117-651: The Russian Space Forces (Russian: Космические войска России , romanized : Kosmicheskie voyska Rossii, KV ) are the space force branch of the Russian Aerospace Forces . Having been reestablished following August 1, 2015 merger between the Russian Air Force and the Russian Aerospace Defence Forces after the independent arm of service was dissolved in 2011. Formed on August 10, 1992 alongside
234-442: A native Russian keyboard layout ( JCUKEN ). In the latter case, they would type using a system of transliteration fitted for their keyboard layout , such as for English QWERTY keyboards, and then use an automated tool to convert the text into Cyrillic. There are a number of distinct and competing standards for the romanization of Russian Cyrillic , with none of them having received much popularity, and, in reality, transliteration
351-509: A referendum in which he proposed more decentralisation. He died a year later at the age of 79, leaving his presidential memoirs unfinished. Many French political parties and leaders claim a Gaullist legacy; many streets and monuments in France and other parts of the world were dedicated to his memory after his death. Charles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle was born on 22 November 1890 in Lille ,
468-583: A "drafting officer". He was promoted to lieutenant-colonel in December 1932 and appointed Head of the Third Section (operations). His service at SGDN gave him six years' experience of the interface between army planning and government, enabling him to take on ministerial responsibilities in 1940. After studying arrangements in the US, Italy, and Belgium, de Gaulle drafted a bill for the organisation of
585-581: A European counterweight between the Anglo-American and Soviet spheres of influence through the signing of the Élysée Treaty on 22 January 1963. De Gaulle opposed any development of a supranational Europe , favouring Europe as a continent of sovereign nations . De Gaulle openly criticised the US intervention in Vietnam and the " exorbitant privilege " of the US dollar. In his later years, his support for
702-642: A Latin alphabet for the Russian language was discussed in 1929–30 during the campaign of latinisation of the languages of the USSR , when a special commission was created to propose a latinisation system for Russian. The letters of the Latin script are named in Russian as following (and are borrowed from French and/or German ): Charles de Gaulle Defunct Defunct Charles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle (22 November 1890 – 9 November 1970)
819-461: A Professional Army ). He proposed mechanization of the infantry, with stress on an élite force of 100,000 men and 3,000 tanks. The book imagined tanks driving around the country like cavalry. De Gaulle's mentor Emile Mayer was somewhat more prophetic than he was about the future importance of air power on the battlefield. Such an army would both compensate for France's population shortage, and be an efficient tool to enforce international law, particularly
936-453: A bayonet wound to the left thigh after being stunned by a shell and was captured after passing out from the effects of poison gas. He was one of the few survivors of his battalion. The circumstances of his capture would later become a subject of debate as anti-Gaullists spread rumour that he had actually surrendered, a claim de Gaulle nonchalantly dismissed. De Gaulle spent 32 months in six different prisoner camps, but he spent most time in
1053-548: A career as a writer and historian, partly to please his father and partly because it was one of the few unifying forces which represented the whole of French society. He later wrote that "when I entered the Army, it was one of the greatest things in the world", a claim which Lacouture points out needs to be treated with caution: the army's reputation was at a low. It was used extensively for strike-breaking and there were fewer than 700 applicants for Saint-Cyr in 1908, down from 2,000 at
1170-723: A child when she heard of the French capitulation to the Germans at Sedan in 1870 , he developed a keen interest in military strategy. He was also influenced by his uncle, also named Charles de Gaulle , who was a historian and passionate Celticist who advocated the union of the Welsh, Scots, Irish, and Bretons into one people. His grandfather Julien-Philippe was also a historian, and his grandmother Joséphine-Marie wrote poems which impassioned his Christian faith. De Gaulle began writing in his early teens, especially poetry; his family paid for
1287-663: A composition, a one-act verse play, to be privately published. A voracious reader, he favored philosophical tomes by such writers as Bergson , Péguy , and Barrès . In addition to the German philosophers Nietzsche , Kant , and Goethe , he read the works of the ancient Greeks (especially Plato ) and the prose of Chateaubriand . De Gaulle was educated in Paris at the Collège Stanislas and studied briefly in Belgium. At
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#17327719983851404-693: A dedication to Pétain (although he wrote his own rather than using the draft Pétain sent him), which was dropped from postwar editions. Until 1938 Pétain had treated de Gaulle, as Lacouture puts it, "with unbounded good will", but by October 1938 he privately thought his former protégé "an ambitious man, and very ill-bred". At the outbreak of World War II, de Gaulle was put in command of the French Fifth Army 's tanks (five scattered battalions, largely equipped with R35 light tanks ) in Alsace. On 12 September 1939 he attacked at Bitche , simultaneously with
1521-413: A laundry basket, digging a tunnel, digging through a wall, and even posing as a nurse. In letters to his parents, he constantly spoke of his frustration that the war was continuing without him. As the war neared its end, he grew depressed that he was playing no part in the victory, but he remained in captivity until the armistice . On 1 December 1918, three weeks later, he returned to his father's house in
1638-493: A major power should not rely on other countries, such as the United States, for its national security and prosperity. To this end, he pursued a policy of "national independence" which led him to withdraw from NATO 's integrated military command and to launch an independent nuclear strike force that made France the world's fourth nuclear power . He restored cordial Franco-German relations with Konrad Adenauer to create
1755-468: A manner similar to what de Gaulle had advocated). A rare insight into de Gaulle's political views is a letter to his mother warning that war with Germany was inevitable and reassuring her that Pierre Laval 's pact with the USSR in 1935 was for the best, likening it to Francis I 's alliance with the Turks against Emperor Charles V . From April 1936, whilst still in his staff position at SGDN, de Gaulle
1872-559: A military reorganization. However, by December 2011, it was dissolved once again and this time replaced by the Russian Aerospace Defence Forces . On August 1, 2015, the Russian Air Force and the Russian Aerospace Defence Forces were merged to form the Russian Aerospace Forces . The Russian Space Forces were reestablished as a result, and are now one of three sub-branches of the new military branch. The Soviet Space Troops date back to February 12, 1955, when
1989-733: A missile launch range for the testing of R-7 ICBMs started near Mirny, Arkhangelsk Oblast , which later became the Plesetsk Cosmodrome . In 1964, in order to bring the various space-related units and establishments together, the Soviet Ministry of Defence formed the Central Directorate for Space Assets of the Missile Troops of Strategic Purpose ( Центральное управление космических средств Ракетных войск стратегического назначения ( ЦУКОС РВСН ). In 1970
2106-524: A parade of 80 tanks into the Place d'Armes at Metz, in his command tank " Austerlitz ". By now de Gaulle was becoming a well-known figure, known as "Colonel Motor(s)". At the invitation of the publisher Plon , he produced another book, La France et son Armée (France and Her Army) in 1938. De Gaulle incorporated much of the text he had written for Pétain a decade earlier for the uncompleted book Le Soldat , to Pétain's displeasure. De Gaulle agreed to include
2223-458: A platoon commander, de Gaulle was involved in fierce fighting from the outset. He received his baptism of fire on 15 August and was among the first to be wounded, receiving a bullet in the knee at the Battle of Dinant . It is sometimes claimed that in hospital, he grew bitter at the tactics used, and spoke with other injured officers against the outdated methods of the French army. However, there
2340-455: A question about supplies, replying "de minimis non curat praetor " (roughly: "a leader does not concern himself with trivia") before ordering the responsible officer to answer Moyrand. He obtained respectable, but not outstanding grades on many of his assessments. Moyrand wrote in his final report that he was "an intelligent, cultured and serious-minded officer; has brilliance and talent" but criticised him for not deriving as much benefit from
2457-515: A two-year posting to Lebanon and Syria . In Beirut he was chief of the 3rd Bureau (military operations) of General Louis-Paul-Gaston de Bigault du Granrut, who wrote him a glowing reference recommending him for high command. In the spring of 1931, as his posting in Beirut drew to a close, de Gaulle once again asked Pétain for a posting to the École de Guerre . Pétain tried to obtain an appointment for him as Professor of History there, but once again
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#17327719983852574-575: A view to saving funds, it would be more sensible to strip the Military Space Forces of their independence and subordinate them to the Strategic Missile Troops -which has been done. In just the same way the country's air defense forces were made subordinate to the air force. Under the slogan of "optimizing", but, essentially, reducing the officer corps of the armed forces, the Military Space Forces were simply merged with
2691-626: Is no contemporary evidence that he understood the importance of artillery in modern warfare. Instead, in his writing at the time, he criticised the "overrapid" offensive, the inadequacy of French generals, and the "slowness of the English troops". He rejoined his regiment in October, as commander of the 7th company . Many of his former comrades were already dead. In December he became regimental adjutant . De Gaulle's unit gained recognition for repeatedly crawling out into no man's land to listen to
2808-597: Is often carried out without any consistent standards. Scientific transliteration, also known as the International Scholarly System , is a system that has been used in linguistics since the 19th century. It is based on the Czech alphabet and formed the basis of the GOST and ISO systems. OST 8483 was the first Soviet standard on romanization of Russian, introduced on 16 October 1935. Developed by
2925-832: Is still active today. In 1997 the Missile and Space Defence Troops and the Military Space Troops were transferred to the RVSN . In the view of some experts, the merger of the Space Troops and the Anti-Missile and Anti-Space Troops and their subordination to the RVSN was a mistake that prevented the Russian military from developing space-based capabilities. Russian Public TV comment on the matter: However, slightly over three years ago, it appeared to some-one, that, with
3042-706: Is the main system of the Oxford University Press, and a variation was used by the British Library to catalogue publications acquired up to 1975. The Library of Congress system (ALA-LC) is used for newer acquisitions. The BGN/PCGN system is relatively intuitive for Anglophones to read and pronounce. In many publications, a simplified form of the system is used to render English versions of Russian names, typically converting ë to yo , simplifying -iy and -yy endings to -y , and omitting apostrophes for ъ and ь . It can be rendered using only
3159-534: Is the moment when the Space Troops legally became a separate arm. Also noted should be the difference in designation. The Military Space Forces ( Военно-космические силы ) were a separate arm under the Ministry of Defence. They later became part of the Aerospace Forces ( Воздушно-космические силы ). These are different entities and it is important to take this into consideration in order to avoid mixing up
3276-504: Is unlikely that he stood out among the 19 captains and 32 lieutenants under his command. De Gaulle would have been present at the 1913 Arras manoeuvres, at which Pétain criticised General Gallet [ fr ] to his face, but there is no evidence in his notebooks that he accepted Pétain's unfashionable ideas about the importance of firepower against the dominant doctrine emphasizing " offensive spirit ". De Gaulle stressed how Maurice de Saxe had banned volley fire, how French armies of
3393-603: The École Normale Supérieure , and to civil servants. Pétain instead advised him to apply for a posting to the Secrétariat Général du Conseil Supérieur de la Défense Nationale (SGDN – General Secretariat of the Supreme War Council) in Paris. Pétain promised to lobby for the appointment, which he thought would be good experience for him. De Gaulle was posted to SGDN in November 1931, initially as
3510-515: The 33rd Infantry Regiment [ fr ] of the French Army , based at Arras. This was a historic regiment with Austerlitz , Wagram , and Borodino amongst its battle honours. In April 1910 he was promoted to corporal. His company commander declined to promote him to sergeant, the usual rank for a potential officer, commenting that the young man clearly felt that nothing less than Constable of France would be good enough for him. He
3627-721: The Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union issued a joint executive order for the establishment of Scientific Research and Testing Range for the development of space exploration technology, codenamed Tayga Installation ( Обект «Тайга» ). The range was formally established on June 2, 1955, on Plot 10 - Zarya in Kyzylorda Region of
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3744-675: The Dordogne to be reunited with his three brothers, who had all also served in the army. After the armistice, de Gaulle served with the staff of the French Military Mission to Poland as an instructor of Poland's infantry during its war with communist Russia (1919–1921). He distinguished himself in operations near the River Zbrucz , with the rank of major in the Polish army, and won Poland's highest military decoration,
3861-573: The Fifth Republic after approval by referendum . He was elected President of France later that year, a position he held until his resignation in 1969. Born in Lille , he was a decorated officer of the First World War , wounded several times and taken prisoner by the Germans. During the interwar period , he advocated mobile armoured divisions. During the German invasion of May 1940, he led an armoured division that counterattacked
3978-536: The Ingolstadt Fortress , where his treatment was satisfactory. In captivity, de Gaulle read German newspapers (he had learned German at school and spent a summer vacation in Germany) and gave talks on his view of the conflict to fellow prisoners. His patriotic fervour and confidence in victory earned him the nickname Le Connétable (" The Constable "), the title of the medieval commander-in-chief of
4095-679: The Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic , when the General Staff of the Soviet Army established the structure and manpower requirements of the range and assigned the formal designation of 5th Scientific Research and Testing Range (5th SRTR, 5-й Научно-исследовательский испытательный полигон ( 5-й НИИП )). From the beginning in the Soviet Union Space exploration was a military activity (unlike in
4212-498: The Napoleonic period had relied on infantry column attack, and how French military power had declined in the nineteenth century because of – supposedly – excessive concentration on firepower rather than élan . He also appears to have accepted the then fashionable lesson drawn from the recent Russo-Japanese War , of how bayonet charges by Japanese infantry with high morale had succeeded in the face of enemy firepower. De Gaulle
4329-581: The Peresvet anti-air laser combat system which protects strategic missiles. There is an optical tracking facility, the Okno (Window) complex near the town of Nurek in central Tajikistan that is intended to monitor objects in space. The Okno is capable of tracking objects 40,000 kilometres (25,000 mi) from Earth, the space forces said when it °was put on duty in 2002. The facility involves telescope-like equipment housed in several large spheres, similar to
4446-759: The Rally of the French People . He retired in the early 1950s and wrote his War Memoirs , which quickly became a staple of modern French literature. When the Algerian War threatened to bring the unstable Fourth Republic to collapse, the National Assembly brought him back to power during the May 1958 crisis . He founded the Fifth Republic with a strong presidency; he was elected with 78% of
4563-564: The Saar Offensive . At the start of October 1939, Reynaud asked for a staff posting under de Gaulle, but remained at his post as Minister of Finance. De Gaulle's tanks were inspected by President Lebrun , who was impressed, but regretted that it was too late to implement his ideas. He wrote a paper L'Avènement de la force mécanique (The coming of the Armoured Force) which he sent to General Georges (commander-in-chief on
4680-628: The Treaty of Versailles . He also thought it would be a precursor to a deeper national reorganisation, and wrote that "a master has to make his appearance [...] whose orders cannot be challenged – a man upheld by public opinion". Only 700 copies were sold in France; the claim that thousands of copies were sold in Germany is thought to be an exaggeration. De Gaulle used the book to widen his contacts among journalists, notably with André Pironneau, editor of L'Écho de Paris . The book attracted praise across
4797-484: The Virtuti Militari . De Gaulle returned to France, where he became a lecturer in military history at Saint-Cyr. He studied at the École de Guerre (staff college) from November 1922 to October 1924. Here he clashed with his instructor Colonel Moyrand by arguing for tactics based on circumstances rather than doctrine, and after an exercise in which he had played the role of commander, he refused to answer
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4914-665: The 2nd Division SO. In 1978 the 9th Separate Corps for Anti-Missile Defence ( 9-й Отдельный корпус противоракетной обороны ( 9-й ОК ПРО )) was added to the Directorate of the Chief of Anti-Missile and Anti-Space Defence. The Corps was originally formed on January 22, 1962, in Moscow as the Command of the 81st Radiotechnical Center ( Управление РТЦ-81 , Military Unit 16451 (в/ч 16451)). The unit moved later to Pavshino in 1963. In 1965 it
5031-536: The 45th Division SC was expanded into the 18th Separate Corps for Space Control ( 18-й Отдельный корпус контроля космический пространства ). The 18th Separate Corps was reduced back into the 45th Division by the mid-1990s. It is still active today as the Main Centre for Reconnaissance of Situation in Space . In 1992 the Anti-Missile and Anti-Space Defence Troops (Войска противоракетной и противокосмической обороны) of
5148-619: The 6th Separate Aviation Flight, 6-е отдельное авиационное звено ), a missile assembly brigade, its own railway network, security, logistics, medical units and flight measurement units as far away as the Kamchatka Peninsula . As a clear indication of the indivisible connection between the Soviet Strategic Missile Forces and the Soviet space program the 627th Missile Regiment ( 627-й Ракетный полк )
5265-627: The Air Defence Force were renamed to the Missile and Space Defence Troops (Войска ракетно-космической обороны). In 1995 the HQ of the 9th Separate Corps AMD relocated to Sofrino-1, Pushkin District, Moscow Oblast. On October 1, 1998, the Corps was reduced into the 9th Division for Anti-Missile Defence and transferred from the Air Defence Force to the Missile Troops of Strategic Purpose. The division
5382-456: The British Library since 1975. The formal, unambiguous version of the system for bibliographic cataloguing requires some diacritics, two-letter tie characters , and prime marks. The standard is also often adapted as a "simplified" or "modified Library of Congress system" for use in text for a non-specialized audience, omitting the special characters and diacritics, simplifying endings, and modifying iotated initials. British Standard 2979:1958
5499-462: The Chief of Space Assets and upgraded from a directorate under the General Staff, to a directorate directly subordinated to the Ministry of Defence (Управление начальника космических средств МО СССР). After the collapse of the USSR in 1992 the Directorate of the Chief of Space Assets of the Ministry of Defence was reformed into a separate combat arm ( род войск центрального подчинения ) - Military Space Forces ( Военно-космические силы ( ВКС )). This
5616-606: The Directorate was upgraded from a Central to a Main Directorate (Главное управление космических средств (ГУКОС РВСН). In 1981 the Main Directorate was taken out of the RVSN and subordinated to the Soviet General Staff with the corresponding re-designation from ГУКОС РВСН to ГУКОС ГШ ВС СССР. In 1986 the Main Directorate for Space Assets of the Ministry of Defence was reformed into the Directorate of
5733-406: The French Republic in June 1944, the interim government of France following its liberation . As early as 1944, De Gaulle introduced a dirigiste economic policy, which included substantial state-directed control over a capitalist economy, which was followed by 30 years of unprecedented growth, known as the Trente Glorieuses . He resigned in 1946, but continued to be politically active as founder of
5850-413: The French army. In Ingolstadt were also journalist Remy Roure , who would eventually become a political ally of de Gaulle, and Mikhail Tukhachevsky , a future commander of the Red Army . De Gaulle became acquainted with Tukhachevsky, whose theories about a fast-moving, mechanized army closely resembled his. He also wrote his first book, Discorde chez l'ennemi (The Enemy's House Divided) , analysing
5967-418: The Latin Alphabet is an adoption of ISO 9:1995 . It is the official standard of both Russia and the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). GOST 52535.1-2006 Identification cards. Machine readable travel documents. Part 1. Machine readable passports is an adoption of an ICAO standard for travel documents. It was used in Russian passports for a short period during 2010–2013 ( see below ). The standard
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#17327719983856084-446: The Military Space Troops were detached from the RVSN into the separate Space Troops directly under the General Staff. Colonel General Anatoly Perminov was appointed to lead the new Space Forces. He was succeeded by General Vladimir Popovkin in 2004 and General Oleg Ostapenko in 2008 until dissolution in 2011. On August 1, 2015, the Space Forces were absorbed into the newly established Russian Aerospace Forces . The main tasks of
6201-416: The National Administration for Geodesy and Cartography at the USSR Council of Ministers , GOST 16876-71 has been in service since 1973. Replaced by GOST 7.79-2000. This standard is an equivalent of GOST 16876-71 and was adopted as an official standard of the COMECON . GOST 7.79-2000 System of Standards on Information, Librarianship, and Publishing–Rules for Transliteration of the Cyrillic Characters Using
6318-443: The Range on April 10, 1961. On January 25, 1962, its designation changed to 51st Separate Engineer Testing Detachment ( 51-я отдельная инженерно-испытательная часть ( 51-я ОИИЧ )), but the number 44083 was retained. The Detachment operated three surface launch pads and three underground launch shafts for the R-9A ICBMs. It was disbanded on December 7, 1971. The 311th Missile Regiment of the 49th Guards Missile Division transferred to
6435-405: The Range on October 13, 1962, and changed designation to the 6th Separate Engineer Testing Detachment ( 6-я отдельная инженерно-испытательная часть ( 6-я ОИИЧ )). The regiment, later the detachment, had military number 44108 ( в/ч 44108 ), which changed in 1966 to 45856. The Soviet space troops achieved the first successful launch of a human into space on April 12, 1961. As a maskirovka measure
6552-420: The Range simultaneously carried out the task of being the test center for the country's ICBM force. For that reason it had four test directorates (roughly brigade equivalents): The 1st and the 2nd Test Directorates were the ones, who successfully carried out Yuri Gagarin's Vostok 1 spacecraft launch (the 3rd and 4th were not yet formed at the time), which once again comes as a testament for the indivisibility of
6669-533: The Russian Space Forces are informing the higher political leaders and military commanders of missile attacks as soon as possible, ballistic missile defence , and the creation, deployment, maintenance and control of in- orbit space vehicles, like the new Persona reconnaissance satellite . For example, the Space Forces operate the GLONASS global positioning system. The commander of the Space Forces Colonel General Vladimir Popovkin said in January 2006 that 18 GLONASS satellites would be in orbit by 2008. In October 2010
6786-423: The Soviet TASS news agency mentioned the cosmodrome under the name Baykonur ( Байконур ) by the name of the nearest train station of the Trans-Caspian railway . The Soviet military internally used the geographic designation of Tyuratam ( Тюратам ) from the closest Kazakh village. On the same day the 5th SRTR received its battle standard as a military formation. While heavily involved in the Soviet space program,
6903-423: The Strategic Missile Troops. In this way, the missile men command remained in their places virtually in full and almost the entire elite of military engineers were dispersed from the space forces. The military base, too, was destroyed. In the building of the Military Space Forces headquarters on Kaluga Square [Kaluzhskaya ploshchad], the very expensive fiber optic cable necessary for communicating with space facilities
7020-507: The U.S. GEODSS system. Romanization of Russian The romanization of the Russian language (the transliteration of Russian text from the Cyrillic script into the Latin script ), aside from its primary use for including Russian names and words in text written in a Latin alphabet, is also essential for computer users to input Russian text who either do not have a keyboard or word processor set up for inputting Cyrillic, or else are not capable of typing rapidly using
7137-497: The United States where it was the province of the civilian NASA ). It was an integral part of the Soviet strategic ballistic missile force and by the time of the range's creation in 1955 this was the portfolio of the Deputy Minister of Defence for Special Weaponry and Rocket Technology. The first appointee (since March 1955) was (at the time) Marshal of Artillery , later Chief Marshal Of Artillery Mitrofan Ivanovich Nedelin. On December 17, 1959, Marshal Nedelin's Deputy Minister apparatus
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#17327719983857254-401: The age of fifteen he wrote an essay imagining "General de Gaulle" leading the French Army to victory over Germany in 1930; he later wrote that in his youth he had looked forward with somewhat naive anticipation to the inevitable future war with Germany to avenge the French defeat of 1870. France during de Gaulle's adolescence was a divided society, with many developments which were unwelcome to
7371-427: The basic letters and punctuation found on English-language keyboards: no diacritics or unusual letters are required, although the interpunct character (·) may be used to avoid ambiguity. This particular standard is part of the BGN/PCGN romanization system which was developed by the United States Board on Geographic Names and by the Permanent Committee on Geographical Names for British Official Use . The portion of
7488-433: The basis for his book The Edge of the Sword (1932). After spending twelve years as a captain, a normal period, de Gaulle was promoted to commandant (major) on 25 September 1927. In November 1927 he began a two-year posting as commanding officer of the 19th chasseurs à pied (a battalion of élite light infantry) with the occupation forces at Trier . De Gaulle trained his men hard (a river crossing exercise of
7605-446: The closed military town of Noginsk-9, east of Moscow), the 46th Separate Radiotechnical Nod in Mishelyovka , Irkutskaya Oblast and the 49th Separate Radiotechnical Nod in the closed military town of Balkhash-9 , Kazakh SSR. In 1965 began the formation of a Space Control System ( Система контроля космического пространства ( ЦККП )). The headquarters was constructed in the Noginsk-9 closed military town east of Moscow. On October 7, 1965,
7722-416: The conversations of the enemy, and the information brought back was so valuable that on 18 January 1915 he received the Croix de Guerre . On 10 February he was promoted to captain, initially on probation. On 10 March 1915, de Gaulle was shot in the left hand, a wound which initially seemed trivial but became infected. The wound incapacitated him for four months and later forced him to wear his wedding ring on
7839-460: The country in wartime. He made a presentation about his bill to the CHEM. The bill passed the Chamber of Deputies but failed in the Senate. Unlike Pétain, de Gaulle believed in the use of tanks and rapid maneuvers rather than trench warfare. De Gaulle became a disciple of Émile Mayer, a retired lieutenant-colonel (his career had been damaged by the Dreyfus Affair ) and military thinker. Mayer thought that although wars were still bound to happen, it
7956-499: The course as he should have, and for his arrogance: his "excessive self-confidence", his harsh dismissal of the views of others "and his attitude of a King in exile". Having entered 33rd out of 129, he graduated in 52nd place, with a grade of assez bien ("good enough"). He was posted to Mainz to help supervise supplies of food and equipment for the French Army of Occupation . De Gaulle's book La Discorde chez l'ennemi had appeared in March 1924. In March 1925 he published an essay on
8073-504: The creation of the Russian Armed Forces , the Russian Space Forces was the first independent space force in the world. The organization shared control of the Baikonur Cosmodrome with Roscosmos , the Federal Space Agency. It also operated the Plesetsk and the Svobodny Cosmodromes . However the Russian Space Forces were dissolved in July 1997 and incorporated into the Strategic Missile Forces . The Russian Space Forces were once again reformed as an independent troop on June 1, 2001, under
8190-419: The de Gaulle family: the growth of socialism and syndicalism , the legal separation of Church and state in 1905 , and the reduction in the term of military service to two years. Equally unwelcome were the Entente Cordiale with Britain, the First Moroccan Crisis , and above all the Dreyfus Affair . Henri de Gaulle came to be a supporter of Dreyfus, but was less concerned with his innocence per se than with
8307-432: The disgrace which the army had brought onto itself. The period also saw a resurgence in evangelical Catholicism, the dedication of the Sacré-Cœur, Paris , and the rise of the cult of Joan of Arc . De Gaulle was not an outstanding pupil until his mid-teens, but from July 1906 he focused on winning a place at the military academy, Saint-Cyr . Lacouture suggests that de Gaulle joined the army, despite being more suited to
8424-420: The divisions within the German forces. The book was published in 1924. Originally interned at Rosenberg Fortress , he was quickly moved to progressively higher-security facilities like Ingolstadt. De Gaulle made five unsuccessful escape attempts, and was routinely punished with long periods of solitary confinement and the withdrawal of privileges such as newspapers and tobacco. He attempted escape by hiding in
8541-530: The early Soviet space troops from the RVSN. After the Baykonur Cosmodrome another space-related formation was added in 1957, when the Command and Measurement Complex for Control of Space Vehicles ( Командно-измерительный комплекс управления космическими аппаратами ( КИК УКА )) was formed initially in Bolshevo , later transferred to Krasnoznamensk, Moscow Oblast . Also in 1957 the construction of
8658-511: The faculty would not have him. Instead de Gaulle, drawing on plans he had drawn up in 1928 for reform of that institution, asked Pétain to create a special post for him which would enable him to lecture on "the Conduct of War" both to the École de Guerre and to the Centre des Hautes Études Militaires (CHEM – a senior staff college for generals, known as the "school for marshals"), to civilians at
8775-565: The freezing Moselle River at night was vetoed by his commanding general). He imprisoned a soldier for appealing to his deputy for a transfer to a cushier unit, and when investigated initially tried to invoke his status as a member of the Maison Pétain , eventually appealing to Pétain to protect himself from a reprimand for interfering with the soldier's political rights. An observer wrote of de Gaulle at this time that although he encouraged young officers, "his ego...glowed from far off". In
8892-495: The ghost-writing of Le Soldat had deepened in 1928. Pétain brought in a new ghostwriter, Colonel Audet, who was unwilling to take on the job and wrote to de Gaulle in some embarrassment to take over the project. Pétain was quite friendly about the matter but did not publish the book. In 1929 Pétain did not use de Gaulle's draft text for his eulogy for the late Ferdinand Foch , whose seat at the Académie Française he
9009-443: The introduction of a dedicated Latin alphabet for writing the Russian language. Such an alphabet would not necessarily bind closely to the traditional Cyrillic orthography. The transition from Cyrillic to Latin has been proposed several times throughout history (especially during the Soviet era), but was never conducted on a large scale, except for informal romanizations in the computer era. The most serious possibility of adoption of
9126-650: The invaders; he was then appointed Undersecretary for War. Refusing to accept his government's armistice with Germany , De Gaulle fled to England and exhorted the French to continue the fight in his Appeal of 18 June . He led the Free French Forces and later headed the French National Liberation Committee and emerged as the undisputed leader of Free France . He became head of the Provisional Government of
9243-484: The new system and the old one, citizens who wanted to retain the old version of a name's transliteration, especially one that had been in the old pre-2010 passport, could apply to the local migration office before they acquired a new passport. The standard was abandoned in 2013. In 2013, Order No. 320 of the Federal Migration Service of Russia came into force. It states that all personal names in
9360-462: The next 15 years. He later wrote in his memoirs: "My first colonel, Pétain, taught me the art of command". It has been claimed that in the build-up to World War I , de Gaulle agreed with Pétain about the obsolescence of cavalry and of traditional tactics, and often debated great battles and the likely outcome of any coming war with his superior. Lacouture is sceptical, pointing out that although Pétain wrote glowing appraisals of de Gaulle in 1913, it
9477-509: The passports must be transliterated by using the ICAO system , which is published in Doc 9303 " Machine Readable Travel Documents, Part 3 ". The system differs from the GOST R 52535.1-2006 system in two things: ц is transliterated into ts (as in pre-2010 systems), ъ is transliterated into ie (a novelty). In a second sense, the romanization or Latinization of Russian may also indicate
9594-462: The political spectrum, apart from the hard left who were committed to the Republican ideal of a citizen army. De Gaulle's views attracted the attention of the maverick politician Paul Reynaud , to whom he wrote frequently, sometimes in obsequious terms. Reynaud first invited him to meet him on 5 December 1934. De Gaulle was deeply focused on his career at this time. There is no evidence that he
9711-441: The rampart, defensive wall") or de Waal ("the wall") De Gaulle's mother, Jeanne (born Maillot), descended from a family of wealthy entrepreneurs from Lille. She had French, Irish, Scottish, and German ancestry. De Gaulle's father encouraged historical and philosophical debate between his children, and through his encouragement, de Gaulle learned French history from an early age. Struck by his mother's tales of how she cried as
9828-411: The right hand. In August he commanded the 10th company before returning to duty as regimental adjutant. On 3 September 1915 his rank of captain became permanent. In late October, he returned to command of 10th company. As a company commander at Douaumont (during the Battle of Verdun ) on 2 March 1916, while leading a charge to try to break out of a position which had become surrounded, he received
9945-593: The slogan " Vive le Québec libre " and his two vetoes of Britain's entry into the European Economic Community generated considerable controversy in both North America and Europe. Although reelected to the presidency in 1965 , he faced widespread protests by students and workers in May 68 but had the Army's support and won a snap election with an increased majority in the National Assembly. De Gaulle resigned in 1969 after losing
10062-666: The system became fully operational. Formations of the Space Forces included the 3rd Missile-Space Defence Army, and a Division of Warning of Missile Attack, both with their headquarters at Solnechnogorsk near Moscow. Installations and assets include the Hantsavichy Radar Station in Belarus, along with a number of other large warning radars, and the A-135 anti-ballistic missile system which protects Moscow and
10179-556: The system pertaining to the Russian language was adopted by BGN in 1944 and by PCGN in 1947. In Soviet international passports , transliteration was based on French rules but without diacritics and so all names were transliterated in a French-style system . In 1997, with the introduction of new Russian passports , a diacritic-free English-oriented system was established by the Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs , but
10296-447: The system was also abandoned in 2010. In 2006, GOST R 52535.1-2006 was adopted, which defines technical requirements and standards for Russian international passports and introduces its own system of transliteration. In 2010, the Federal Migration Service of Russia approved Order No. 26, stating that all personal names in the passports issued after 2010 must be transliterated using GOST R 52535.1-2006. Because of some differences between
10413-485: The task to demonstrate Soviet ballistic missiles to foreign delegations. For example, the demonstration launch for the French President Charles de Gaulle on June 25, 1966. The 43rd SET Det. was disbanded in 1968. Another operational unit transferred to the 5th SRTR was the 676th Missile Regiment ( 676-й ракетный полк ), Military Detachment 44083 ( в/ч 44083 ) of the 14th Missile Division, reassigned to
10530-434: The third of five children. He was raised in a devoutly Catholic and traditional family. His father, Henri de Gaulle , was a professor of history and literature at a Jesuit college and eventually founded his own school. Henri de Gaulle came from a long line of parliamentary gentry from Normandy and Burgundy . The name is thought to be Dutch in origin, and may have derived from van der Walle , de Walle ("from
10647-432: The turn of the century. De Gaulle won a place at Saint-Cyr in 1909. His class ranking was mediocre (119th out of 221). Under a law of 21 March 1905, aspiring army officers were required to serve a year in the ranks, including time as a private and as an NCO , before attending the academy. Accordingly, in October 1909, de Gaulle enlisted (for four years, as required, rather than the normal two-year term for conscripts ) in
10764-588: The two, because they share the same acronym in Russian - ВКС (VKS). On March 30, 1967, a Directorate of the Chief of Anti-Missile and Anti-Space Defence ( Управление командующего войсками противоракетной и противокосмической ( УКВ ПРО и ПКО )), under Lieutenant-General of Artillery Yuri Votintsev, was formed within the Soviet Air Defence Forces . In February 1971 the 1st Division for Warning Against Missile Attack (1st Division WAMA, 1-я Дивизия предупреждения о ракетном нападении ( 1-я дПРН ))
10881-577: The unit received the Military Unit designation 28289 (в/ч 28289). On October 1, 1966, a directive of the General Staff reformed the unit into the 45th Division for Space Control (45th Division SC, 45-я Дивизия контроля космического пространства ) under the Air Defence Force. In 1977 the 1st Division WAMA was expanded into the 3rd Separate Army of Special Purpose for Warning Against Missile Attack ( 3-я Отдельная армия предупреждения о ракетном нападении особого назначения ( 3-я ОА ПРН ОН )) and took over
10998-671: The use of diacritics) that faithfully represents the original and allows for reverse transliteration for Cyrillic text in any contemporary language. The UNGEGN , a Working Group of the United Nations , in 1987 recommended a romanization system for geographical names, which was based on the 1983 version of GOST 16876-71 . It may be found in some international cartographic products. American Library Association and Library of Congress (ALA-LC) romanization tables for Slavic alphabets are used in North American libraries and in
11115-576: The use of tactics according to circumstances, a deliberate defiance of Moyrand. De Gaulle's career was saved by Pétain, who arranged for his staff college grade to be amended to bien ("good"—but not the "excellent" needed for a general staff posting). From 1 July 1925 he worked for Pétain (as part of the Maison Pétain ), largely as a "pen officer" ( ghostwriter ). De Gaulle disapproved of Pétain's decision to take command in Morocco in 1925 (he
11232-573: The vote to continue in that role. He managed to keep France together while taking steps to end the war, much to the anger of the Pieds-Noirs ( ethnic Europeans born in Algeria ) and the armed forces. He granted independence to Algeria and acted progressively towards other French colonies. In the context of the Cold War , De Gaulle initiated his "politics of grandeur", asserting that France as
11349-560: The winter of 1928–1929, thirty soldiers ("not counting Annamese ") died from so-called "German flu", seven of them from de Gaulle's battalion. After an investigation, he was singled out for praise in the ensuing parliamentary debate as an exceptionally capable commanding officer, and mention of how he had worn a mourning band for a private soldier who was an orphan earned praise from the Prime Minister Raymond Poincaré . The breach between de Gaulle and Pétain over
11466-533: Was "obsolete" for civilised countries to threaten or wage war on one another. He had a low opinion of French generals, and was a critic of the Maginot Line and a proponent of mechanised warfare. Lacouture suggests that Mayer focused de Gaulle's thoughts away from his obsession with the mystique of the strong leader ( Le Fil d'Epée : 1932) and back to loyalty to Republican institutions and military reform. In 1934 de Gaulle wrote Vers l'Armée de Métier ( Towards
11583-656: Was a French military officer and statesman who led the Free French Forces against Nazi Germany in World War II and chaired the Provisional Government of the French Republic from 1944 to 1946 to restore democracy in France. In 1958, amid the Algerian War , he came out of retirement when appointed Prime Minister by President René Coty . He rewrote the Constitution of France and founded
11700-452: Was a gifted cadet who would undoubtedly make an excellent officer. The future Marshal Alphonse Juin was first in the class, although the two do not appear to have been close at the time. Preferring to serve in France rather than the overseas colonies, in October 1912 he rejoined the 33rd Infantry Regiment as a second lieutenant . The regiment was now commanded by Colonel (and future Marshal) Philippe Pétain , whom de Gaulle would follow for
11817-411: Was a lecturer to generals at CHEM. De Gaulle's superiors disapproved of his views about tanks, and he was passed over for promotion to full colonel in 1936, supposedly because his service record was not good enough. He called on his political patron Reynaud, who showed his record to Minister of War Édouard Daladier . Daladier, who was an enthusiast for rearmament with modern weapons, ensured that his name
11934-500: Was assuming. The Allied occupation of the Rhineland was ending, and de Gaulle's battalion was due to be disbanded, although the decision was later rescinded after he had moved to his next posting. De Gaulle wanted a teaching post at the École de Guerre in 1929. There was apparently a threat of mass resignation of the faculty were he appointed. There was talk of a posting to Corsica or North Africa, but on Pétain's advice he accepted
12051-727: Was at least one stormy meeting late in 1926 after which de Gaulle was seen to emerge, white with anger, from Pétain's office. In October 1926 he returned to his duties with the Headquarters of the Army of the Rhine. De Gaulle had sworn that he would never return to the École de Guerre except as commandant, but at Pétain's invitation, and introduced to the stage by his patron, he delivered three lectures there in April 1927: "Leadership in Wartime", "Character", and "Prestige". These later formed
12168-563: Was eventually promoted to sergeant in September 1910. De Gaulle took up his place at Saint-Cyr in October 1910. By the end of his first year he had risen to 45th place. He was nicknamed "the great asparagus" because of his height (196 cm, 6'5"), high forehead, and nose. He did well at the academy and received praise for his conduct, manners, intelligence, character, military spirit, and resistance to fatigue. In 1912, he graduated 13th in his class and his passing-out report noted that he
12285-702: Was formed with HQ in Solnechnegorsk, the 57th Separate Radiotechnical Nod in Olenegorsk, Murmansk Oblast and the 129th Separate Radiotechnical Nod in Skrunda, Latvian SSR. The 2nd Division for Space Observation (2nd Division SO, 2-я Дивизия разведки космического пространства ( 2-я дРКП )) followed in July 1973 with HQ in Serpukhov-15 , the 145th Center for Space Control and 1069th Command Center (both in
12402-421: Was later known to remark that "Marshal Pétain was a great man. He died in 1925, but he did not know it") and of what he saw as the lust for public adulation of Pétain and his wife. In 1925 de Gaulle began to cultivate Joseph Paul-Boncour , his first political patron . On 1 December 1925 he published an essay on the "Historical Role of French Fortresses". This was a popular topic because of the Maginot Line which
12519-562: Was on the promotion list for the following year. In 1937 General Bineau, who had taught him at Saint-Cyr, wrote on his report on his lectureship at CHEM that he was highly able and suitable for high command in the future, but that he hid his attributes under "a cold and lofty attitude". He was put in command of the 507th Tank Regiment (a battalion of medium Char D2s and a battalion of R35 light tanks ) at Metz on 13 July 1937, and his promotion to full colonel took effect on 24 December that year. De Gaulle attracted public attention by leading
12636-537: Was promoted to first lieutenant in October 1913. When war broke out in France in early August 1914, the 33rd Regiment, considered one of the best fighting units in France, was immediately thrown into checking the German advance at Dinant . However, the French Fifth Army commander, General Charles Lanrezac , remained wedded to 19th-century battle tactics, throwing his units into pointless bayonet charges against German artillery, incurring heavy losses. As
12753-529: Was reassigned from the 28th Guards Missile Division to the 5th SRTR on August 1, 1961. On October 19, 1961, its designation changed to the 43rd Separate Engineer Testing Detachment ( 43-я отдельная инженерно-испытательная часть ( 51-я ОИИЧ )). While subordinated to the Baykonur Cosmodrome the 43rd SET Detachment conducted the state evaluation program of the R-16U type ICBM and accomplished the first launch from an underground shaft on July 13, 1962. The unit also had
12870-774: Was reformed again, transferred from the Moscow ADD directly to the High Command of the Air Defence Force ( Главное командование Войск ПВО ) and correspondingly the designation changed to Second Directorate of the Commander of the Anti-Missile Defence Troops ( Второе управление начальника войск ПРО ). Two years later in 1978 it relocated again to Akulovo, Moscow Oblast. It was reformed into the 9th Separate Corps for Anti-Missile Defence ( 9-й Oтдельный корпус противоракетной обороны ( 9-й ОК ПРО )). In 1988
12987-427: Was ripped out. Afterward, this decision was deemed to have been erroneous. On October 1, 1998, the 3rd Separate Army for Missile Space Defence of Special Purpose ( 3-я Отдельная армия РКО особого назначения ( 3-я ОА РКО ( ОН )) was reduced into the 1st Division for Early Warning Against Missile Attack ( 1-я Дивизию раннего предупреждения о ракетном нападении ). On June 1, 2001, the Missile and Space Defence Troops and
13104-458: Was substituted in 2013 by GOST R ISO/ IEC 7501-1-2013, which does not contain romanization, but directly refers to the ICAO romanization ( see below ). Names on street and road signs in the Soviet Union were romanized according to GOST 10807-78 (tables 17, 18), which was amended by newer Russian GOST R 52290-2004 (tables Г.4, Г.5), the romanizations in both the standards are practically identical. ISO/R 9, established in 1954 and updated in 1968,
13221-497: Was tempted by fascism, and there is little evidence of his views either on domestic upheavals in 1934 and 1936 or the many foreign policy crises of the decade. He approved of the rearmament drive which the Popular Front government began in 1936, although French military doctrine remained that tanks should be used in penny packets for infantry support (ironically, in 1940 it would be German panzer units that would be used in
13338-570: Was the adoption of the scientific transliteration by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). It covers Russian and seven other Slavic languages. ISO 9:1995 is the current transliteration standard from ISO. It is based on its predecessor ISO/R 9:1968, which it deprecates; for Russian, the two are the same except in the treatment of five modern letters. ISO 9:1995 is the first language-independent, univocal system of one character for one character equivalents (by
13455-407: Was then being planned, but he argued that the aim of fortresses should be to weaken the enemy, not to economise on defence. Friction arose between de Gaulle and Pétain over Le Soldat , a history of the French soldier which he had ghost-written and for which he wanted greater writing credit. He had written mainly historical material, but Pétain wanted to add a final chapter of his own thoughts. There
13572-620: Was transformed into Directorate of the Chief of Anti-Missile Defence Troops of the Moscow Air Defence District ( Управление начальника войск ПРО московского округа ПВО ), Military Unit 75555 (в/ч 75555) and later in the same year moved to Solnechnogorsk. In 1972 it was reformed as the Second Directorate of the Commander of the Anti-Missile Defence Troops of the Moscow Air Defence District ( Второе управление начальника войск ПРО московского округа ПВО ). In 1976 it
13689-483: Was transformed into the Strategic Missile Forces (RVSN). As a military unit the range received the designation Military Detachment 11284 ( войсковая часть 11284 ). The range was initially commanded by a Colonel of the RVSN, but it had an extensive force structure of division equivalent with its own aviation (the 28th Separate Composite Aviation Squadron, 28-я отдельная смешанная авиаэскадрилья and
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