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53-904: Numerous editions of the Mikraot Gedolot have been and continue to be published. In addition to Targum Onkelos and Rashi 's commentary, the standard Jewish commentaries on the Hebrew Bible, the Mikraot Gedolot will include numerous other commentaries. For instance, the Romm publishing house edition of the Mikraot Gedolot contains the following additional commentaries: Newer editions often include Baruch Epstein 's Torah Temimah and other medieval commentaries, or more modern commentaries such as Malbim . Special editions exist of supercommentaries on Rashi or commentaries and targumim not included in older editions. Bomberg also included

106-438: A homonym , or a metaphor , and could not be readily understood otherwise. The translator is unique in that he avoids any type of personification, or corporeality, with God, often replacing "human-like" characteristics representing God in the original Hebrew with words that convey a more remote and impersonal sense. For example, "my face" (Heb. panai ) is replaced by "from before me" (Exodus 33:23) , while "beneath his feet"

159-451: A Jew converted to Christianity. Furthermore, Bomberg, a Christian, had requested an imprimatur from the Pope . Such facts were not compatible with the supposed Jewish nature of the work; Bomberg had to produce a fresh edition under the direction of acceptable Jewish editors. Nevertheless, this first edition served as the textual model for nearly all later editions until modern times. Concerning

212-496: A seven part prophetic revelation, converses with an angel of God three times and has four visions. Ezra, thirty years into the Babylonian Exile (4 Ezra 3:1 / 2 Esdras 1:1), recounts the siege of Jerusalem and the destruction of Solomon's Temple . The central theological themes are "the question of theodicy, God's justness in the face of the triumph of the heathens over the pious, the course of world history in terms of

265-642: A verse, rather than its literal translation, are as follows: Ezra Ezra ( fl. 480–440 BCE) was an important Jewish scribe ( sofer ) and priest ( kohen ) in the early Second Temple period . In the Greek Septuagint , the name is rendered as Ésdrās ( Ἔσδρας ), from which the Latin name Esdras comes. His name is probably a shortened Aramaic translation of the Hebrew name עזריהו ‎ ( Azaryahu ), meaning " Yah helps". In

318-723: Is a highly respected figure in Judaism . He is regarded as a saint in the Roman Catholic Church , which sets his feast day as July 13, the same as that of his contemporary, Nehemiah . He is also venerated as a saint in the Eastern Orthodox Church , which sets his feast day on the Sunday of the Holy Forefathers . The canonical Book of Ezra and Book of Nehemiah are the oldest sources for

371-769: Is being cited. In Islam, he is known as Uzair ( Arabic : عزير , romanized :  ʿUzayr ). He was mentioned in the Qur'an . Although he was not mentioned as one of the Prophets of Islam , he is considered one of them by some Muslim scholars, based on Islamic traditions. His tomb at Al-ʻUzer on the banks of the Tigris near Basra , Iraq , is a pilgrimage site for the local Marsh Arabs . Many Islamic scholars and modern Western academics do not view Uzer as "Ezra"; for example, Professor Gordon Darnell Newby associates Uzer with Enoch and Metatron . Scholars are divided over

424-689: Is buried in Tadef near Aleppo in northern Syria . According to Josephus , Ezra died and was buried "in a magnificent manner in Jerusalem." If the tradition that Ezra wrote under the pen name Malachi is correct, then he was probably buried in the Tomb of the Prophets , the traditional resting place of Malachi , along with two other prophets from Ezra's lifetime, Haggai and Zechariah . However, according to archeological research, these tombs date from

477-423: Is replaced by "under his throne of glory" (Exodus 24:10) , and "The Lord came down upon Mount Sinai" by "The Lord manifested himself upon Mount Sinai" (Exodus 19:20) . Samuel David Luzzatto suggests that the translation was originally meant for the "simple people". This view was strongly rebutted by Nathan Marcus Adler in his introduction to his commentary to Targum Onkelos Netinah La-Ger . He often updates

530-688: The Babylonian captivity ). However, it was later forgotten by the masses, and rerecorded by Onkelos. While the Aramaic translation of the Torah is traditionally attributed to Onkelos, a translation of the Torah into Greek is mentioned in the Talmud as being made by Aquila of Sinope . However, most scholars hold these to be one and the same person. According to Epiphanius of Salamis , the Greek translation

583-580: The Beit Midrash , along with others, reading in tandem, during which reading each verse is repeated twice; once by the reader himself, followed by a repetition of the same verse by the entire group, and lastly by the initial reader himself who cites the Aramaic Targum of Onkelos . The days in which the Parashah was read depended largely upon custom. Some had it as their custom to break down

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636-785: The Hebrew Bible , or the Christian Old Testament , Ezra is an important figure in the books of Ezra and Nehemiah , which he is said to have written and edited, respectively. According to tradition, Ezra was also the author of the Books of Chronicles and the Book of Malachi . Ezra was instrumental in restoring the Jewish scriptures and religion to the people after the return from the Babylonian Captivity , and

689-640: The Second Temple . He returned from Babylonian captivity and reintroduced the Torah in Jerusalem. According to 1 Esdras , a Greek translation of the Book of Ezra still in use in Eastern Orthodox Church , he was also a High Priest. Rabbinic tradition supports the positions that Ezra was an ordinary member of the priesthood, and that he actually served as a Kohen Gadol . Ezra was living in Babylon when in

742-593: The Torah within the synagogues were rendered, verse-by-verse, into an Aramaic translation. To this day, the oldest surviving custom with respect to the Yemenite Jewish prayer-rite is the reading of the Torah and the Haftara with the Aramaic translation (in this case, Targum Onkelos for the Torah and Targum Jonathan ben 'Uzziel for the Haftarah ). The custom to read the Aramaic Targum each Sabbath day in

795-594: The Torah , accepted as an authoritative translated text of the Five Books of Moses and thought to have been written in the early second century CE. Authorship of the Targum Onkelos is traditionally attributed to Onkelos , a famous convert to Judaism in Tannaic times (c. 35–120 CE). According to the Talmud , the essential content of Targum Onkelos was already known in the time of Ezra (immediately after

848-561: The 'Book of Ezra' in his numeration of the Hebrew bible. Contrariwise, Josephus does not appear to recognise Ezra-Nehemiah as a biblical book, does not quote from it, and relies entirely on other traditions in his account of the deeds of Nehemiah . The apocalyptic fourth book of Ezra (also sometimes called the 'second book of Esdras' or the 'third book of Esdras') was written c. CE 100, probably in Judeo-Aramaic , but now survives in Latin, Slavonic and Ethiopic. In this book, Ezra has

901-559: The 'father of Judaism' in the Jewish tradition, has been a later literary invention. Those who argue against the historicity of Ezra argue that the presentation style of Ezra as a leader and lawgiver resembles that of Moses. There are also similarities between Ezra the priest-scribe (but not high priest ) and Nehemiah the secular governor on the one hand and Joshua and Zerubbabel on the other hand. The early 2nd-century BCE Jewish author Ben Sira praises Nehemiah, but makes no mention of Ezra. Richard Friedman argues in his book Who Wrote

954-434: The 1 century BC. 1 Esdras , probably from the late 2nd/early 1st centuries BCE, preserves a Greek text of Ezra and a part of Nehemiah distinctly different from that of Ezra–Nehemiah – in particular it eliminates Nehemiah from the story and gives some of his deeds to Ezra, as well as telling events in a different order. Scholars are divided on whether it is based on Ezra–Nehemiah, or reflects an earlier literary stage before

1007-514: The Bible? that Ezra is the one who redacted the Torah, and in fact effectively produced the first Torah. It has been argued that even if one does not accept the documentary hypothesis , Ezra was instrumental in the start of the process of bringing the Torah together. One particular aspect of Ezra's story considered dubious historically is the account in Ezra 7 of his commission. According to it, Ezra

1060-480: The Hebrew Masoretic Text , with very little supplemental material in the form of aggadic paraphrase . However, where there are found difficult biblical passages, Onkelos seeks to minimize ambiguities and obscurities. He sometimes employs non-literal aggadic interpretations or expansions in his translated text, usually in those places where the original Hebrew is marked either by a Hebrew idiom ,

1113-561: The Masoretic notes on the biblical text, but no modern edition does. First published in 1516–17 by Daniel Bomberg in Venice , the Mikraot Gedolot was edited by Felix Pratensis . The second edition was edited by the Masoretic scholar Jacob ben Hayyim ibn Adonijah in 1525. All of its elements (Masoretic Text, Targum , and commentaries) were based upon the manuscripts that ben Hayyim had at hand (although he did not always have access to

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1166-467: The Syrian village of Tedef , a synagogue said to be the place where Ezra stopped over has been venerated by Jews for centuries. Another tradition locates his tomb near Basra, Iraq. In Christian tradition, Ezra is considered to be the author of the book of Ezra and 1 and 2 Chronicles. Due to the strong similarity between the books of Malachi and Ezra, some Christian traditions adopt the Jewish view that Ezra

1219-419: The Torah was composed by Onkelos the convert based on Rabbi Eliezer and Rabbi Yehoshua. Rebbi Jeremiah in the name of Rebbi Ḥiyya bar Abba: Akylas [ עקילס , Aquilas ] the proselyte translated the Torah before Rebbi Eliezer and Rebbi Joshua; they praised him [and said to him], you are a superhuman beauty The overwhelming similarities between the biographies of Aquila and Onkelos has led many to conclude they are

1272-440: The activity of Ezra, whereas many of the other books ascribed to Ezra (First Esdras, 3–6 Ezra) are later literary works dependent on the canonical books of Ezra and Nehemiah. The book of Ezra–Nehemiah was always written as one scroll. In late medieval Christian bibles, the single book was divided in two, as First and Second Ezra; and this division became Jewish practice in the first printed Hebrew bibles. Modern Hebrew Bibles call

1325-482: The best ones according to some, Ginsburg and some others argued that it was a good representation of the Aaron ben Moses ben Asher text). The Mikraot Gedolot of ben Hayyim, though hailed as an extraordinary achievement, was riddled with thousands of technical errors. Objections were also raised by the Jewish readership, based on the fact that the very first printing of the Mikraot Gedolot was edited by Felix Pratensis ,

1378-557: The biblical text, many of ben Hayyim's errors were later corrected by Menahem Lonzano and Jedidiah Norzi . The Mikraot Gedolot of Ben Hayyim served as the source for the Hebrew Bible translation in the King James Version in 1611 and the Spanish Reina Valera translation. A scholarly reprint of the 1525 Ben-Hayyim Venice edition was published in 1972 by Moshe Goshen-Gottstein . Most editions until

1431-617: The chronological sequence of the activities of Ezra and Nehemiah. Ezra came to Jerusalem "in the seventh year of Artaxerxes the King". The text does not specify whether the king in the passage refers to Artaxerxes I (465–424 BCE) or to Artaxerxes II (404–359 BCE). Most scholars hold that Ezra lived during the rule of Artaxerxes I, though some have difficulties with this assumption: Nehemiah and Ezra "seem to have no knowledge of each other; their missions seem to have no overlap". These difficulties have led many scholars to assume that Ezra arrived in

1484-550: The combination of Ezra and Nehemiah accounts. The first-century Jewish historian Josephus deals with Ezra in his Antiquities of the Jews . He uses the name Xerxes for Artaxerxes I reserving the name Artaxerxes for the later Artaxerxes II whom he identifies as the Ahasuerus of Esther, thus placing Ezra before the events of the book of Esther. Josephus' account of the deeds of Ezra derives entirely from 1 Esdras , which he cites as

1537-479: The entire Parashah before the commencement of the Sabbath, and which practice has its source in the Talmud , and which the codifiers of Jewish law have ruled as Halacha: "A person should complete his portions of scripture along with the community, reading the scripture twice and the targum once ( Shnayim mikra ve-echad targum )." Here, the reference is to completing the reading of the Parashah at home or in

1590-528: The forerunner of the Sanhedrin , as the authority on matters of religious law. The Great Assembly is credited with establishing numerous features of contemporary traditional Judaism in something like their present form, including Torah reading , the Amidah , and celebration of the feast of Purim . In Rabbinic traditions , Ezra is metaphorically referred to as the "flowers that appear on the earth" signifying

1643-664: The fourth or fifth century CE. Onkelos' revised translation became the official version used in translating the Torah on each Sabbath day, displacing the earlier Palestinian Aramaic traditions which had been widely used. The Babylonian Talmud refers to the Torah's Aramaic translation (Targum Onkelos) as "targum didan" ("our translation"), as opposed to that of the more ancient Palestinian Targum . The earliest text samples ( Exodus 15:9–12 in Hebrew-Aramaic) appear on two incantation bowls (5th–7th centuries CE) discovered at Nippur , Babylonia . In Talmudic times, readings from

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1696-542: The last few decades, and many editions even today, are reprints of or based on late nineteenth century Eastern European editions, which are in turn based more or less on the Ben Hayyim edition described above. In the last generation, fresh editions of the Mikraot Gedolot have been published, based directly on manuscript evidence, principally (for the biblical text and Masoretic notes) the Keter Aram Tzova ,

1749-528: The late fourth-early fifth centuries, due to reusing language from other midrashim composed at that time, and thus could not have been composed by Aquila/Onkelos, who lived in the second century. Others, dissenting, have concluded that Onkelos' Aramaic translation originated in Syria Palaestina in the first or early second centuries CE, but that its final redaction was done in Babylonia probably in

1802-559: The manuscript of the Tanakh kept by the Jews of Aleppo. These also have improved texts of the commentaries based on ancient manuscripts. Four of these editions are: Wikisource's Mikraot Gedolot is available in Hebrew (has the most content) and English . Targum Onkelos Targum Onkelos (or Onqelos ; Jewish Babylonian Aramaic : תַּרְגּוּם אֻנְקְלוֹס‎ , Targūm ’Unqəlōs ) is the primary Jewish Aramaic targum ("translation") of

1855-404: The names of biblical nations, coinage and historical sites to the names known in his own post-biblical era. In matters of halakha , the targum entirely agrees with Rabbi Akiva 's opinions. Some authors suggest that Akiva provided for a revised text of the essential base of Targum Onkelos. Some of the more notable changes made by Onkelos, in which he attempts to convey the underlying meaning of

1908-550: The office of High Priest of Israel . According to Jewish tradition, Ezra was the writer of the Books of Chronicles , and is the same prophet known also as Malachi. There is a slight controversy within rabbinic sources as to whether or not Ezra had served as High Priest of Israel . According to the Babylonian Talmud , Ezra the Scribe is said to have enacted ten standing laws and orders, which are as follows: In

1961-610: The public (i.e. the Hebrew Bible) and another 70 for the wise alone (70 unnamed revelatory works). At the end, he is taken up to heaven like Enoch and Elijah . Ezra is seen as a new Moses in this book. There is also another work, thought to be influenced by this one, known as the Greek Apocalypse of Ezra . Traditionally Judaism credits Ezra with establishing the Great Assembly of scholars and prophets,

2014-402: The reading into two days. Among Yemenite Jews , Wednesday mornings were given over to the first half of the Parashah , while Thursday mornings were given to the second half of the Parashah . Others read the entire Parashah on Thursday mornings, while others on Thursday nights. Onkelos' Aramaic translation of the Five Books of Moses is almost entirely a word-by-word, literal translation of

2067-597: The resistance of leaders of nearby peoples against the works of Nememia must have been confused with events during the days of Zerubbabel. Mary Joan Winn Leith in The Oxford History of the Biblical World believes that Ezra was a historical figure whose life was enhanced in the scripture and given a theological buildup. Gosta W. Ahlstrom argues the inconsistencies of the biblical tradition are insufficient to say that Ezra, with his central position as

2120-415: The same person. Zvi Hirsch Chajes identified the Aramaic "Targum Onkelos" as Aquila's Greek translation, translated once again into Aramaic. Likewise, A.E. Silverstone (1931:73) has shown quite consummately that Aquilas wrote both the Greek and the Aramaic versions, insofar that "both versions betray the same outstanding characteristics." A modern scholar has argued that the Aramaic translation must date to

2173-564: The second "Golden Calf" episode ( Ex 32:21–25 ) are read but not translated, as they involve shameful events. Similarly, the Priestly Blessing ( Num 6:24–26 ) is read but not translated, since the blessings are only to be recited in Hebrew. The reading of the Targum, verse by verse, in conjunction with the Torah that is read aloud on the Sabbath day is not to be confused with a different practice, namely, that of reviewing

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2226-536: The seventh year of Artaxerxes I , the Achaemenid emperor ( c.  457 BCE ), the emperor sent him to Jerusalem to teach the laws of God to any who did not know them. The Book of Ezra describes how he led a group of Judean exiles living in Babylon to their home city of Jerusalem where he is said to have enforced observance of the Torah. When Ezra discovered that Jewish men had been marrying foreign pagan women, he tore his garments in despair and confessed

2279-476: The seventh year of the rule of Artaxerxes II, i.e. some 50 years after Nehemiah. This assumption would imply that the biblical account is not chronological. The last group of scholars regard "the seventh year" as a scribal error and hold that the two men were contemporaries. However, in Nehemiah 8, Nehemiah has Ezra read the Torah to the people. So, they clearly were contemporaries working together in Jerusalem at

2332-570: The sins of Israel before God, then braved the opposition of some of his countrymen to purify the community by enforcing the dissolution of the sinful marriages. He was described as exhorting the Israelite people to be sure to follow the Torah Law so as not to intermarry with people of foreign blood, a set of commandments described in the Torah. Some years later, Artaxerxes sent Nehemiah, a Jewish noble in his service, as governor in Jerusalem with

2385-506: The springtime in the national history of Judaism . A disciple of Baruch ben Neriah , he favored study of the Law over the reconstruction of the Temple and thus because of his studies, he did not join the first party returning to Jerusalem in the reign of Cyrus . According to another opinion, he did not join the first party so as not to compete, even involuntarily, with Joshua ben Jozadak for

2438-471: The synagogue during the weekly Torah lection was eventually abandoned by other communities, and eventually codified in the Shulhan Arukh ( Orach Chaim §145:3) who did not encourage its practice, saying that they do not understand the meaning of its words. Where the custom is to read the Aramaic Targum during the public reading of the Torah on Sabbath days, the story of Reuben ( Gen 35:22 ) and

2491-422: The task of rebuilding the city walls. Once this task was completed, Nehemiah had Ezra read the Torah to the assembled Israelites and the people and priests entered into a covenant to keep the law and separate themselves from all other peoples. Several traditions have developed over his place of burial. One tradition says that he is buried in Ezra's Tomb near Basra , Iraq while another tradition alleges that he

2544-634: The teaching of the four kingdoms, the function of the law, the eschatological judgment, the appearance on Earth of the heavenly Jerusalem, the Messianic Period , at the end of which the Messiah will die, the end of this world and the coming of the next, and the Last Judgment ." Ezra restores the law that was destroyed with the burning of the Temple in Jerusalem . He dictates 24 books for

2597-560: The time the wall and the city of Jerusalem was rebuilt in contrast to the previously stated viewpoint. There is a much clearer problem with the timeline in the story in Ezra 4, that tells of a letter that was send to Artaxerces stopping the first attempt to rebuild the temple (which started during the reign of Cyrus and then restarting in the second year of Darius, in 521 BCE). Clearly no such letter could have been sent to Artaxerxes, as he only became king in 465 BCE, so apparently some events during

2650-525: The two books Ezra and Nehemiah, as do other modern Bible translations. A few parts of the Book of Ezra (4:8 to 6:18 and 7:12–26) were written in Aramaic , and the majority in Hebrew , Ezra himself being skilled in both languages. According to the Hebrew Bible he was a descendant of Seraiah , the last High Priest to serve in Solomon's Temple , and a close relative of Joshua, the first High Priest of

2703-409: Was Malachi; Jerome was one prominent Christian who held this view. Early Christian writers occasionally cited Ezra as author of the apocalyptic books attributed to him. Clement of Alexandria in his Stromata referred to Ezra as an example of prophetic inspiration, quoting a section from 2 Esdras . Where early Christian writers refer to the 'Book of Ezra' it is always the text of 1 Esdras that

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2756-593: Was given truly exalted status by the king: he was seemingly put in charge of the entire western half of the Persian Empire , a position apparently above even the level of the satraps (regional governors). Ezra was given vast hoards of treasure to take with him to Jerusalem as well as a letter where the king seemingly acknowledges the sovereignty of the God of Israel. Yet, his actions in the story do not appear to be that of someone with near unlimited government power, and

2809-532: Was made by Aquilas before he converted to Judaism, while the Aramaic translation was made after his conversion. This is said to have been under the direct guidance and instruction of the tannaim Joshua ben Hananiah and Eliezer ben Hurcanus . Indeed, the same biographical stories that the Jerusalem Talmud attributes to Aquila, the Babylonian Talmud attributes to Onkelos. Rabbi Yirmeya said, and some say Rabbi Ḥiyya bar Abba : The translation of

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