus cementing Shoan domination over Ethiopia. The loss of Mereb Melash was recognized by Menelik in the Treaty of Wuchale . On the signing of the treaty, Menelik said "The territories north of the Merab Milesh do not belong to Abyssinia nor are under my rule. I am the Emperor of Abyssinia . The land referred to as Eritrea

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1232-665: The Church of St. Romanos around Christmas of 1541, and celebrated Epiphany in the province of Agame (January 1542). Gama's first encounter with the Imam's troops was 2 February 1542 at the Battle of Bacente , which Whiteway located on Amba Senayt in Haramat. The invaders had taken possession of a hill from which they made raids into the countryside. Although Queen Seble Wongel advised Gama to march around this hill, advising him to wait until her son Emperor Gelawdewos could arrive from Shewa and join him, he believed that failing to engage

1288-399: The Emperor. The Emperor upon receiving it had drums beaten and flutes played, optimistically declaring that the fortunates of the war were soon turning. In response, an army led by Wazir Abbas and Abu Bakr Qatin marched into Seraye where they massacred the locals and pacified the region. The Imam's occupation of the coastal highlands resulted in considerable destruction and violence. In 1541

1344-431: The Imam produced the tweezers Gama had given him and began to pluck out his beard. There Gama was tortured in an attempt to force him to convert to Islam. Castanhoso's—and Jerónimo Lobo 's account after him—describe Gama's fortitude and death in language worthy of a hagiography , complete with miracles. In the end Ahmad Gragn chopped off Gama's head and tossed it into a nearby spring, whose waters Castanhoso reported gained

1400-577: The Jews). Gama, his arm broken from a bullet, was captured that night with 14 companions by an Adal patrol. A British historian Clements Markham claimed in the 19th century that Gama's capture was due to his refusal to retreat in order to find an attractive lady with whom he had fallen in love, after capturing her at the Battle of the Hill of the Jews . Cristóvão da Gama was brought to Ahmed Gragn 's camp, where

1456-647: The Mahdists. Alula tried to reach the Egyptians at Kassala , but as the Italians landed at Massawa and began their encroachment inland, Alula was forced to abandon this effort. Frustrated and distrustful of the local tribes, Alula allowed his men to massacre the Kunama and Beni-Amer tribes in November 1886. In January 1887, Alula attacked the Italians at Saati , but was beaten back with heavy losses. He subsequently ambushed an Italian battalion sent to reinforce Saati at

1512-519: The Mountain of the Jews. Ten days later her son, Emperor Gelawdewos, arrived and they took measure of their situation. Using the arms stockpiled at Debre Damo, the Portuguese were able to rearm themselves; with the promise of their ability, Gelawdewos was able to raise a new army, which met Ahmad Gragn at Wayna Daga . The Portuguese musketeers aimed their fire only at the Muslim musketeers, who had played

1568-604: The Portuguese in their struggles against the Imam, most notably the Bahr Negus Yeshaq . After the death of Imam Ahmad in 1543, Emperor Gelawdewos immediately reestablished imperial suzerainty over the Eritrean highlands. In 1557 the Ottoman Turks conquered the port of Massawa and under Ozdemir Pasha led an expeditionary force inland where they occupied the town of Debarwa . The Turkish troops then built

1624-675: The Portuguese warrior Miguel de Castanhoso arrived in the region, he noted that the lands of the Bahr Negus was "depopulated through fears of the Moors", for "the inhabitants had taken refuge with their herds on a mountain." Many Christians upon seeing the Portuguese came out of their hiding with "crosses in their hands, in solemn procession, praying God for pity." The local monks informed the commander, Cristóvão da Gama , that their enemies had destroyed all their monasteries and churches. They called on de Gama to seek vengeance and many locals joined

1680-861: The University of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia. His books have been reviewed in scholarly journals, with Edward Ullendorff calling his The Ethiopians as another testimony to his "remarkable diligence and industry in the service of Ethiopian studies". He is known for his research on economic history and socio-cultural studies on Ethiopia . Pankhurst was born in 1927 in Woodford Green to left communist and former suffragette Sylvia Pankhurst and Italian anarchist Silvio Corio . His maternal grandparents were Emmeline and Richard Pankhurst . Pankhurst studied at Bancroft's School in Woodford, then at

1736-528: The Wajirat Mountains). The Imam made the first contact, sending a messenger to Gama to demand that the Portuguese force either leave Ethiopia, join the Imam, or be destroyed. On the Imam's orders, the messenger produced the gift of a monk's habit, an expensive insult to Gama. Gama responded with his own messenger, who delivered "a few lines in Arabic ", stating that he had come to Ethiopia "by order of

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1792-491: The beleaguered Emperor of Ethiopia , Gelawdewos . Four hundred Portuguese men-at-arms were selected, 70 of whom were also skilled artisans or engineers, and 130 slaves for this expedition, equipped with about 1000 arquebuses , an equal number of pikes and several bombards . João Bermudes, who had represented himself as the Patriarch of Ethiopia to the Portuguese, accompanied this expedition. An account of this campaign in

1848-661: The chronicles of Emperor Susenyos I , during his reign he would revive the old tradition of appointing provincial rulers with the title of the Bahr Negash, appointing one by name of Amda Mikael to rule at least six localities north of the Mareb; Hamasien , Seraye , Akele Guzai , the Debarwa district, the Buri Peninsula , and the "country of the Sahos ". Emperor Fasilides appointed his son-in-law, Hab Sellus of Hamasien , as

1904-534: The destruction of the Turkish fort. This victory was of major importance as put an end to the hopes of the provincial nobility to achieve independence or autonomy from the Ethiopian Empire . Sarsa Dengel, who was greatly angered by Yeshaq's treachery and arrogance, significantly reduced the Bahr Negash's status and the office was temporarily merged with that of the governor of Tigray . However, according to

1960-577: The entire region of Mereb Melash under his authority. He would later rule the province for the next 40 years. In 1692, Iyasu I undertook an expedition in the Mareb river valley, against the " Shanqella of the Dubani" (likely the Kunama or Nara ), in present-day Gash Barka . At the sound of the musket fire, the tribesmen were terrified and fled, but were pursued by Iyasu's men who massacred them and sacked their towns. His Royal Chronicle recounts how when

2016-467: The governor of Zabid in South Arabia , as well as offering "much money" and submission to the official, Gragn received 2900 musketeers (2000 from Arabia and 900 handpicked Ottomans), many more than Gama had. Despite their bravery, the Portuguese were heavily defeated on 28 August at the Battle of Wofla , with only 170 surviving the assault (counting the 30 men escorting the horses from the Hill of

2072-512: The governor of a province known as Bambolo-Mellash, which included Mereb Melash and much of Tigray . However, he abused his wife so violently that she died, after which he would make his way to the Emperor's palace in Gondar to seek forgiveness. Upon arriving in the palace he addressed the Emperor, saying "Your Majesty, in your great magnanimity, gave me your daughter and appointed me; but when I wished to approach my wife in accordance with nature and

2128-501: The great Lion of the Sea " and on the "following day he [Ahmad] would see what the Portuguese were worth", and delivered Gama's own insulting gift: a pair of "small tweezers for the eyebrows, and a very large mirror—making him out [to be] a woman." Two battles followed these exchanges at Jarte , the first on 4 April and the next on 16 April. The first battle was a victory for the Portuguese, although Gama lost one of his captains: Ahmad Gragn

2184-401: The invaders would make the natives distrust his troops, and that they would then stop bringing food and supplies. Fortunately, the engagement was an unquestioned success, and Gama's men took the hill despite superior enemy numbers, losing only eight men. At the end of February, two Portuguese arrived from a ship anchored at Massawa, escorted by six people native to the area. Gama responded with

2240-562: The last parts of the empire to be confronted by Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi due to its location in the far north. The Bahr Negash Za-Wangel was killed fighting the Adalites in the Battle of Shimbra Kure in 1529. However it wasn’t until 1535 the forces of Imam Ahmad crossed the Mareb river into the region. The Adalite occupation was resisted bitterly by the local population, who killed the Adalite governor Vizer Addole and sent his head to

2296-455: The law she rejected my approach; whereupon I, incited by Satan, raised my hand and struck her; and she died as a result of my blow. Because of this misfortunate I stand before Your Majesty." Fasilides, fearing to alienate the people of Hamasien , decided to forgive his son-in-law, declaring that "You did to her what she deserved". But he significantly reduced his fiefdom to just Mereb Melash. Hab Sellus subsequently returned to Hamasien, and brought

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2352-486: The region, put much effort into increasing the power of Bahr Negash, placing him above other local chiefs and eventually making him the sovereign of a territory covering the highlands of Hamasien and Seraye . His neighbor to the south was the Tigray Mekonnen , master or lord of Tigray. To strengthen the imperial presence in the area, Zara Yaqob also established a military colony consisting of Maya warriors from

2408-556: The south of his realm. These settlers were believed to have the terrified the local population and it was said that the "earth trembled at their arrival" and the inhabitants "fled the country in fear". Near the end of his reign, in 1464/1465, Massawa and the Dahlak archipelago were pillaged by Emperor Zara Yaqob, and the Sultanate of Dahlak was forced to pay tribute to the Ethiopian Empire . The first European to likely visit Eritrea

2464-556: The throne, but was defeated by Emperor Menas . According to James Bruce , upon being defeated, the Bahr Negash "threw himself at the mercy of the Turks" and ceded Debarwa in exchange for their help. Yeshaq and his Turkish allies marched into Tembien to face the army of Sarsa Dengel, however this battle ended in disaster as the Bahr Negus was captured and then executed by the Emperor. Sarsa Dengel then proceeded to march into Debarwa where he captured large quantities of firearms and ordered

2520-469: The time of Alvares' visit, Dori was engaged in warfare against some Nubians after the latter had killed his son. The Nubians were known as robbers and generally had a rather bad reputation. They originated somewhere five to six days away from Debarwa , possibly Taka (a historical province named after Jebel Taka near modern Kassala ). During the Ethiopian-Adal War , Mereb Melash was one of

2576-491: The very northern edge of the highlands. Dori was an uncle of Emperor Lebna Dengel , to whom he paid tribute. These tributes were traditionally paid with horses and imported cloth and carpets. Dori was said to wield considerable power, with his authority extending from the Hamasien highlands to the port of Hirgigo . He was also a promoter of Christianity, generously gifting the churches and monasteries everything they needed. By

2632-411: The village of Hadawi (near Segeneiti ). He described the unnamed ruler as a "brave, but simple man" and a deputy of Ras Mikael Sehul , but he also considered the land to be a "barbarous and unhappy country." Bruce later revealed that the influence of the Bahr Negash had significantly declined due to the loss of Massawa and Hirgigo to the Turks, stating that it was formerly of great importance; "Before

2688-638: Was a Portuguese military commander who led a Portuguese army of 400 musketeers to assist Ethiopia that faced Islamic Jihad from the Adal Sultanate led by Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi . He, along with the allied Ethiopian army, was victorious against Adal forces in four battles, but he was seriously wounded in his last battle and was captured, tortured, and executed by Imam Ahmad . Richard Burton , in his First Footsteps in East Africa , referred to Gama as "the most chivalrous soldier of

2744-614: Was declared the governor of Mereb Melash and was authorized to crush the opposition in the province. Alula defeated the followers of Woldemichael Solomon and imprisoned him, but Bahta Hagos evaded capture and allied himself with the Egyptian garrison at Sanhit . In June 1884, the Hewett Treaty was signed, which allowed the Ethiopians to gain free access to Massawa in exchange for the rescue of Egyptian garrisons besieged by

2800-474: Was eventually forced to flee to Gondar to seek the support of Tewodros II . In 1860 he was reinstated as ruler of Hamasien and Seraye, but in Hazega he had to face another strong opponent: Woldemichael Solomon , who was able to seize control of Hamasien by 1868. Mereb Melash would gain international significance during the reign of Emperor Yohannes IV when it was defended against Egyptian expansionism during

2856-550: Was forced to retreat further south, where with fortune against him, the local population now openly defied him by refusing to provide him supplies or soldiers. Whiteway identifies the Imam's refuge as a village named Wajarat, while J. Spencer Trimingham places it in the Zobil mountains overlooking the Afar Depression . Gama marched after him as far as Lake Ashangi , where on the advice of Queen Seble Wongel, he made camp on

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2912-537: Was living as an outlaw in the south, with only 60 to 70 men in his army. However, the mountain was the major barrier between the two allies, and Gama also learned that the garrison had a large number of horses—a resource he had badly needed at the second battle of Jarte. Gama swiftly marched south with about 100 men and seized control of the mountain. Leaving 30 men behind to bring the horses, Gama led his victorious men back to Wofla, to find Ahmad Gragn in position to attack that next morning. Having successfully petitioned

2968-622: Was not used after the 19th century and provincial governors (for the Seraye, Akele Guzai, and Hamasien) took its place. In turn, the territories north of the Merab began to achieve nominal independence and largely consisted of various local communities ruled by a council of village elders. During much of the 18th and 19th centuries, there was a long-standing rivalry between the rival Hazega and Tsazega villages. Ato Tewoldemedhin of Tsazega constantly fought to reduce his rivals to obedience; his son, Hailu

3024-888: Was re-erected in Axum in 2008. For his efforts in this, he was given the honorary title " Dejazmach Benkirew" by the Union of Tigraians of North America. He was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the Diplomatic Service and Overseas section of the 2004 Queen's Birthday Honours "for services to Ethiopian studies ". In addition to his numerous books on Ethiopia, Pankhurst wrote works on his mother, including Sylvia Pankhurst: Artist and Crusader and Sylvia Pankhurst: Counsel for Ethiopia . Pankhurst married Rita Eldon (1927–2019) in 1957 and they had

3080-564: Was the Tuscan traveler Antonio Bartoli, who passed through on his way to Ethiopia in 1402. The map made by Fra Mauro , in completed in 1460, shows already ‘Amasen’ ( Hamasien ), ‘ S’erana’ ( Seraye ), and the Tekeze . In the 1520s, Mereb Melash was visited by the Portuguese traveller and priest Francisco Alvares . The current Bahr Negash bore the name Dori and resided in Debarwa , a town on

3136-436: Was wounded, which forced his troops to retire to the far side of the plain. The Portuguese, finding their encampment on the battlefield becoming unbearable, moved across the plain next to the enemy camp, which led to the second battle. This time, the Adal-Ottoman army was even more soundly defeated, and according to Castanhoso, "The victory would have been complete this day had we only [had] a hundred horses to finish it." Ahmad

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