106-572: Milkwall is a village in the Forest of Dean in Gloucestershire , England. It lies between the village of Sling to the south, and the town of Coleford to the north. Milkwall, strictly speaking, lies South of Station Rd in the parish of West Dean, whereas Tufthorn is North of Station Rd in the parish of Coleford. Near Milkwall is Perrygrove Railway – a private heritage railway, and Puzzlewood – an ancient woodland site. There
212-434: A body-centered cubic (bcc) crystal structure . As it cools further to 1394 °C, it changes to its γ-iron allotrope, a face-centered cubic (fcc) crystal structure, or austenite . At 912 °C and below, the crystal structure again becomes the bcc α-iron allotrope. The physical properties of iron at very high pressures and temperatures have also been studied extensively, because of their relevance to theories about
318-430: A nuclear spin (− 1 ⁄ 2 ). The nuclide Fe theoretically can undergo double electron capture to Cr, but the process has never been observed and only a lower limit on the half-life of 4.4×10 years has been established. Fe is an extinct radionuclide of long half-life (2.6 million years). It is not found on Earth, but its ultimate decay product is its granddaughter, the stable nuclide Ni . Much of
424-499: A supernova for their formation, involving rapid neutron capture by starting Fe nuclei. In the far future of the universe, assuming that proton decay does not occur, cold fusion occurring via quantum tunnelling would cause the light nuclei in ordinary matter to fuse into Fe nuclei. Fission and alpha-particle emission would then make heavy nuclei decay into iron, converting all stellar-mass objects to cold spheres of pure iron. Iron's abundance in rocky planets like Earth
530-454: A distorted sodium chloride structure. The binary ferrous and ferric halides are well-known. The ferrous halides typically arise from treating iron metal with the corresponding hydrohalic acid to give the corresponding hydrated salts. Iron reacts with fluorine, chlorine, and bromine to give the corresponding ferric halides, ferric chloride being the most common. Ferric iodide is an exception, being thermodynamically unstable due to
636-553: A macroscopic piece of iron will have a nearly zero overall magnetic field. Application of an external magnetic field causes the domains that are magnetized in the same general direction to grow at the expense of adjacent ones that point in other directions, reinforcing the external field. This effect is exploited in devices that need to channel magnetic fields to fulfill design function, such as electrical transformers , magnetic recording heads, and electric motors . Impurities, lattice defects , or grain and particle boundaries can "pin"
742-475: A mixture of O 2 /Ar. Iron(IV) is a common intermediate in many biochemical oxidation reactions. Numerous organoiron compounds contain formal oxidation states of +1, 0, −1, or even −2. The oxidation states and other bonding properties are often assessed using the technique of Mössbauer spectroscopy . Many mixed valence compounds contain both iron(II) and iron(III) centers, such as magnetite and Prussian blue ( Fe 4 (Fe[CN] 6 ) 3 ). The latter
848-458: A network of railways, and numerous tramroads. The tradition of independence in the area resulted in a great number of smaller and not necessarily economically successful mines. In 1904 the Gaveller oversaw a period of amalgamation of collieries which allowed deeper mines to be sunk. During the early 20th century, annual output from the coalfield rarely fell below 1 million tons. In 1945 half of
954-466: A number of industrial areas but the focus has been to capitalise on the scenery and to create jobs from tourist attractions and the leisure sector. Significant numbers of residents work outside the area, commuting to Gloucester , Cheltenham , Bristol , Newport and Cardiff . The Forest of Dean is formed of a raised basin of palaeozoic rocks folded in the Variscan Orogeny , similar to
1060-471: A result, mercury is traded in standardized 76 pound flasks (34 kg) made of iron. Iron is by far the most reactive element in its group; it is pyrophoric when finely divided and dissolves easily in dilute acids, giving Fe . However, it does not react with concentrated nitric acid and other oxidizing acids due to the formation of an impervious oxide layer, which can nevertheless react with hydrochloric acid . High-purity iron, called electrolytic iron ,
1166-455: A type of rock consisting of repeated thin layers of iron oxides alternating with bands of iron-poor shale and chert . The banded iron formations were laid down in the time between 3,700 million years ago and 1,800 million years ago . Materials containing finely ground iron(III) oxides or oxide-hydroxides, such as ochre , have been used as yellow, red, and brown pigments since pre-historical times. They contribute as well to
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#17327977021511272-435: A very large coordination and organometallic chemistry : indeed, it was the discovery of an iron compound, ferrocene , that revolutionalized the latter field in the 1950s. Iron is sometimes considered as a prototype for the entire block of transition metals, due to its abundance and the immense role it has played in the technological progress of humanity. Its 26 electrons are arranged in the configuration [Ar]3d 4s , of which
1378-539: A week later. A total of £85 (equivalent to £11,900 in 2023) was paid in fines. A subscription was also launched which generously compensated the Frenchmen. The term "Who killed the bears?" existed for many years as an insult, directed particularly towards the people of Ruardean – despite the fact that all those convicted were from Cinderford. A fictional version of the incident was used by Dennis Potter for his TV play A Beast With Two Backs . Exploitation of
1484-486: Is oak , both pedunculate and sessile . Beech is common and sweet chestnut has grown here for many centuries. The forest is home to foxgloves and other wild flowers. Conifers include some Weymouth pine from 1781, Norway spruce , Douglas fir and larch . The deer are predominantly fallow deer and have been present since the second world war (there were no deer from about 1855 when they were removed in accordance with an Act of Parliament). A number of fallow deer in
1590-823: Is a chemical element ; it has the symbol Fe (from Latin ferrum 'iron') and atomic number 26. It is a metal that belongs to the first transition series and group 8 of the periodic table . It is, by mass, the most common element on Earth , forming much of Earth's outer and inner core . It is the fourth most abundant element in the Earth's crust , being mainly deposited by meteorites in its metallic state. Extracting usable metal from iron ores requires kilns or furnaces capable of reaching 1,500 °C (2,730 °F), about 500 °C (932 °F) higher than that required to smelt copper . Humans started to master that process in Eurasia during
1696-595: Is a geographical, historical and cultural region in the western part of the county of Gloucestershire , England. It forms a roughly triangular plateau bounded by the River Wye to the west and northwest, Herefordshire to the north, the River Severn to the south, and the City of Gloucester to the east. The area is characterised by more than 110 square kilometres (42 sq mi) of mixed woodland, one of
1802-646: Is also rarely found in basalts that have formed from magmas that have come into contact with carbon-rich sedimentary rocks, which have reduced the oxygen fugacity sufficiently for iron to crystallize. This is known as telluric iron and is described from a few localities, such as Disko Island in West Greenland, Yakutia in Russia and Bühl in Germany. Ferropericlase (Mg,Fe)O , a solid solution of periclase (MgO) and wüstite (FeO), makes up about 20% of
1908-592: Is archaeological evidence of early trading by sea, probably through Lydney . Before Roman times, the area may have been occupied by the British Dobunni tribe, although few of their coins have been found in the area and control may have been contested with the neighbouring Silures . The area was occupied by the Romans in around AD 50. They were attracted by its natural resources which included iron ore , ochre and charcoal . The coal mining industry
2014-407: Is considered to be resistant to rust, due to its oxide layer. Iron forms various oxide and hydroxide compounds ; the most common are iron(II,III) oxide (Fe 3 O 4 ), and iron(III) oxide (Fe 2 O 3 ). Iron(II) oxide also exists, though it is unstable at room temperature. Despite their names, they are actually all non-stoichiometric compounds whose compositions may vary. These oxides are
2120-499: Is due to its abundant production during the runaway fusion and explosion of type Ia supernovae , which scatters the iron into space. Metallic or native iron is rarely found on the surface of the Earth because it tends to oxidize. However, both the Earth's inner and outer core , which together account for 35% of the mass of the whole Earth, are believed to consist largely of an iron alloy, possibly with nickel . Electric currents in
2226-474: Is experimentally well defined for pressures less than 50 GPa. For greater pressures, published data (as of 2007) still varies by tens of gigapascals and over a thousand kelvin. Below its Curie point of 770 °C (1,420 °F; 1,040 K), α-iron changes from paramagnetic to ferromagnetic : the spins of the two unpaired electrons in each atom generally align with the spins of its neighbors, creating an overall magnetic field . This happens because
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#17327977021512332-443: Is in Earth's crust only amounts to about 5% of the overall mass of the crust and is thus only the fourth most abundant element in that layer (after oxygen , silicon , and aluminium ). Most of the iron in the crust is combined with various other elements to form many iron minerals . An important class is the iron oxide minerals such as hematite (Fe 2 O 3 ), magnetite (Fe 3 O 4 ), and siderite (FeCO 3 ), which are
2438-449: Is necessary. Under its international obligations the UK government is obliged to consider the reintroduction of species made extinct through the activities of man, the wild boar included. The Forest of Dean is known for its woodland birds; pied flycatchers , redstarts , wood warblers , lesser spotted woodpecker , nightjars and hawfinches can be seen at RSPB Nagshead and other parts of
2544-401: Is not like that of Mn with its weak, spin-forbidden d–d bands, because Fe has higher positive charge and is more polarizing, lowering the energy of its ligand-to-metal charge transfer absorptions. Thus, all the above complexes are rather strongly colored, with the single exception of the hexaquo ion – and even that has a spectrum dominated by charge transfer in the near ultraviolet region. On
2650-407: Is possible, but nonetheless the sequence does effectively end at Ni because conditions in stellar interiors cause the competition between photodisintegration and the alpha process to favor photodisintegration around Ni. This Ni, which has a half-life of about 6 days, is created in quantity in these stars, but soon decays by two successive positron emissions within supernova decay products in
2756-548: Is somewhat different). Pieces of magnetite with natural permanent magnetization ( lodestones ) provided the earliest compasses for navigation. Particles of magnetite were extensively used in magnetic recording media such as core memories , magnetic tapes , floppies , and disks , until they were replaced by cobalt -based materials. Iron has four stable isotopes : Fe (5.845% of natural iron), Fe (91.754%), Fe (2.119%) and Fe (0.282%). Twenty-four artificial isotopes have also been created. Of these stable isotopes, only Fe has
2862-442: Is such a strong oxidizing agent that it oxidizes ammonia to nitrogen (N 2 ) and water to oxygen: The pale-violet hex aquo complex [Fe(H 2 O) 6 ] is an acid such that above pH 0 it is fully hydrolyzed: As pH rises above 0 the above yellow hydrolyzed species form and as it rises above 2–3, reddish-brown hydrous iron(III) oxide precipitates out of solution. Although Fe has a d configuration, its absorption spectrum
2968-502: Is supposed to have an orthorhombic or a double hcp structure. (Confusingly, the term "β-iron" is sometimes also used to refer to α-iron above its Curie point, when it changes from being ferromagnetic to paramagnetic, even though its crystal structure has not changed. ) The inner core of the Earth is generally presumed to consist of an iron- nickel alloy with ε (or β) structure. The melting and boiling points of iron, along with its enthalpy of atomization , are lower than those of
3074-418: Is thus very important economically, and iron is the cheapest metal, with a price of a few dollars per kilogram or pound. Pristine and smooth pure iron surfaces are a mirror-like silvery-gray. Iron reacts readily with oxygen and water to produce brown-to-black hydrated iron oxides , commonly known as rust . Unlike the oxides of some other metals that form passivating layers, rust occupies more volume than
3180-451: Is used as the traditional "blue" in blueprints . Iron is the first of the transition metals that cannot reach its group oxidation state of +8, although its heavier congeners ruthenium and osmium can, with ruthenium having more difficulty than osmium. Ruthenium exhibits an aqueous cationic chemistry in its low oxidation states similar to that of iron, but osmium does not, favoring high oxidation states in which it forms anionic complexes. In
3286-437: Is used in chemical actinometry and along with its sodium salt undergoes photoreduction applied in old-style photographic processes. The dihydrate of iron(II) oxalate has a polymeric structure with co-planar oxalate ions bridging between iron centres with the water of crystallisation located forming the caps of each octahedron, as illustrated below. Iron(III) complexes are quite similar to those of chromium (III) with
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3392-568: The 2nd millennium BC and the use of iron tools and weapons began to displace copper alloys – in some regions, only around 1200 BC. That event is considered the transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age . In the modern world , iron alloys, such as steel , stainless steel , cast iron and special steels , are by far the most common industrial metals, due to their mechanical properties and low cost. The iron and steel industry
3498-560: The Bessemer Process by solving the quality problems which beset the process. In a second key advance in metallurgy he invented Mushet steel (R.M.S.) in 1868. It was the first true tool steel and the first air-hardening steel . It revolutionised the design of machine tools and the progress of industrial metalworking, and was the forerunner of High speed steel . The remains of Darkhill are preserved as an Industrial Archaeological Site of International Importance and are open to
3604-525: The Dean Forest Railway between Lydney Junction and Norchard is now a heritage railway . The Gloucester-Newport line continues to carry passengers. Lydney railway station serves the Forest of Dean, with 0.196 million passenger entries and exits in 2017–18. The station is served by trains operated by Transport for Wales , linking the Forest directly to Cheltenham and Gloucester to
3710-506: The Forest of Dean Coalfield developed rapidly in the early 19th century with increased demand from local ironworks, and when some of the earliest tramroads in the UK were built here to transport coal to local ports the area was transformed by the growth of mining and the production of iron and steel. In 1818–19 David Mushet built Darkhill Ironworks , where he experimented with iron and steel making. In 1845, his youngest son, Robert Forester Mushet , took over its management. He perfected
3816-591: The South Wales Railway at Bullo Pill . The less successful Forest of Dean Central Railway attempted to compete with the other lines for coal traffic but was rendered obsolete by the opening of the Mineral Loop, a new line opened by the Severn & Wye to connect a number of pitheads. Most of these railways now cease to exist, with most of the railways in the Forest abandoned by 1968. A section of
3922-525: The South Wales coalfield to the west. Underlain by great thicknesses of the Old Red Sandstone , the basin is filled with Carboniferous limestones , sandstones and coal measures , all of which have contributed to the industrial history of the region. Its highest point is Ruardean Hill (290 m, 950 ft). The forest is composed of deciduous and evergreen trees. Predominant
4028-432: The supernova remnant gas cloud, first to radioactive Co, and then to stable Fe. As such, iron is the most abundant element in the core of red giants , and is the most abundant metal in iron meteorites and in the dense metal cores of planets such as Earth . It is also very common in the universe, relative to other stable metals of approximately the same atomic weight . Iron is the sixth most abundant element in
4134-491: The trans - chlorohydridobis(bis-1,2-(diphenylphosphino)ethane)iron(II) complex is used as a starting material for compounds with the Fe( dppe ) 2 moiety . The ferrioxalate ion with three oxalate ligands displays helical chirality with its two non-superposable geometries labelled Λ (lambda) for the left-handed screw axis and Δ (delta) for the right-handed screw axis, in line with IUPAC conventions. Potassium ferrioxalate
4240-466: The universe , and the most common refractory element. Although a further tiny energy gain could be extracted by synthesizing Ni , which has a marginally higher binding energy than Fe, conditions in stars are unsuitable for this process. Element production in supernovas greatly favor iron over nickel, and in any case, Fe still has a lower mass per nucleon than Ni due to its higher fraction of lighter protons. Hence, elements heavier than iron require
4346-480: The 19th century was used as flux in local ironworks as well as for farming and building, also took place in Milkwall. There were engineering works at Milkwall belonging in 1889 to Tom Morgan which continued casting metals after World War I . A colour ( pigment ) factory was started at Milkwall in 1926 – it employed 7 people in 1965, when in addition to processing oxides mined elsewhere it ground coal for use in
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4452-570: The 3d and 4s electrons are relatively close in energy, and thus a number of electrons can be ionized. Iron forms compounds mainly in the oxidation states +2 ( iron(II) , "ferrous") and +3 ( iron(III) , "ferric"). Iron also occurs in higher oxidation states , e.g., the purple potassium ferrate (K 2 FeO 4 ), which contains iron in its +6 oxidation state. The anion [FeO 4 ] with iron in its +7 oxidation state, along with an iron(V)-peroxo isomer, has been detected by infrared spectroscopy at 4 K after cocondensation of laser-ablated Fe atoms with
4558-653: The Commoners Association. In October 2010 a woman won the right to be classified as a Freeminer. Elaine Morman, an employee at Clearwell Caves in the Forest, who had worked as a miner of ochre for a number of years, raised a claim of sexual discrimination against the Forestry Commission . After Mark Harper MP raised the matter in the House of Commons , the Forestry Commission reversed its position and agreed to register her. The forest
4664-603: The Earth's surface. Items made of cold-worked meteoritic iron have been found in various archaeological sites dating from a time when iron smelting had not yet been developed; and the Inuit in Greenland have been reported to use iron from the Cape York meteorite for tools and hunting weapons. About 1 in 20 meteorites consist of the unique iron-nickel minerals taenite (35–80% iron) and kamacite (90–95% iron). Native iron
4770-637: The Forest of Dean was disafforested in the 1620s, causing a series of riots in 1631–32; this was part of enclosure riots across the South West commonly known as the Western Rising. In 1639 22,000 acres (8,900 ha) were disafforested, with 4,000 acres (1,600 ha) going to manorial lords and freeholders in compensation. 18,000 acres (7,300 ha) were to go to the Crown, and be sold on to Sir John Winter . Riots ensued in 1641. Winter's claim to
4876-462: The Friday, a party of 50 soldiers arrived from Monmouth , but by now the number of Foresters had grown to around 2,000 and the soldiers returned to barracks. Over the next few days more troops arrived from around the country. The Foresters' resistance crumbled and most of those arrested elected to rebuild the enclosures, rather than be charged with rioting. James was sentenced to death but his sentence
4982-587: The Hundred of St Briavels supported King Edward I at the siege of Berwick-on-Tweed in the Scottish Wars of Independence by undermining the then Scottish town's defences in the first step of his campaign to seize Scotland from John Balliol . As a result, the king granted free mining rights within the forest to the miners and their descendants; the rights continue to the present day. Miners at that time were mainly involved in iron ore mining – although
5088-542: The Speech", a sort of parliament for the Verderers and Free Miners managing the forest, game, and mineral resources. The Gaveller and his deputy were responsible for leasing gales – areas allocated for mining – on behalf of the Crown. The Speech House has been used as an inn and hotel since the 19th century. The Forest of Dean, with its huge iron ore reserves and ready supply of timber, had been of national importance in
5194-428: The UK national target for clean air, set at 40 μg/m ( micrograms per cubic metre ). In 2017, no roadside monitoring site in the Forest of Dean District failed to meet the UK objective. The most polluted site measured was on Lydney High Street, with a 2017 average NO 2 concentration of 36.9 μg/m . The Forest of Dean once boasted a developed railway network, much of which evolved from plateways built in
5300-743: The Viking settlements in that era. It is possible that an original name Dene developed from this. The area was inhabited in Mesolithic times, and there are also remains of later megalithic monuments, including the Longstone near Staunton and the Broadstone at Wibdon, Stroat . Barrows have been identified at Tidenham and Blakeney . Bronze Age field systems have been identified at Welshbury Hill near Littledean , and there are Iron Age hill forts at Symonds Yat and Welshbury. There
5406-707: The area came under Anglo-Saxon control, the Forest of Dean remained under the auspices of the diocese of Hereford , rather than Gloucester. The Beachley and Lancaut peninsulas east of the Lower Wye remained in Welsh control at least until the 8th century. Around 790 the Saxon King Offa of Mercia built his dyke high above the Wye, but the area was still claimed by the Kingdom of Gwent and Morgannwg before it
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#17327977021515512-435: The bears had killed a child and injured a woman. The bears were killed and the Frenchmen badly beaten. It soon became clear that the bears had not attacked anyone. Police proceedings followed and a week later 13 colliers and labourers appeared before magistrates at Littledean, charged with ill-treating and killing the bears and assaulting the Frenchmen. All but two were found guilty on one or more charges, with another convicted
5618-450: The brown deposits present in a sizeable number of streams. Due to its electronic structure, iron has a very large coordination and organometallic chemistry. Many coordination compounds of iron are known. A typical six-coordinate anion is hexachloroferrate(III), [FeCl 6 ] , found in the mixed salt tetrakis(methylammonium) hexachloroferrate(III) chloride . Complexes with multiple bidentate ligands have geometric isomers . For example,
5724-513: The central area are melanistic . Small numbers of roe deer and muntjac deer have spread in from the east. The Forest is also home to wild boar . A population in the Ross-on-Wye area on the northern edge of the forest escaped from a wild boar farm around 1999 and are believed to be of pure Eastern European origin; in a second introduction, a domestic herd was dumped near Staunton in 2004, but are not pure bred wild boar. Attempts to locate
5830-661: The color of various rocks and clays , including entire geological formations like the Painted Hills in Oregon and the Buntsandstein ("colored sandstone", British Bunter ). Through Eisensandstein (a jurassic 'iron sandstone', e.g. from Donzdorf in Germany) and Bath stone in the UK, iron compounds are responsible for the yellowish color of many historical buildings and sculptures. The proverbial red color of
5936-464: The cores of the Earth and other planets. Above approximately 10 GPa and temperatures of a few hundred kelvin or less, α-iron changes into another hexagonal close-packed (hcp) structure, which is also known as ε-iron . The higher-temperature γ-phase also changes into ε-iron, but does so at higher pressure. Some controversial experimental evidence exists for a stable β phase at pressures above 50 GPa and temperatures of at least 1500 K. It
6042-419: The decline of the mines, the area has undergone a period of significant change, ameliorated to some extent by a shift to high technology , with companies establishing themselves in the area, attracted by grants and a willing workforce. Many mines have now been reclaimed by the forest and the area is characterised by picturesque scenery punctuated by remnants of the industrial age and small towns. There remains
6148-520: The discontented to the side of Charles II . After the restoration Sir John Winter successfully reasserted his right to the Forest of Dean. However forest law was reestablished by Act of Parliament in 1668. In 1672 the King's ironworks were closed to reduce pressure on the forest from mining. The Speech House , between Coleford and Cinderford , was built in 1682 to host the Court of Mine Law and "Court of
6254-401: The domains in the new positions, so that the effect persists even after the external field is removed – thus turning the iron object into a (permanent) magnet . Similar behavior is exhibited by some iron compounds, such as the ferrites including the mineral magnetite , a crystalline form of the mixed iron(II,III) oxide Fe 3 O 4 (although the atomic-scale mechanism, ferrimagnetism ,
6360-479: The earlier 3d elements from scandium to chromium , showing the lessened contribution of the 3d electrons to metallic bonding as they are attracted more and more into the inert core by the nucleus; however, they are higher than the values for the previous element manganese because that element has a half-filled 3d sub-shell and consequently its d-electrons are not easily delocalized. This same trend appears for ruthenium but not osmium . The melting point of iron
6466-470: The earliest use of coal to Roman times for domestic heating and industrial processes such as the preparation of iron ore. The area gives its name to the local government district , Forest of Dean , and a parliamentary constituency , both of which cover wider areas than the historic Forest. The administrative centre of the local authority is Coleford , one of the main towns in the historic Forest area, together with Cinderford and Lydney . The origin of
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#17327977021516572-750: The early 19th century to facilitate freight traffic to and from mineral workings in the Forest. Many of these lines were part of the Severn & Wye Railway , which ran from the River Severn at Lydney to Cinderford, with branch lines to Lydbrook, where it connected with the Ross & Monmouth Railway , and Coleford, where it linked to the Wye Valley Railway via a line known as the Coleford Railway . The Forest of Dean Railway also ran towards Cinderford and its nearby collieries, branching from
6678-466: The enclosed areas and unable to hunt or remove timber. In particular, they lost their ancient grazing and mining rights. As unrest grew, a populist leader named Warren James emerged in the riots against the enclosures. Attempts to peaceably resolve the matter failed, and on 8 June 1831, James, leading more than 100 Foresters, demolished the enclosure at Park Hill, between Parkend and Bream . Around 50 unarmed Crown Officers were powerless to intervene. On
6784-582: The end of the Roman period, around AD 370, a major Roman temple complex dedicated to the god Nodens was completed at Lydney. The central parts of the woodlands in the forest are believed to have been protected for hunting since Roman times. The area formed part of the Cantref Coch and was traditionally considered part of the Brythonic kingdom of Ergyng , centered in modern Herefordshire. Even when
6890-406: The exception of iron(III)'s preference for O -donor instead of N -donor ligands. The latter tend to be rather more unstable than iron(II) complexes and often dissociate in water. Many Fe–O complexes show intense colors and are used as tests for phenols or enols . For example, in the ferric chloride test , used to determine the presence of phenols, iron(III) chloride reacts with a phenol to form
6996-526: The forest. The mixed forest supports one of Britain's highest concentrations of goshawks and a viewing site at New Fancy is manned during February and March. However, goshawks are still illegally killed in the area, with a bird found dead with a shotgun wound in June 2022. Peregrine falcons can be seen from the viewpoint at Symonds Yat rock. Mandarin ducks , which nest in the trees, and reed warblers can be seen at Cannop Ponds and Cannop Brook, running from
7102-537: The fringes of the Crown forest demesne. By about 1800, these settlements were well established at Berry Hill and Parkend . In 1808 Parliament passed the Dean and New Forests Act 1808 , which included the provision to enclose 11,000 acres (4,500 ha) of woodland. This enclosure was carried out between 1814 and 1816. There were bread riots in 1795 and in 1801. Ordinary Foresters were already poverty-stricken, and their plight had grown worse. They were denied access to
7208-462: The global stock of iron in use in society is 2,200 kg per capita. More-developed countries differ in this respect from less-developed countries (7,000–14,000 vs 2,000 kg per capita). Ocean science demonstrated the role of the iron in the ancient seas in both marine biota and climate. Iron shows the characteristic chemical properties of the transition metals , namely the ability to form variable oxidation states differing by steps of one and
7314-567: The historic Forest; they do not include places which are located outside that area, but which are within the larger District Council area. The A40 runs along the northern and northeastern edges of the Forest of Dean. The road provides the Forest with a direct connection to Ross-on-Wye and the M50 in Herefordshire . Westbound, the road runs towards Monmouth and South Wales . To the East,
7420-702: The lands was voided by Parliament in March 1642, in part because he had failed to pay. His assets were sequestrated for supporting the Crown during the Civil War . The Protectorate tried to enclose a third of the forest in 1657, leaving two thirds to the Commoners. Although a relatively generous settlement, it caused resistance in April and May 1659, when fences of new enclosures were broken and cattle brought in to graze. Royalists including Edward Massey attempted to bring
7526-453: The liquid outer core are believed to be the origin of the Earth's magnetic field . The other terrestrial planets ( Mercury , Venus , and Mars ) as well as the Moon are believed to have a metallic core consisting mostly of iron. The M-type asteroids are also believed to be partly or mostly made of metallic iron alloy. The rare iron meteorites are the main form of natural metallic iron on
7632-446: The literature, this mineral phase of the lower mantle is also often called magnesiowüstite. Silicate perovskite may form up to 93% of the lower mantle, and the magnesium iron form, (Mg,Fe)SiO 3 , is considered to be the most abundant mineral in the Earth, making up 38% of its volume. While iron is the most abundant element on Earth, most of this iron is concentrated in the inner and outer cores. The fraction of iron that
7738-407: The major ores of iron . Many igneous rocks also contain the sulfide minerals pyrrhotite and pentlandite . During weathering , iron tends to leach from sulfide deposits as the sulfate and from silicate deposits as the bicarbonate. Both of these are oxidized in aqueous solution and precipitate in even mildly elevated pH as iron(III) oxide . Large deposits of iron are banded iron formations ,
7844-481: The male working population worked in the coal industry but after the Second World War increased pumping costs and other factors made the coalfield less economic. The last commercial iron mine closed in 1946 followed in 1965 by the closure of the last large colliery, Northern United. There are still small private mines in operation, worked by freeminers and Hopewell Colliery is open to the public. With
7950-775: The metal and thus flakes off, exposing more fresh surfaces for corrosion. Chemically, the most common oxidation states of iron are iron(II) and iron(III) . Iron shares many properties of other transition metals, including the other group 8 elements , ruthenium and osmium . Iron forms compounds in a wide range of oxidation states , −4 to +7. Iron also forms many coordination compounds ; some of them, such as ferrocene , ferrioxalate , and Prussian blue have substantial industrial, medical, or research applications. The body of an adult human contains about 4 grams (0.005% body weight) of iron, mostly in hemoglobin and myoglobin . These two proteins play essential roles in oxygen transport by blood and oxygen storage in muscles . To maintain
8056-612: The meteorites Semarkona and Chervony Kut, a correlation between the concentration of Ni, the granddaughter of Fe, and the abundance of the stable iron isotopes provided evidence for the existence of Fe at the time of formation of the Solar System . Possibly the energy released by the decay of Fe, along with that released by Al , contributed to the remelting and differentiation of asteroids after their formation 4.6 billion years ago. The abundance of Ni present in extraterrestrial material may bring further insight into
8162-465: The mid-1860s, Easter, a deep mine at Milkwall, employed around 50 men and boys. An early tramroad to serve the mines, was built by the Severn & Wye tramroad company to connect to their junction at Parkend . In 1875, the Severn & Wye constructed a railway to Coleford. It left the main line at Parkend and in places shadowed the Milkwall branch tramroad. A station was provided at Milkwall for this branch line. The production of lime , which during
8268-399: The name is unknown. The prevalence of Welsh place names in the area suggests a possible corruption of din (meaning "hillfort"). However, similar or identical elements from Old English exist throughout England. In Welsh, Forest of Dean is Fforest y Ddena . Gerald of Wales , writing in the 12th century, refers to the area as Danubia which may translate as "land of Danes" following
8374-559: The necessary levels, human iron metabolism requires a minimum of iron in the diet. Iron is also the metal at the active site of many important redox enzymes dealing with cellular respiration and oxidation and reduction in plants and animals. At least four allotropes of iron (differing atom arrangements in the solid) are known, conventionally denoted α , γ , δ , and ε . The first three forms are observed at ordinary pressures. As molten iron cools past its freezing point of 1538 °C, it crystallizes into its δ allotrope, which has
8480-473: The north, and Chepstow , Newport , Cardiff and onward destinations in South Wales . CrossCountry runs limited services to the station, linking the Forest to Birmingham New Street and onward destinations in the Midlands . In 1967, John Berger 's sociological work A Fortunate Man was set in the Forest of Dean. A film of the same name was filmed in the Forest of Dean in 1972. Iron Iron
8586-436: The orbitals of those two electrons (d z and d x − y ) do not point toward neighboring atoms in the lattice, and therefore are not involved in metallic bonding. In the absence of an external source of magnetic field, the atoms get spontaneously partitioned into magnetic domains , about 10 micrometers across, such that the atoms in each domain have parallel spins, but some domains have other orientations. Thus
8692-539: The origin and early history of the Solar System . The most abundant iron isotope Fe is of particular interest to nuclear scientists because it represents the most common endpoint of nucleosynthesis . Since Ni (14 alpha particles ) is easily produced from lighter nuclei in the alpha process in nuclear reactions in supernovae (see silicon burning process ), it is the endpoint of fusion chains inside extremely massive stars . Although adding more alpha particles
8798-444: The other hand, the pale green iron(II) hexaquo ion [Fe(H 2 O) 6 ] does not undergo appreciable hydrolysis. Carbon dioxide is not evolved when carbonate anions are added, which instead results in white iron(II) carbonate being precipitated out. In excess carbon dioxide this forms the slightly soluble bicarbonate, which occurs commonly in groundwater, but it oxidises quickly in air to form iron(III) oxide that accounts for
8904-581: The oxidizing power of Fe and the high reducing power of I : Ferric iodide, a black solid, is not stable in ordinary conditions, but can be prepared through the reaction of iron pentacarbonyl with iodine and carbon monoxide in the presence of hexane and light at the temperature of −20 °C, with oxygen and water excluded. Complexes of ferric iodide with some soft bases are known to be stable compounds. The standard reduction potentials in acidic aqueous solution for some common iron ions are given below: The red-purple tetrahedral ferrate (VI) anion
9010-477: The paper and fibreboard industries and in drills. A beerhouse (later to become the Tufthorn inn) opened at Milkwall by the late-1870s. A wooden village hall was built after World War I and a recreation ground was laid out in the mid-1930s. An association football club had its own ground by the later 1950s. A social club built at Milkwall by 1959 was later enlarged. Forest of Dean The Forest of Dean
9116-497: The past work on isotopic composition of iron has focused on the nucleosynthesis of Fe through studies of meteorites and ore formation. In the last decade, advances in mass spectrometry have allowed the detection and quantification of minute, naturally occurring variations in the ratios of the stable isotopes of iron. Much of this work is driven by the Earth and planetary science communities, although applications to biological and industrial systems are emerging. In phases of
9222-543: The ponds through Parkend, is famed for its dippers . Butterflies of note are the small pearl-bordered fritillary , wood white and white admiral . Gorsty Knoll is famed for its glowworms and Woorgreens Lake for its dragonflies . The Forest of Dean is also a stronghold for Britain's only venomous snake, the European adder , although its population is now believed to be in dramatic decline. The lists below include towns, villages and places of interest which are within
9328-402: The presence of coal was well known, and limited amounts had been recovered in Roman times. Coal was not used for ironmaking with the methods of smelting then in use. Later the freeminer rights were used mainly for coal mining. The activities of the miners were regulated by the Court of Mine Law. This, and other forms of self-governance, coupled with the Forest's geographic isolation between
9434-414: The principal ores for the production of iron (see bloomery and blast furnace). They are also used in the production of ferrites , useful magnetic storage media in computers, and pigments. The best known sulfide is iron pyrite (FeS 2 ), also known as fool's gold owing to its golden luster. It is not an iron(IV) compound, but is actually an iron(II) polysulfide containing Fe and S 2 ions in
9540-432: The production of iron, using charcoal, for hundreds of years. Despite the abundance of coal, it was not until the last decade of the 18th century that local ironmasters were prepared to invest in the technology needed to produce iron from coke , when coke-fired furnaces at Cinderford , Whitecliff and Parkend were built almost simultaneously. During the 18th century, squatters established roughly-built hamlets around
9646-400: The public. The Park Gutter pit was renamed Princess Royal after Princess Victoria in 1842. The Princess Royal Colliery Company was founded in 1891 to work Park Gutter and Flour Mill Pits. It reached peak production in the 1930s, employing 1300 men. The pits closed in 1962. Cinderford was laid out as a planned town in the mid-19th century, but the characteristic form of settlement remained
9752-471: The rivers Severn and Wye, has given rise to a strong sense of cultural identity in those from the area, who are collectively known as "Foresters". The ancient rights were put on the statute books in the Dean Forest (Mines) Act 1838 , the only public act to affect private individuals. Residents of the hundred over 18 can graze sheep in the Forest in accordance with an agreement between Forestry England and
9858-690: The road links the Forest directly to Gloucester , the M5 , Cheltenham and Oxford . North of the Forest, the road is managed by National Highways . To the southeast of the Forest, the A48 links the region to Chepstow , the M4 and Newport , or Gloucester . This route passes around the Lydney area and follows the course of the River Severn . Other key routes include: Nitrogen Dioxide (NO 2 ) levels, measured using roadside diffusion tubes , are generally well below
9964-488: The royal demesne and parts of parishes within the hundred of St Briavels , and after 1668 comprised the royal demesne only. The Forest proper is within the civil parishes of West Dean , Lydbrook , Cinderford , Ruspidge , and Drybrook , together with a strip of land in the parish of English Bicknor . Traditionally the main sources of work have been forestry – including charcoal production – iron working and coal mining . Archaeological studies have dated
10070-437: The second half of the 3d transition series, vertical similarities down the groups compete with the horizontal similarities of iron with its neighbors cobalt and nickel in the periodic table, which are also ferromagnetic at room temperature and share similar chemistry. As such, iron, cobalt, and nickel are sometimes grouped together as the iron triad . Unlike many other metals, iron does not form amalgams with mercury . As
10176-482: The source of the illegal dumps were unsuccessful and boar can now be found in many parts of the Forest. Locally there are mixed feelings about the presence of boar. Problems have included ploughing up gardens and picnic areas, attacking dogs and panicking horses, road traffic accidents, and ripping open rubbish bags. The local authority undertook a public consultation and have recommended to the Verderers that control
10282-487: The sprawling hamlets of haphazardly placed cottages. Characteristics shared with other British coalfields, such as a devotion to sport, the central role of miners' clubs, and the formation of brass bands , created a distinct community identity. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Forest was a complex industrial region with deep coal mines, iron mines, iron and tinplate works, foundries, quarries and stone-dressing works, wood distillation works producing chemicals,
10388-564: The surface of Mars is derived from an iron oxide-rich regolith . Significant amounts of iron occur in the iron sulfide mineral pyrite (FeS 2 ), but it is difficult to extract iron from it and it is therefore not exploited. In fact, iron is so common that production generally focuses only on ores with very high quantities of it. According to the International Resource Panel 's Metal Stocks in Society report ,
10494-585: The surviving ancient woodlands in England. A large area was reserved for royal hunting before 1066, and remained as the second largest crown forest in England, after the New Forest . Although the name is used loosely to refer to the part of Gloucestershire between the Severn and Wye, the Forest of Dean proper has covered a much smaller area since the Middle Ages . In 1327, it was defined to cover only
10600-455: The volume of the lower mantle of the Earth, which makes it the second most abundant mineral phase in that region after silicate perovskite (Mg,Fe)SiO 3 ; it also is the major host for iron in the lower mantle. At the bottom of the transition zone of the mantle, the reaction γ- (Mg,Fe) 2 [SiO 4 ] ↔ (Mg,Fe)[SiO 3 ] + (Mg,Fe)O transforms γ-olivine into a mixture of silicate perovskite and ferropericlase and vice versa. In
10706-567: Was annexed into the kingdom of England by Æthelstan in 926. Throughout the next few centuries Vikings conducted raids up the Severn, but by the 11th century, the kingdom of Wessex had established civil government. The core of the forest was used by the late Anglo-Saxon kings, and after 1066 the Normans , as their personal hunting ground. The area was kept stocked with deer and wild boar and became important for timber , charcoal , iron ore and limestone . The Hundred of St Briavels
10812-413: Was at least one dwelling at Milkwall, situated on the Forest boundary in 1628. The earliest houses at Milkwall were within the parish of Coleford with just a few houses on the extraparochial Crown land . There was some mining in the 17th century when a drift mine was being worked at Milkwall. Mining for iron ore was taking place in the 1820s when Edward Protheroe opened up ore mines near Milkwall. In
10918-406: Was established in the 12th century, at the same time as many Norman laws concerning the Forest of Dean were put in place. St Briavels Castle became the Forest's administrative and judicial centre. Verderers were appointed to act for the king and protect his royal rights, and local people were given some common rights . Flaxley Abbey was built and given rights and privileges. In 1296, miners from
11024-753: Was later commuted to transportation. He was sent to Van Diemen's Land ( Tasmania ) in October 1831, only to be pardoned five years later, although he never returned home. Conservatives were disliked in the Forest of Dean; on polling day in 1874, there was a riot in the market town of Cinderford in which the Conservative party headquarters and nearby houses were ransacked and damaged. On 26 April 1889, four Frenchmen and their two bears were making their way to Ruardean , having performed in Cinderford. They were attacked by an angry mob, enraged by claims that
11130-603: Was probably established on a small scale in Roman times. The area was governed from the Roman town of Ariconium at Weston under Penyard near Ross-on-Wye , and a road was built from there to a river crossing at Newnham on Severn and port at Lydney. The "Dean Road", still visible at Soudley , is believed to be a medieval rebuilding of the Roman road , and would have been an important route to transport iron ore and finished metal products. During Roman times there were Roman villas at Blakeney, Woolaston and elsewhere, and towards
11236-542: Was used exclusively as a royal hunting ground for the Tudors , and subsequently a source of food for the royal court. Its rich deposits of iron ore led to its becoming a major source of iron. The forest's timber was particularly fine, and was regarded as the best material for building ships. In the 17th century, as a result of King Charles I 's decision to rule without Parliament , he sought to raise finances through grants of royal forest lands. 3,000 acres (1,200 ha) of
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