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70-533: Disambiguation page [REDACTED] This article is an orphan , as no other articles link to it . Please introduce links to this page from related articles ; try the Find link tool for suggestions. ( December 2021 ) Minh ( Chữ Nôm : 明) is a popular unisex given name of Vietnamese origin, written using the Chinese character (明) meaning "bright", and

140-594: A day-to-day language. Sanskrit remains as the only liturgical link language which connects the different strains of Hinduism that are present across India . The de facto position that Sanskrit enjoyed, as the principal language of Hinduism, enabled its survival not only in India, but also in other areas, where Hinduism thrived like Southeast Asia . Old Tamil is the language of the Shaiva (Devaram) and Vaishnava ( Divya Prabhandham ) scriptures. Most of Carnatic Music

210-474: A diacritic at the upper right corner. Other alternate reading diacritical marks include tháu đấm ( 草𢶸 ) where a character is represented by a simplified variant with two points on either side of the character. In contrast to the few hundred Japanese kokuji ( 国字 ) and handful of Korean gukja ( 국자 , 國字 ), which are mostly rarely used characters for indigenous natural phenomena, Vietnamese scribes created thousands of new characters, used throughout

280-643: A few rites, rituals, and ceremonies. This did not include the Roman Liturgy of the Mass. The Catholic Church , long before the Second Vatican Council (Vatican II), had accepted and promoted the use of the non-vernacular liturgical languages listed above; while vernacular (i.e. modern or native) languages were also used liturgically throughout history; usually as a special concession given to religious orders conducting missionary activity. In

350-686: A form of Yue Chinese and Vietnamese, but their priests use songbooks and scriptures written in chữ Nôm in their ceremonies. Here is a line in Tam tự kinh lục bát diễn âm ( 三字經六八演音 ), a Vietnamese translation of the Three Character Classic . It features the original text on the top of the page and the Vietnamese translation on the bottom. 人不𭓇不知理 (Nhân bất học bất tri lý) 𠊚空𭓇別𨤰夷麻推 (Người không học biết nhẽ gì mà suy) Without learning, one does not understand reason. Vietnamese

420-424: A language becomes associated with religious worship, its believers may ascribe virtues to the language of worship that they would not give to their native tongues. In the case of sacred texts, there is a fear of losing authenticity and accuracy by a translation or re-translation, and difficulties in achieving acceptance for a new version of a text. A sacred language is typically vested with a solemnity and dignity that

490-467: A phonetic transcription, via their Middle Chinese pronunciations bu kaj , of a Vietnamese phrase, either vua cái 'great king', or bố cái 'father and mother' (of the people). After Vietnam established its independence from China in the 10th century, Đinh Bộ Lĩnh (r. 968–979), the founder of the Đinh dynasty , named the country Đại Cồ Việt 大 瞿 越 . The first and third Chinese characters mean 'great' and 'Viet'. The second character

560-415: A section entitled Xin khoan dung quốc âm ('Please tolerate the national voice'). He proposed to replace classical Chinese with Vietnamese written using a script based on Chinese characters that he called Quốc âm Hán tự ( 國音漢字 'Han characters with national pronunciations'), though he described this as a new creation, and did not mention chữ Nôm. From the latter half of the 19th century onwards,

630-426: A semantic-phonetic structure, the difference being the phonetic indicator ( 守 vs. 字 ). Another example of a Vietnamese word that is represented by several Nôm characters is the word for moon, trăng . It can be represented by a Chinese character that is phonetically similar to trăng, 菱 (lăng), a chữ Nôm character, 𢁋 ( ⿱巴陵 ) which is composed of two phonetic components 巴 (ba) and 陵 (lăng) for

700-772: A translation of the Qur'an's message. Salah and other rituals are also conducted in Classical Arabic for this reason. Scholars of Islam must learn and interpret the Qur'an in classical Arabic. According to the four accepted Sunni schools of jurisprudence , it is a requirement for sermons ( khutbah ) to be delivered completely in classical Arabic . The core of the Hebrew Bible is written in Biblical Hebrew , referred to by some Jews as Lashon Hakodesh ( לשון הקודש , "Language of Holiness"). Hebrew (and in

770-725: Is a language that is cultivated and used primarily for religious reasons (like church service ) by people who speak another, primary language in their daily lives. Some religions, or parts of them, regard the language of their sacred texts as in itself sacred. These include Hebrew in Judaism , Arabic in Islam and Sanskrit in Hinduism , and Punjabi in Sikhism . By contrast Christianity and Buddhism do not generally regard their sacred languages as sacred in themselves. Akkadian

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840-468: Is a tonal language , like Chinese, and has nearly 5,000 distinct syllables. In chữ Nôm, each monosyllabic word of Vietnamese was represented by a character, either borrowed from Chinese or locally created. The resulting system was even more difficult to use than the Chinese script. As an analytic language , Vietnamese was a better fit for a character-based script than Japanese and Korean, with their agglutinative morphology. Partly for this reason, there

910-591: Is a copy of an earlier original, perhaps as early as the 12th century. During the seven years of the Hồ dynasty (1400–07) Classical Chinese was discouraged in favor of vernacular Vietnamese written in Nôm, which became the official script. The emperor Hồ Quý Ly even ordered the translation of the Book of Documents into Nôm and pushed for reinterpretation of Confucian thoughts in his book Minh đạo . These efforts were reversed with

980-500: Is a major tenet of the Catholic Traditionalist movement. Meanwhile, the numerous Eastern Catholic Churches in union with Rome each have their own respective parent-language. Eastern Orthodox churches vary in their use of liturgical languages. Koine Greek and Church Slavonic are the main sacred languages used in communion. Other languages are also permitted for liturgical worship, and each country often has

1050-527: Is also popular among other East Asian names. The Chinese name Ming has the same meaning. Notable people [ edit ] As a feminine name [ edit ] Lê Ngọc Minh Hằng (born 1987), Vietnamese actor and singer Vũ Thu Minh (born 1977), Vietnamese pop singer As a masculine name [ edit ] Đặng Nhật Minh (born 1938), Vietnamese filmmaker Dương Văn Minh (1916 – 2001), Vietnamese politician and military figure Ho Chi Minh (ne Nguyễn Sinh Cung; 1890 – 1969), president of

1120-615: Is composed of 天 ('sky') and 上 ('upper'). A few characters were obtained by modifying Chinese characters related either semantically or phonetically to the word to be represented. For example, As an example of the way chữ Nôm was used to record Vietnamese, the first two lines of the Tale of Kiều (1871 edition), written in the traditional six-eight form of Vietnamese verse, consist of 14 characters: 𤾓 Trăm hundred 𢆥 năm year 𥪞 Sacred language A sacred language , holy language or liturgical language

1190-729: Is derived from Sanskrit . In Thailand , Pali is transliterated into the Thai alphabet , resulting in a Thai pronunciation of the Pali language. Something similar also happens in Myanmar, where Pali is also transliterated into the Burmese alphabet , also resulting in a Burmese pronunciation of Pali. Mahayana Buddhism, now only followed by a small minority in South Asia makes little use of its original language, Sanskrit, mostly using versions of

1260-594: Is derived from the Middle Chinese word nom 南 , meaning 'south'. It could also be based on the dialectal pronunciation from the South Central dialects (most notably in the name of province of Quảng Nam , known locally as Quảng Nôm ). There are many ways to write the name chữ Nôm in chữ Nôm characters. The word chữ may be written as 字 , 𫳘(⿰字宁) , 𡨸 , 𫿰(⿰字文) , 𡦂(⿰字字) , 𲂯(⿰貝字) , 𱚂(⿱字渚) , or 宁 , while Nôm

1330-476: Is different from Wikidata Orphaned articles from December 2021 All orphaned articles Ch%E1%BB%AF N%C3%B4m Although all formal writing in Vietnam was done in classical Chinese until the early 20th century (except for two brief interludes), chữ Nôm was widely used between the 15th and 19th centuries by the Vietnamese cultured elite for popular works in the vernacular, many in verse. One of

1400-553: Is in Telugu . Amaravati Stupa . It is dated to 2nd century BCE and is probably, the name of a stonemason. Its structural and grammatical analysis played a key role in studying Indus script by Iravatham Mahadevan . Several personal names and place names traceable to Telugu roots are found in various Sanskrit and Prakrit inscriptions of 2nd and 1st centuries BCE. Many Hindu epics were also composed in Telugu. Some examples are

1470-522: Is the language of the Qur'an . Muslims believe the Qur'an as divine revelation —it is a sacred and eternal document, and as such it is believed to be the direct word of God . Thus Muslims hold that the Qur'an is only truly the Qur'an if it is precisely as it was revealed—i.e., in Classical Arabic. Translations of the Qur'an into other languages are therefore not treated as the Qur'an itself; rather, they are seen as interpretive texts, which attempt to communicate

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1540-438: Is used, Judith Simmer-Brown explains that a tantric Vajrayana text is often written in an obscure twilight language so that it cannot be understood by anyone without the verbal explanation of a qualified teacher . Old Tamil was used for Sangam epics of Buddhist and Jain philosophy. Christian rites, rituals, and ceremonies are not celebrated in one single sacred language. Most churches which trace their origin to

1610-500: Is written as 喃 . Chữ Nôm is the logographic writing system of the Vietnamese language. It is based on the Chinese writing system but adds a large number of new characters to make it fit the Vietnamese language. Common historical terms for chữ Nôm were Quốc Âm ( 國音 , 'national sound') and Quốc ngữ ( 國語 , 'national language'). In Vietnamese, Chinese characters are called chữ Hán ( 𡨸 漢 'Han characters'), chữ Nho ( 𡨸儒 'Confucian characters', due to

1680-636: The Bhagavatam , the Upanishads , the epics like Ramayana and Mahabharata , and various other liturgical texts such as the Sahasranama , Chamakam , and Rudram . Sanskrit is also the tongue of Hindu rituals. It also has secular literature along with its religious canon. Most Hindu theologians of later centuries continued to prefer to write in Sanskrit even when it was no longer spoken as

1750-553: The French colonial authorities discouraged or simply banned the use of classical Chinese, and promoted the use of the Vietnamese alphabet, which they viewed as a stepping stone toward learning French. Language reform movements in other Asian nations stimulated Vietnamese interest in the subject. Following the Russo-Japanese War of 1905, Japan was increasingly cited as a model for modernization. The Confucian education system

1820-580: The Hồ dynasty (1400–1407) and under the Tây Sơn (1778–1802), but in both cases this was swiftly reversed. The use of Chinese characters to transcribe the Vietnamese language can be traced to an inscription with the two characters " 布 蓋 ", as part of the posthumous title of Phùng Hưng , a national hero who succeeded in briefly expelling the Chinese in the late 8th century. The two characters have literal Chinese meanings 'cloth' and 'cover', which make no sense in this context. They have thus been interpreted as

1890-457: The Man'yōgana script that became the origin of hiragana and katakana . When a character would have two readings, a diacritic may be added to the character to indicate the "indigenous" reading. The two most common alternate reading diacritical marks are cá ( 𖿰 ), (a variant form of 个 ) and nháy ( 𖿱 ). Thus when 本 is meant to be read as vốn , it is written as 本 , with

1960-579: The Reformation in England , when the Protestant authorities banned the use of Latin liturgy, various schools obtained a dispensation to continue to use Latin, for educational purposes. From the end of the 16th century, in coastal Croatia , the local vernacular language began to replace Church Slavonic as the liturgical language. This change occurred because Church Slavonic, which had been used in

2030-588: The Vietnamese alphabet in current use, but was used to refer to chữ Nôm before the Vietnamese alphabet was widely used. Chinese characters were introduced to Vietnam after the Han dynasty conquered Nanyue in 111 BC. Independence was achieved after the Battle of Bạch Đằng in 938, but Literary Chinese was adopted for official purposes in 1010. For most of the period up to the early 20th century, formal writing

2100-442: The cross in three different languages, thereby sanctifying them as the first languages to proclaim Christ's divinity. These are: Liturgical languages are those which hold precedence within liturgy due to tradition and dispensation. Many of these languages have evolved from languages which were at one point vernacular, while some are intentional constructions by ecclesial authorities. These include: The extensive use of Greek in

2170-676: The glagolitic liturgical books published in Rome , was becoming increasingly difficult to understand. This difficulty arose from linguistic reforms that adapted the Church Slavonic of Croatian recension used in Croatia to the norms of Church Slavonic used in Russia. For example, the vernacular was used to ask the bride and groom if they accepted their marriage vows. Jesuit missionaries to China initially obtained permission to translate

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2240-505: The 15th and 18th centuries, most likely in 1641 or 1761. While almost all official writings and documents continued to be written in classical Chinese until the early 20th century, Nôm was the preferred script for literary compositions of the cultural elites. Nôm reached its golden period with the Nguyễn dynasty in the 19th century as it became a vehicle for diverse genres, from novels to theatrical pieces, and instructional manuals. Although it

2310-570: The 20th century, Vatican II set out to protect the use of Latin as a liturgical language. To a large degree, its prescription was disregarded and the vernacular not only became standard, but was generally used exclusively in the liturgy. Latin, which remains the chief language of the Latin liturgical rites and of Catholic canon law , but the use of liturgical Latin is now discouraged. The use of vernacular language in liturgical practice after 1964 created controversy, and opposition to liturgical vernacular

2380-537: The 21st century, chữ Nôm is being used in Vietnam for historical and liturgical purposes. The Institute of Hán-Nôm Studies at Hanoi is the main research centre for pre-modern texts from Vietnam, both Chinese-language texts written in Chinese characters ( chữ Hán ) and Vietnamese-language texts in chữ Nôm. The Vietnamese word chữ 'character' is derived from the Middle Chinese word dzi 字 , meaning '[Chinese] character'. The word Nôm 'Southern'

2450-590: The Amukthamalayada, Basava Purana, Andhra Mahabharatam, and the Ranganatha Ramayanamu. Apart from Sanskrit, several Hindu spiritual works were composed in the various regional languages of India such as Hindi , Assamese , Awadhi , Bhojpuri , Bengali , Odia , Maithili , Punjabi , Gujarati , Kannada , Malayalam , Marathi , Tulu , as well as Old Javanese , and Balinese of Southeast Asia . Classical Arabic , or Qur'anic Arabic,

2520-602: The Apostles continue to use the standard languages of the first few centuries AD. Many Christian churches make a distinction between a sacred language, a liturgical language, and a vernacular language. The three most important languages in the early Christian era were Latin , Greek , and Syriac (a dialect of Aramaic ). The phrase " Jesus, King of the Jews " is reported in the Gospel of John as having been inscribed upon

2590-672: The Buddha on the Great Repayment of the Heavy Debt to Parents') was printed around 1730, but conspicuously avoids the character 利 lợi , suggesting that it was written (or copied) during the reign of Lê Lợi (1428–1433). Based on archaic features of the text compared with the Tran dynasty poems, including an exceptional number of words with initial consonant clusters written with pairs of characters, some scholars suggest that it

2660-601: The Democratic Republic of Vietnam from 1945-1969 Lê Lương Minh (born 1962), Vietnamese politician and diplomat Minh Lê (born 1977), Vietnamese-Canadian video game creator Quyền Văn Minh (born 1954), Vietnamese saxophonist Minh Alva Vu (born 1990), Vietnamese-American soccer player Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minh&oldid=1237707657 " Category : Vietnamese given names Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description

2730-516: The Middle Vietnamese blăng , or a chữ Nôm character, 𦝄 ( ⿰月夌 ) composed of a phonetic component 夌 (lăng) and a semantic component meaning 月 ('moon'). Unmodified Chinese characters were used in chữ Nôm in three different ways. The first two categories are similar to the on and kun readings of Japanese kanji respectively. The third is similar to ateji , in which characters are used only for their sound value, or

2800-585: The Roman Missal into Classical Chinese , a scholarly form of the language. However, this permission was later revoked amid the Chinese Rites controversy . In contrast, among the Algonquin and Iroquois peoples, missionaries were allowed to translate certain parts of the Mass into their native languages. In the 20th century, Pope Pius XII granted permission for a few vernaculars to be used in

2870-542: The Roman Liturgy has continued, in theory; it was used extensively on a regular basis during the Papal Mass , which has not been celebrated for some time. By the reign of Pope Damasus I , the continuous use of Greek in the Roman Liturgy had come to be replaced in part by Latin. Gradually, the Roman Liturgy took on more and more Latin until, generally, only a few words of Hebrew (e.g. Dominus Deus sabaoth ) and Greek (e.g. Kyrie eleison ) remained. The adoption of Latin

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2940-509: The Vietnamese alphabet grew more and popular. In an article published in 1935 (based on a lecture given in 1925), Georges Cordier estimated that 70% of literate persons knew the alphabet, 20% knew chữ Nôm and 10% knew Chinese characters. However, estimates of the rate of literacy in the late 1930s range from 5% to 20%. By 1953, literacy (using the alphabet) had risen to 70%. The Gin people , descendants of 16th-century migrants from Vietnam to islands off Dongxing in southern China , now speak

3010-480: The best-known pieces of Vietnamese literature , The Tale of Kiều , was written in chữ Nôm by Nguyễn Du . The Vietnamese alphabet created by Portuguese Jesuit missionaries, with the earliest known usage occurring in the 17th century, replaced chữ Nôm as the preferred way to record Vietnamese literature from the 1920s. While Chinese characters are still used for decorative, historic and ceremonial value, chữ Nôm has fallen out of mainstream use in modern Vietnam. In

3080-697: The case of a few texts such as the Kaddish , Aramaic ) remains the traditional language of Jewish religious services . Rabbinic Hebrew and Aramaic are used extensively by the Orthodox for writing religious texts. Among the Sephardim , Ladino was used for translations such as the Ferrara Bible . It was also used during the Sephardi liturgy. Ladino is also often referred to as Judeo-Spanish , as it

3150-496: The connection with Confucianism ) and uncommonly as Hán tự ( 漢字 'Han characters'). Hán văn ( 漢文 ) refers literature written in Literary Chinese. The term Hán Nôm ( 漢 喃 'Han and chữ Nôm characters') in Vietnamese designates the whole body of premodern written materials from Vietnam, either written in Chinese ( chữ Hán ) or in Vietnamese ( chữ Nôm ). Hán and Nôm could also be found in

3220-675: The course of language development. In some cases, the sacred language is a dead language , while in others, it may simply reflect archaic forms of a living language . For instance, 17th-century elements of the English language remain current in Protestant Christian worship through the use of the King James Bible from 1611, or older versions of the Anglican Book of Common Prayer . In more extreme cases,

3290-577: The divine (i.e. God or gods) and may not necessarily be natural languages. The concept, as expressed by the name of a script, for example in Dēvanāgarī , the name of a script that roughly means "[script] of the city of gods ", and is used to write many Indian languages . When the Buddha 's sutras were first written down, probably in Pali , there were around 20 schools, each with their own version derived from

3360-504: The fall of the Hồ and Chinese conquest of 1407 , lasting twenty years, during which use of the vernacular language and demotic script were suppressed. During the Ming dynasty occupation of Vietnam , chữ Nôm printing blocks, texts and inscriptions were thoroughly destroyed; as a result the earliest surviving texts of chữ Nôm post-date the occupation. Among the earlier works in Nôm of this era are

3430-674: The language has changed so much from the language of the sacred texts that the liturgy is barely comprehensible without special training. For example, the liturgy of the Roman Catholic Church remained in Latin after the Council of Tours in 813 ordered preaching in local Romance or German, because Latin was no longer understood. Similarly, Old Church Slavonic is incomprehensible to speakers of modern Slavic languages , unless they study it. Sacred languages are distinct from divine languages , which are languages ascribed to

3500-472: The language. As in the Chinese writing system, the most common kind of invented character in Nôm is the phono-semantic compound, made by combining two characters or components, one suggesting the word's meaning and the other its approximate sound. For example, A smaller group consists of semantic compound characters, which are composed of two Chinese characters representing words of similar meaning. For example, 𡗶 ( giời or trời 'sky', 'heaven')

3570-725: The liturgical services in their own language. This has led to a wide variety of languages used for liturgical worship, but there is still uniformity in the liturgical worship itself. Liturgical languages used in the Eastern Orthodox Church include (but are not limited to): Koine Greek , Church Slavonic , Romanian , Georgian , Arabic , Ukrainian , Bulgarian , Serbian , English , German , Spanish , French , Polish , Portuguese , Italian , Albanian , Finnish , Swedish , Chinese , Estonian , Korean , Japanese , and multiple African languages. Oriental Orthodox churches outside their ancestral lands regularly pray in

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3640-894: The local language. In East Asia , Classical Chinese is mainly used. In Japan, texts are written in Chinese characters and read out or recited with the Japanese pronunciations of their constituent characters. In Vajrayana Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism is the main surviving school, and Classical Tibetan is the main language used for study, although the Tibetan Buddhist canon was also translated into other languages, such as Mongolian and Manchu . Many items of Sanskrit Buddhist literature have been preserved because they were exported to Tibet, with copies of unknown ancient Sanskrit texts surfacing in Tibet as recently as 2003. Sanskrit

3710-539: The local vernacular, but some clergymen and communities prefer to retain their traditional language or use a combination of languages. Many Anabaptist groups, such as the Amish , use High German in their worship despite not speaking it amongst themselves. Hinduism is traditionally considered to have Sanskrit as its primary liturgical language. Sanskrit is the language of the Vedas , Bhagavad Gita , Puranas like

3780-575: The original. The present Pāli Canon originates from the Tamrashatiya school . The Chinese and Tibetan canons mainly derive from the Sarvastivada , originally written in Sanskrit , of which fragments remain. The texts were translated into Chinese and Tibetan . Theravada Buddhism uses Pali as its main liturgical language and prefers that scripture be studied in the original Pali. Pali

3850-631: The people. The first literary writing in Vietnamese is said to have been an incantation in verse composed in 1282 by the Minister of Justice Nguyễn Thuyên and thrown into the Red River to expel a menacing crocodile . Four poems written in Nom from the Tran dynasty, two by Trần Nhân Tông and one each by Huyền Quang and Mạc Đĩnh Chi , were collected and published in 1805. The Nôm text Phật thuyết Đại báo phụ mẫu ân trọng kinh ('Sūtra explained by

3920-447: The same document side by side, for example, in the case of translations of books on Chinese medicine . The Buddhist history Cổ Châu Pháp Vân phật bản hạnh ngữ lục (1752) gives the story of early Buddhism in Vietnam both in Hán script and in a parallel Nôm translation. The Jesuit Girolamo Maiorica (1605–1656) had also used parallel Hán and Nôm texts. The term chữ Quốc ngữ ( 𡨸 國 語 'national language script') refers to

3990-420: The vernacular lacks. Consequently, the training of clergy in the use of a sacred language becomes an important cultural investment, and their use of the tongue is perceived to give them access to a body of knowledge that untrained laypeople cannot (or should not) access. Because sacred languages are ascribed with virtues that the vernacular is not seen to have, these typically preserve characteristics lost in

4060-413: The very word chữ ('character', 'script'), a Chinese loanword, can be written as either 字 (Chinese character), 𡦂 (Vietnamese-only compound-semantic character) or 𡨸 (Vietnamese-only semantic-phonetic character). For another example, the word giữa ('middle'; 'in between') can be written either as 𡨌 ( ⿰守中 ) or 𫡉 ( ⿰字中 ). Both characters were invented for Vietnamese and have

4130-625: The villages, making it accessible even to the illiterates. Chữ Nôm was the dominant script in Vietnamese Catholic literature until the late 19th century. In 1838, Jean-Louis Taberd compiled a Nôm dictionary, helping with the standardization of the script. The reformist Catholic scholar Nguyễn Trường Tộ presented the Emperor Tự Đức with a series of unsuccessful petitions (written in classical Chinese, like all court documents) proposing reforms in several areas of government and society. His petition Tế cấp bát điều ( 濟急八條 'Eight urgent matters', 1867), includes proposals on education, including

4200-447: The writings of Nguyễn Trãi (1380–1442). The corpus of Nôm writings grew over time as did more scholarly compilations of the script itself. Trịnh Thị Ngọc Trúc  [ vi ] , consort of King Lê Thần Tông , is generally given credit for Chỉ nam ngọc âm giải nghĩa  [ vi ] (指南玉音解義; 'guide to Southern Jade sounds: explanations and meanings'), a 24,000-character bilingual Hán-to-Nôm dictionary compiled between

4270-431: Was a long used liturgical language. A sacred language is often the language which was spoken and written in the society in which a religion's sacred texts were first set down; these texts thereafter become fixed and holy, remaining frozen and immune to later linguistic developments. (An exception to this is Lucumí , a ritual lexicon of the Cuban strain of the Santería religion, with no standardized form .) Once

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4340-414: Was compared unfavourably to the Japanese system of public education. According to a polemic by writer Phan Châu Trinh , "so-called Confucian scholars" lacked knowledge of the modern world, as well as real understanding of Han literature. Their degrees showed only that they had learned how to write characters, he claimed. The popularity of Hanoi's short-lived Tonkin Free School suggested that broad reform

4410-421: Was dismantled in 1915 in Tonkin and was given for the last time at the imperial capital of Huế on January 4, 1919. The examination system, and the education system based on it, had been in effect for almost 900 years. The decline of the Chinese script also led to the decline of chữ Nôm given that Nôm and Chinese characters are so intimately connected. After the First World War, chữ Nôm gradually died out as

4480-458: Was further fostered when the Vetus Latina (old Latin) version of the Bible was edited and parts retranslated from the original Hebrew and Greek by Saint Jerome in his Vulgate . Latin continued as the western Church's language of liturgy and communication. In the mid-16th century the Council of Trent rejected a proposal to introduce national languages as this was seen, among other reasons, as potentially divisive to Catholic unity. During

4550-478: Was indistinguishable from contemporaneous classical Chinese works produced in China, Korea, and Japan. Vietnamese scholars were thus intimately familiar with Chinese writing. In order to record their native language, they applied the structural principles of Chinese characters to develop chữ Nôm . The new script was mostly used to record folk songs and for other popular literature. Vietnamese written in chữ Nôm briefly replaced Chinese for official purposes under

4620-465: Was no development of a phonetic system that could be taught to the general public, like Japanese kana syllabary or the Korean hangul alphabet. Moreover, most Vietnamese literati viewed Chinese as the proper medium of civilized writing, and had no interest in turning Nôm into a form of writing suitable for mass communication. Chữ Nôm has never been standardized. As a result, a Vietnamese word could be represented by several Nôm characters. For example,

4690-503: Was often used to transcribe non-Chinese terms and names phonetically. In this context, cồ is an obsolete Vietnamese word for 'big'. The oldest surviving Nom inscription, dating from 1210, is a list naming 21 people and villages on a stele at the Tự Già Báo Ân pagoda in Tháp Miếu village ( Mê Linh District , Hanoi). Another stele at Hộ Thành Sơn in Ninh Bình Province (1343) lists 20 villages. Trần Nhân Tông (r. 1278–1293) ordered that Nôm be used to communicate his proclamations to

4760-417: Was possible. In 1910, the colonial school system adopted a "Franco-Vietnamese curriculum", which emphasized French and alphabetic Vietnamese. The teaching of Chinese characters was discontinued in 1917. On December 28, 1918, Emperor Khải Định declared that the traditional writing system no longer had official status. The traditional Civil Service Examination, which emphasized the command of classical Chinese,

4830-403: Was prohibited during the reign of Minh Mạng (1820–1840), apogees of Vietnamese literature emerged with Nguyễn Du 's The Tale of Kiều and Hồ Xuân Hương 's poetry. Although literacy in premodern Vietnam was limited to just 3 to 5 percent of the population, nearly every village had someone who could read Nôm aloud for the benefit of other villagers. Thus these Nôm works circulated orally in

4900-414: Was valued in Tibet as the elegant language of the gods. Although in Tibetan Buddhist deity yoga the rest of the sadhana is generally recited in Tibetan, the mantra portion of the practice is usually retained in its original Sanskrit. In Nepal , the Newar Buddhist form of Vajrayana is a storehouse of ancient Sanskrit Buddhist texts , many of which are now only extant in Nepal . Whatever language

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